Lecture 2

Chapter 2
Basic Laws
Ohms Law
Nodes, Branches, and Loops.
Kirchhoffs Laws
Objectives
we shall discuss some techniques commonly applied in circuit design and
analysis.
These techniques include combining resistors in series or parallel, voltage
division, and current division.
Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

1 1
Electronics and Electrical Engineering Department
Georg Simon Ohm (17871854), a German physicist, in
1826 experimentally determined the most basic law
relating voltage and current for a resistor.
Born of humble beginnings in Erlangen, Bavaria, Ohm
threw himself into electrical research. His efforts resulted
in his famous law.
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (18241887), a German

physicist, stated two basic laws in 1847 concerning the
relationship between the currents and voltages in an
electrical network. Kirchhoffs laws, along with Ohms
law, form the basis of circuit theory.

2 2
Ohms Law
It is the algebraic relationship between
voltage and current for a resistor
Resistor
v=iR
where
R is the resistance in ,
i is the current in A,
v is the voltage in V, with
reference directions as pictured.
If R is given, once you know i, it is easy to

find v and vice-versa.
Since R is never negative, a resistor
always absorbs power
3

Electronics and Electrical Engineering Department 3
Resistors and Ohms Law
Working with very primitive instruments that Ohm

designed and constructed by himself. Ohm
discovered that voltage and current were linearly
related in wires. I =V R
That means that if you measure voltage across a I
wire and plot that against the current through the
wire you get a straight line in the plot.
Working with very imprecise measurements, Ohm
was able to determine that voltage and current for V
any fixed geometrical structure built from conducting
material satisfied a relationship:
Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology 4

Ohms law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current i flowing through the resistor.
V is the voltage across the device, I is the current flowing through

the device, R is a constant.
R depends upon the material from which the device is constructed
and the geometry of the material.
Any resistor has a current- voltage i +
relationship called Ohms law:
V=iR
v
where R is the resistance in ,
i is the current in A,

V is the voltage in V, (with reference 5directions as pictured).
If R is given, once you know i, it is easy to find v and vice-versa.
Since R is never negative, a resistor always absorbs power.

The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow
of electric current; it is measured in ohms ( ).
1 = 1V/A
Since the value of R can range from zero to infinity, it is important that we
consider the two extreme possible values of R. An element with R = 0 is called a
short circuit,
v = iR = 0
A short circuit is a circuit element

with resistance approaching zero.

6 6
R= is known as an open circuit,
An open circuit is a circuit element

with resistance approaching infinity.

7 7
Resistance Type
Wire wounded or carbon film

8 8
common variable resistor is known as a potentiometer

9 9
not all resistors obey Ohms law.
A resistor that obeys Ohms law is known as a
linear resistor.
It has a constant resistance and thus its
current-voltage characteristic is as shown in
figure.
i-v graph is a straight line passing through
the origin.
A nonlinear resistor does not obey Ohms law.

Its resistance varies with current.
Its i-v characteristic is as shown in figure
Example: Varistor
Voltage Dependent
Resistor or VDR

10 10
Conductance G
Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is

measured in mhos ( 1/ ) or Siemens (S).
mho

11 11
Power
The power consumed in the Example: If the power absorbed by Rx

resistor is given by: is 20 mW. Find Rx and Vab.
P = 20mW = I (IRx) = 0.002(0.002Rx)
Rx = 5000
P =V I
According to Ohm' s law
V
I = or V = I R
R
Therefore,
V2
P=I R= 2
Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology12

Example
In the circuit shown, calculate the current i, the conductance G, and the power p.
Solution
Or

13 13
Branches, Nodes, and Loops
Branch
A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.
The circuit has five branches, namely, the 10-V voltage source, the 2-A
current source, and the three resistors.

14 14
Nodes
A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.
A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit.

The circuit has three nodes a, b, and c.

15 15
Loop
A loop is any closed path in a circuit.
For example
The closed path abca containing the 2- resistor is a loop.
Another loop is the closed path bcb containing the 2- resistor and the current
source.

16 16
Series and Parallel
Two or more elements are in series if they are cascaded or connected sequentially
and consequently carry the same current.
Two or more elements are in parallel if they are connected to the same two nodes
and consequently have the same voltage across them.

17 17
Resistor in Series
Suppose two elements are connected with nothing coming off in between.
The elements carry the same current.
We say these elements are in series.
i1 i2 = 0
i1 = i2

18 18
Consider resistors in series. This means they are attached end-to-end,
with nothing coming off in between.
Each resistor has the same current (labeled i).
Each resistor has voltage iR, given by Ohms law.
The total voltage drop across all 3 resistors is19
VTOTAL = i R1 + i R2 + i R3 = i (R1 + R2 + R3)

When we look at all three resistors together as one unit, we see that they
have the same I-V relationship as one resistor, whose value is the sum of
the resistances:
So we can treat these resistors as just one

equivalent resistance, as long as we are not
interested in the individual voltages.
Their effect on the rest of the circuit is the
same, whether lumped together or not. 20

Resistors in Parallel
Any set of elements which are directly connected by wire at both ends carry
the same voltage.
We say these elements are in parallel.
Vb Va = 0
Va = Vb

Examples
Which of these resistors are in parallel?
R2 R8
R1 R4 R5
R3 R7
None R6
R7 and R8
R4 and R5
Resistors in parallel carry the same voltage. All of the resistors below have
voltage VR .
The current flowing through each resistor could definitely be different. Even
though they have the same voltage, the resistances could be different.
+ i1 = VR / R1
R1 R2 R3 VR
i1 i2 i3 i2 = VR / R2
_
i3 = VR / R3
23

If we view the three resistors as one unit, with a current iTOTAL going in, and a
voltage VR, this unit has the following I-V relationship:
iTOTAL = i1 + i2 + i3 = VR(1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3) in other words,
VR = (1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3)-1 iTOTAl
So to the outside world, the parallel resistors look like one:
iTOTAL
iTOTAL
+
+
VR REQ
VR R1 R2 R3
24
i1 i2 i3 _
_
REQ = (1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3)-1
Example:
How many branches and nodes does the circuit have? Identify the elements that are
in series and in parallel.
Solution:
Five branches and three nodes are identified.
The 1- and 2- resistors are in parallel.
The 4- resistor and 10-V source are also in parallel.

25 25
Kirchhoffs Laws
Kirchhoffs laws were first introduced in 1847 by the German physicist Gustav Robert
Kirchhoff (18241887).
These laws are formally known as
Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL).
The I -V relationship for a device tells us how current and voltage are related within
that device.
Kirchhoffs laws tell us how voltages relate to other voltages in a circuit, and how
currents relate to other currents in a circuit.
KVL: The sum of voltage drops around a closed path must equal zero.
KCL: The sum of currents leaving a node must equal zero.

26 26
Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) states that the algebraic sum of currents
entering a node (or a closed boundary) is zero.
Mathematically, KCL implies that
where
N is the number of branches connected to the node.
in is the nth current entering (or leaving) the node.
By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while

currents leaving the node may be taken as negative or vice versa.
27

To Prove KCL,
assume a set of currents ik(t ), k = 1, 2, . . . , flow into a node.
The algebraic sum of currents at the node is
iT (t) = i1(t) + i2(t) + i3(t)+
Integrating both sides gives
qT (t) = q1(t) + q2(t) + q3(t)+
Where
qk(t) = ik(t) dt
qT (t) = iT (t) dt .
But the law of conservation of electric charge requires that the algebraic sum of
electric charges at the node must not change; that is, the node stores no net charge.
Thus
qT (t) = 0 iT (t) = 0, confirming the validity of KCL.
28 28
Example
Apply Kirchhoff'
s law
i1 + (i2) + i3 + i4 + (i5) = 0
since currents i1, i3, and i4 are entering the node,
while currents i2 and i5 are leaving it.
By rearranging the terms, we get

i1 + i3 + i4 = i2 + i5
The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum

of the currents leaving the node.

29 29
KCL Equations
In order to satisfy KCL, what is the value of i?
KCL says:
24 A + -10 A + (-)-4 A + -i =0
18 A i = 0
24 A -4 A
i = 18 A
10 A i
30

Example
Apply Kirchhoff'
s law
The combined or equivalent

current source can be found by
applying KCL to node a.
IT = I1 + I3 - I2 IT
I1
IT + I2 = I1 + I3
I2
I3

31 31
Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL) states that the algebraic sum of all voltages
around a closed path (or loop) is zero.
Expressed mathematically, KVL states that
Where
M is the number of voltages in the loop (or the number of branches in the loop)
vm is the mth voltage.

32 32
Writing KVL Equations
+ v2 b v3
+
What does KVL a c
say about the
1 2
voltages along + + +
these 3 paths? va vb vc
-
3
Path 1: va + v 2 + vb = 0
Path 2: vb v3 + vc = 0 33
Path 3: va + v2 v3 + vc = 0
Example
Apply Kirchhoffs KVL
Solution
Suppose we start with the voltage source and
go clockwise around the loop.
The voltages would be v1,+v2,+v3,v4, and
+v5.
Thus, KVL yields
v1 + v2 + v3 v4 + v5 = 0
v2 + v3 + v5 = v1 + v4
Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises

34 34
Example
Apply Kirchhoffs KVL
Vab + V1 + V2 V3 = 0
Vab = V1 + V2 V3

35 35
Example
For the circuit shown, find voltages v1 and v2
Solution:
To find v1 and v2, we apply Ohms law and
Kirchhoffs voltage law.
Assume that current i flows through the loop
From Ohms law,

v1 = 2i, v2 = 3i (1)
Applying KVL around the loop gives

20 + v1 v2 = 0 (2)
Substituting (1) into (2),
20 + 2i + 3i =0
5i = 20 i = 4 A
v1 = 8 V
v2 = 12 V

36 36
Example
Find the currents and voltages in the circuit shown
ohm
KVL
KCL
37

Solution
By applying
-Ohms law
-Kirchhoffs laws.
v1 = 8i1
v2 = 3i2,
v3 = 6i3
At node a, KCL gives

i1 i2 i3 = 0 .. . .1
Applying KVL to loop 1

30 + v1 + v2 = 0
...2
30 + 8i1 + 3i2 = 0

38 38
Applying KVL to loop 2,
v2 + v3 = 0 v3 = v2
6i3 = 3i2 .3
Substituting Eqs. (2) and (3) into (1) gives
i2 = 2 A
i3 = 1 A
i1 = 3 A
v1 = 24 V , v2 = 6 V , v3 = 6 V

39 39
Example
For the circuit shown find: (a) v1 and v2, (b) the power dissipated in the 3-k and
20-k resistors, and (c) the power supplied by the current source.
40

Example
Find v using KVL and

KCL

41 41
Solution
A B
+ - - +
KCL at A gives KVL around the blue path gives

IAB = 3 -1 = 2A
(-18) - (1* 6) + (2 * 3) + (4 * 4) V = 0
KCL at B gives
IB = 2 + 2A = 4 A V=-2V

42 42

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Chapter 2

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (18241887), a German

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

If R is given, once you know i, it is easy to

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Working with very primitive instruments that Ohm

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology 4

V is the voltage across the device, I is the current flowing through

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

A short circuit is a circuit element

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

An open circuit is a circuit element

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

A nonlinear resistor does not obey Ohms law.

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct electric current; it is

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

The power consumed in the Example: If the power absorbed by Rx

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology12

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source or a resistor.

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

A node is the point of connection between two or more branches.

A node is usually indicated by a dot in a circuit.

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

A loop is any closed path in a circuit.

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

So we can treat these resistors as just one

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL).

KCL: The sum of currents leaving a node must equal zero.

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Mathematically, KCL implies that

By this law, currents entering a node may be regarded as positive, while

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

The algebraic sum of currents at the node is

iT (t) = i1(t) + i2(t) + i3(t)+

Integrating both sides gives

qT (t) = q1(t) + q2(t) + q3(t)+

By rearranging the terms, we get

The sum of the currents entering a node is equal to the sum

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

In order to satisfy KCL, what is the value of i?

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

The combined or equivalent

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Expressed mathematically, KVL states that

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Thus, KVL yields

Sum of voltage drops = Sum of voltage rises

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology

From Ohms law,

Applying KVL around the loop gives

Dr.-Eng. Hisham El-Sherif ELCT708: Electronics for Biotechnology