Solar Disinfection Improves Drinking Water

Quality to Prevent Diarrhea in Under-Five

Children in Sikkim, India
BB Rai, Ranabir Pal,1 Sumit Kar,2 and Dechen C Tsering2
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Abstract

Background:

Solar radiations improve the microbiological quality of water and offer a method for disinfection
of drinking water that requires few resources and no expertise and may reduce the prevalence of
diarrhea among under-five children.

Aims and Objectives:

To find out the reduction in the prevalence of diarrhea in the under-five children after consumption
of potable water treated with solar disinfection method.

Materials and Methods:

This was a population-based interventional prospective study in the urban slum area of Mazegoan,
Jorethang, south Sikkim, during the period 1st May 2007 to 30th November 2007 on 136 children
in the under-five age group in 102 households selected by random sampling. Main outcome
measure was the assessment of the reduction of the prevalence of diarrhea among under-five
children after consumption of potable water treated with solar disinfection method practiced by
the caregivers in the intervention group keeping water in polyethylene terephthalate (PET) bottles
as directed by the investigators. The data were collected by the interview method using a pre-tested
questionnaire prepared on the basis of socio-demographics and prevalence of diarrhea. The data
were subjected to percentages and chi-square tests, which were used to find the significance.

Results:

After four weeks of intervention among the study group, the diarrhea prevalence was 7.69% among
solar disinfection (SODIS) users, while 31.82% prevalence was observed among non-users in that
period; the reduction in prevalence of diarrhea was 75.83%. After eight weeks of intervention, the
prevalence of diarrhea was 7.58% among SODIS users and 31.43% among non-users; the
reduction in diarrhea was 75.88% in the study group. The findings were found to be statistically
significant.

Conclusions:

In our study, we observed that the prevalence of diarrhea decreased significantly after solar
disinfection of water was practiced by the caregivers keeping potable water in PET bottles in the
intervention group.

Keywords: Diarrhea, SODIS, Solar disinfection, Under-five children

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INTRODUCTION

Non-access to safe and potable drinking water is an existent modifiable health risk factor in
developing countries like India. Lack of potable water and sanitation causes serious health hazards,
predisposing the most vulnerable group, the under-five children, to waterborne diseases, which
remain a leading cause of illness and death in developing countries. A global estimate suggests
that 19% of the total number of child deaths are attributable to diarrhea, and 73% of these deaths
are concentrated in 15 developing countries.[1] It is the second commonest cause of death due to
infectious diseases in under-five children and also a major cause of adult death in such countries.[2]
The occurrence of diarrheal diseases also reflects the economic status of the country and has a
complex effect on the countrys economy by adversely affecting the health of its work force.[3]
Solar disinfection (SODIS) is a safe method to improve the quality of drinking water by simply
using solar radiation to inactivate agents causing diarrheal diseases. The most favorable region for
SODIS lies between latitude 15N to 35S. The semi-arid regions are characterized by high solar
radiation with limited clouds and rainfall. SODIS utilizes UV-A radiations (wavelengths, 320-400
nm), which react with dissolved oxygen in the water. This results in formation of free radicals of
oxygen and hydrogen peroxide, which sterilize water. SODIS is a method of disinfecting water
using only sunlight and plastic PET bottles. SODIS is a cheap and effective method for
decentralized water treatment, usually applied at the household level, and is recommended by the
World Health Organization as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage. It
has been shown that the SODIS method (and other methods of household water treatment) can
very effectively remove pathogenic contamination of water. However, infectious diseases are also
transmitted through other pathways as a result of general lack of sanitation and hygiene. Studies
on the reduction of diarrhea among SODIS users show reduction values of 30% to 80%.[47] The
solar disinfection unit has been field-tested by Centro Panamericano de Ingenieria Sanitariay
Ciencias del Ambiente in Lima, Peru. At moderate light intensity, the solar disinfection unit was
capable of reducing the bacterial load in a controlled contaminated water sample by 4 log10 U and
disinfected approximately 1 L of water in 30 minutes.[8]

Pooling data from meta-analysis suggests that interventions to improve the microbiological quality
of drinking water are effective in preventing diarrhea, both for populations of higher ages and
children less than five years old. Subgroup analyses suggest that household interventions are more
effective in preventing diarrhea than interventions at the water source. Effectiveness was positively
associated with compliance.[9]

The study was undertaken to find out the reduction in the prevalence of diarrhea in the under-five
children after consumption of potable water treated with solar disinfection method. So far there
has been no study done in this field in the state; and to the best of our knowledge, this was one of
the first few studies reported from the northeastern part of India.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS

Settings and design

A population-based interventional prospective study in the urban slum area of Mazegoan,

Jorethang, south Sikkim, was conducted during the period 1st May 2007 to 30th November 2007.

Participants

House-to-house survey was conducted in urban areas of Mazegoan under Jorethang, south Sikkim.
Of the total 416 households, 102 households were identified having one or more under-five
children, accounting for a total of 136 under-five children. These households were grouped as
study and control groups. Fifty-two households with 65 under-five children were selected
randomly from among the target population and subjected to study intervention.

Interventions

Solar disinfection of water was practiced by the caregivers keeping water in PET bottles in the
intervention group as directed by the investigators.

Study instrument

The data collection tool used for the study was an interview schedule that was developed at the
healthcare facility with the assistance of the faculty members and other experts from the health
department of the Government of Sikkim. The close-ended questionnaire contained questions
relating to prevalence of diarrhea in Sikkim. By initial translation, back-translation, re-translation
followed by pilot study, the questionnaire was custom-made for the study. The pilot study was
carried out at the Jorethang primary health center (PHC) among general patients, following which
some of the questions from the interview schedule were modified.

Main outcome measures

Reduction in the prevalence of diarrhea in under-five children

Sampling frame and data collection procedure

The state of Sikkim has four districts, namely, East (Gangtok), West (Gyalshing), South (Namchi)
and North (Mangan). South District was selected by simple random sampling (lottery method).
The ethical permission to conduct the study in the urban slum area of Mazegoan at Jorethang in
south Sikkim was taken from the Office of the Chief Medical Officer, south Sikkim, Health Care,
Human Services and Family Welfare Department, Government of Sikkim. The health workers of
the field partner, PUMASS, informed and motivated the intervention group along with the
intervention. All the participants were explained about the purpose of the study and were ensured
strict confidentiality, and then verbal informed consent was taken from each of them before the
starting of the procedure. Information on SODIS was disseminated during health education
sessions to complement the findings of the study. We collected samples of water from where the
caregivers were collecting drinking water, viz., Rangit River and spring water. Bacteriological
testing was undertaken at the STNM Hospital, Gangtok, approximately 50 km away from the study
area. Water samples were collected from sources of water and from the SODIS users in sterile
plastic bottles and were tested for coliform organism by the most probable number technique.[9]
According to the guidelines of the Bureau of Indian Standards, samples with 0 coliform/100 mL
of water were considered excellent; with 1-10 coliform(s), as satisfactory; and above 10 coliforms,
as unsatisfactory.[10] We had taken utmost care in double-blinding at all stages. Blinding (double)
was done through coding the samples of water; and also during collection of data regarding
prevalence of diarrhea, separate groups of volunteers were engaged. Bias was taken care of by
analysis of reduction of the prevalence of diarrhea only in under-five children, as they have the
lowest probability to get enteric infection by consuming water outside their home.

Statistical analysis

Percentages and Chi-square tests were used in this study to calculate the significance of reduction
in the prevalence of diarrhea in the under-five children after consumption of potable water treated
with solar disinfection method.

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RESULTS
In the 102 households identified having one or more under-five children, there were 136 under-
five children, who were grouped as study and control groups. After four weeks of intervention
among the study group, the diarrhea prevalence was 7.69% among SODIS users and 31.82%
among non-users in the last one month (x2 = 10.69; d.f.= 1; P<0.05). The reduction in diarrhea
was 75.83%. After eight weeks of intervention, the prevalence of diarrhea was 7.58% among
SODIS users and 31.43% among non-users (x2 = 11.25; d.f.= 1; P<0.05). The reduction in diarrhea
was 75.88% in the study group.

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DISCUSSION

In our study, we observed thatdiarrhea prevalence was decreased significantly among users of
water disinfected using the solar disinfection (SODIS) method practiced by the caregivers keeping
water in PET bottles in the intervention group.

Study at Kenya shows that among the 108 children in households allocated for solar water
treatment, diarrhea was reported in 439 two-week reporting periods during the 12-week trial
[average, 4.1 (SD, 1.2) per child]. By comparison, the 98 children in the control households
reported diarrhea during 444 two-week reporting periods [average, 4.5 (SD, 1.2) per child].
Diarrhea severe enough to prevent performance of duties occurred during 186 reporting periods in
the solar group and during 222 periods in the control group [average, 1.7 (SD, 1.2) vs. 2.3 (SD,
1.4)]. After adjustment for age, solar treatment of drinking water was associated with a reduction
in all diarrhea episodes [odds ratio, 0.66 (0.50-0.87)] and in episodes of severe diarrhea [0.65
(0.50-0.86)].[4]

Researchers from Kajiado district, Kenya, reported that children who were drinking solar-
disinfected water had a significantly lower risk of severe diarrheal disease over 8,705 two-weekly
follow-up visits; two-week prevalence was 48.8% compared with 58.1% in controls,
corresponding to an attributable fraction of 16.0%. While this reduction is modest, it was sustained
over a year.[5]
Study from Kenya proved that among 131 households in the trial area, of which 67 had been
randomized to solar disinfection, there was no significant difference in the risk of cholera in adults
or in older children in households randomized to solar disinfection. However, there were only three
cases of cholera in the 155 children aged less than six years drinking solar-disinfected water
compared with 20 of 144 controls.[6]

In an intervention study conducted in an urban slum of Vellore town, there was significant
reduction in the incidence, duration and severity of diarrhea in children receiving solar-disinfected
water, despite 86% of the children drinking water other than that treated by the intervention. The
incidence of diarrhea in the intervention group was 1.7 per child-year; and among controls, 2.7 per
child-year, with an incidence rate ratio of 0.64 (95% CI, 20.48-0.86). The risk of diarrhea was
reduced by 40% by using solar disinfection. In qualitative evaluation of acceptability, most women
felt that solar disinfection was a feasible and sustainable method of disinfecting water.[7]

A cluster-randomized controlled trial in 22 rural communities in Bolivia evaluated the effect of

SODIS in reducing diarrhea among children under the age of five years. A local nongovernmental
organization conducted a standardized interactive SODIS-promotion campaign in 11 communities,
targeting households, communities and primary schools. Within the intervention arm, 225
households (376 children) were trained to expose water-filled PET bottles to sunlight. Eleven
communities (200 households, 349 children) served as a control. Mean compliance with SODIS
was 32.1%. The reported incidence rate of gastrointestinal illness in children in the intervention
arm was 3.6 as compared to 4.3 episodes among the control group. The relative rate of diarrhea
adjusted for intracluster correlation was 0.81 (95% confidence interval, 0.59-1.12). The median
length of diarrhea was three days in both groups.[10]

In spite of our best efforts, the number of participants in the study sample was small as we had to
face tough opposition while convincing the apparently healthy folk in the urban slum regarding
the effectiveness of a simple cost-effective method. Moreover, sparsely spread population in hilly
terrains was another hindrance, and constant motivation was needed so as to prevent attrition
during the study.

The strength of the study

The strength of the study was that it studied a novel cost-effective technology using the solar
radiations to improve the microbiological quality of water, and offer a method for disinfection of
drinking water that requires few resources and no expertise and may reduce the prevalence of
diarrhea among under-five children. Bias was taken care of by analysis of reduction of the
prevalence of diarrhea only in under-five children, as they have the lowest probability to get enteric
infection by consuming water outside their home. So far there has been no study done in this field
in the state; and to the best of our knowledge, this was one of the first few studies reported from
the northeastern part of India. Through repeated motivation, we could have managed complete
cooperation and full participation from the study population. Hence the compliance rate need not
have been calculated

The limitations of the study

SODIS does not change the chemical quality of water and requires relatively clear water (turbidity,
less than 30 NTU) for effective penetration of UVA from sunlight. SODIS requires suitable
weather conditions; continuous rainfall and clouds affect the disinfection process. Moreover,
SODIS is not useful to treat large volumes of water; in addition, transparent PET container is
needed. We could not study seasonal variations.

Future directions on the basis of this study

Solar radiations reduce the microbial load of water and offer a method for disinfection of drinking
water that requires few resources and no expertise and may reduce the prevalence of diarrhea
among under-five children by inactivating the agents causing diarrheal diseases. We hope to find
out the extent to which this cost-effective novel technology will be implemented in future in this
remote northeastern hill state of Sikkim. The key factors remain motivation and belief. We
have to generate awareness among our peers, public health experts, health services researchers,
healthcare providers and planners so that they accept and implement solar disinfection as a simple
and cost-effective technology to improve quality of drinking water and to reduce the incidence of
diarrhea in under-five children, which is still a public health problem in developing countries like
India.

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CONCLUSION

The study was undertaken to find out whether this cost-effective, novel technology could have
been implemented in this remote northeastern hill state of Sikkim. In our study, we observed that
the prevalence of diarrhea decreased significantly after solar disinfection of water was practiced
by the caregivers keeping potable water in PET bottles in the intervention group. These findings
suggest that solar disinfection of water may reduce diarrhea in communities with no access to other
means of disinfection. The social vaccine of health empowerment, along with acceptance of
appropriate technology as a component of overall development by the rural and urban health
personnel (Department of Health and Family Welfare); with an additional input of health
awareness and motivation by Anganwadi workers (Department of Women and Child
Development), elected women representatives in the panchayats(Department of Rural
Development and Panchayati Raj) and nongovernmental development agencies could be a
collaborative effort towards decreasing the prevalence of diarrhea. This could lay the foundation
for the introduction of primary health care with community participation.

There is need for changes in policies, standards, quality control, monitoring and evaluation and
integration of newer alternatives in public health: a) to address unprivileged urban slum folk; b)
ensuring extensive motivation as well as a comparable quality of coverage in every state; c) to use
behavior-change communication strategies matching healthcare resources. In countries like India,
with a great regional heterogeneity, this technology holds the potential to be used as a tool to
prevent diarrheal deaths in the under-five children.

Table 1
Prevalence of diarrhea among underfive children who used SODIS and those who did not (after
four weeks of intervention)
Table 2
Prevalence of diarrhea among underfive children who used SODIS and those who did not (after
eight weeks of intervention)
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Acknowledgments

Technical and institutional support was received from ENPHO-Kathmandu, Nepal. In

implementation of the project Voluntary Health Association of Sikkim, Tadong, Gangtok
participated with Field partner PUMASS, Jorethang, South Sikkim.

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Footnotes

Source of Support: ENPHO Kathmandu, Nepal

Conflict of Interest: None declared.

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REFERENCES

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protects against cholera in children under 6 years of age. Arch Dis Child. 2001;85:2935. [PMC
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for diarrheal prevention in southern India. Arch Dis Child. 2006;91:13941. [PMC free article]
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for preventing diarrhea. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006;3:CD004794. [PubMed]
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Disinfection of Contaminated Water by Using

Solar Irradiation
Laurie F. Caslake,1 Daniel J. Connolly,2, Vilas Menon,2, Catriona M. Duncanson,2 Ricardo
Rojas,3 and Javad Tavakoli2,*
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ABSTRACT

Contaminated water causes an estimated 6 to 60 billion cases of gastrointestinal illness annually.

The majority of these cases occur in rural areas of developing nations where the water supply
remains polluted and adequate sanitation is unavailable. A portable, low-cost, and low-
maintenance solar unit to disinfect unpotable water has been designed and tested. The solar
disinfection unit was tested with both river water and partially processed water from two
wastewater treatment plants. In less than 30 min in midday sunlight, the unit eradicated more than
4 log10 U (99.99%) of bacteria contained in highly contaminated water samples. The solar
disinfection unit has been field tested by Centro Panamericano de Ingenieria Sanitaria y Ciencias
del Ambiente in Lima, Peru. At moderate light intensity, the solar disinfection unit was capable of
reducing the bacterial load in a controlled contaminated water sample by 4 log10 U and disinfected
approximately 1 liter of water in 30 min.

Contaminated water causes an estimated 6 to 60 billion cases of gastrointestinal illness annually.

The majority of these cases occur in rural areas of developing nations where the water supply is
polluted with a variety of microorganisms, including viruses, fecal coliforms, and protozoa, and
adequate sanitation is unavailable. The need for a low-cost, low-maintenance, and effective
disinfection system for the improvement of water quality is high.

Conventional technologies used for disinfection of unpotable water include ozonation,

chlorination, and artificial UV radiation. These technologies are capital intensive, require
sophisticated equipment, and demand skilled operators (1, 16, 22). At the household level, boiling
water for about 10 min or the use of certain chlorine compounds available in tablets (halazone or
calcium hypochlorite) or solutions (sodium hypochlorite at 1 to 2 drops per liter) is commonly
used to disinfect drinking water. A lack of resources and/or distribution infrastructure makes the
application of these procedures extremely limited in developing countries where waterborne
diseases are prevalent. Even if these methods are available and affordable, their implementation
could be environmentally unsound or hygienically unsafe when performed by a layperson. Boiling,
for example, requires about 1 kg of wood/liter of water, and misuse of sodium hypochlorite
solution poses a safety hazard (2, 3, 10).

The use of solar irradiation for treatment of chemically and biologically contaminated water is not
a new phenomenon (4, 7, 8, 15, 18-20). Solar radiation removes a wide range of organic chemicals
and pathogenic organisms by direct exposure, is relatively inexpensive, and avoids generation of
harmful by-products of chemically driven technologies (4). More importantly, the economics of
the process are almost volume independent (9).

The bacterial inactivation rate in a contaminated water sample is proportional to the intensity of
sunlight and atmospheric temperature and inversely proportional to the water depth (2). While
sunlight can penetrate into water, its intensity decreases with the depth of penetration due to
scattering caused by suspended particles present in the water (2, 6a). The reduction in intensity
varies with wavelength; for wavelengths ranging from 200 to 400 nm the reduction in intensity
does not exceed 5%/m of water depth; however, it rises as high as 40%/m for longer wavelengths
(2).

The synergistic effects of two irradiation wavelengths (23, 24) and of light and heat (21) and the
action of light on bacteria and living cells have been well documented (11-13). The most effective
wavelengths for microbial destruction are the near-UV-A band (320 to 400 nm) and to a lesser
extent the visible band of violet and blue light, 400 to 490 nm (2, 21). While there was no
appreciable difference in the rate of bacterial inactivation for sample temperatures ranging from
12 to 40C, when the water temperature was increased to 50C, the same fraction of the initial
population of Escherichia coli was inactivated by a much lower fluence (a threefold reduction
[24]). This reduction was presumably due to the synergetic effects of solar radiation and thermal
water treatment (24). While pasteurization of water occurs at 72C (161F) in a minimum of 15 s
(5), bacterium-free water can be obtained by solar irradiation at lower temperatures with much
longer residence times (5, 14).
Many researchers have reported results from limited laboratory studies under narrowly defined
radiation bands (21, 23, 24). The polychromatic nature of solar light and its varying intensity with
geographic location of incidence complicate extrapolation of these results and their
implementation in actual designs. Additionally, different microorganisms behave differently when
subjected to multiple irradiation wavelengths (2, 8, 19, 20, 24). Based on preliminary batch work,
a solar disinfection unit was designed and constructed. In this study, the unit was used to measure
bacterial inactivation of highly contaminated water from two wastewater treatment plants. The unit
also was evaluated by the Centro Panamericano de Ingenieria Sanitaria y Ciencias del Ambiente
(CEPIS) in Lima, Peru. The experimental results obtained by CEPIS using the solar disinfection
unit with controlled contaminated water samples are reported.

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MATERIALS AND METHODS

Solar disinfection unit.

The solar disinfection unit is composed of two parts: a base (Fig. (Fig.1a)1a) and a cover. The base
was a 12- by 24- by 1/2-in. dark gray polyvinyl chloride (PVC) plate machined with snake-shaped
grooves (1/2 in. in diameter and 3/8 in. in depth) running across the plate from one end to the other.
A 12- by 24- by 1/8-in. UV transparent acrylic plate covered the base permanently to keep the heat
inside and prevent any air from entering the system when the unit was in operation. The acrylic
cover was glued to the PVC base with Weld-On 40 acrylic cement (IPS Co., Gardena, Calif.).
The volume of the disinfection unit was approximately 1 liter.

FIG. 1.
(a) Solar disinfection unit base. Dimensions are in inches. (b) Solar water disinfection apparatus.
The reactor is made of a 12- by 24- by 1/2-in. dark gray PVC base with a UV transmitting cover.
The feed and collecting bottles are 2-liter transparent ...

In operation, the solar disinfection unit consisted of the unit and three 2-liter transparent bottles:
two were used as feed bottles, and one was used as a collection bottle (Fig. (Fig.1b).1b). Three
1/4-in. openings tapped with self-locking valves along one side of the plate served as inlet,
sampling, and outlet ports, respectively. The bottles were covered with nontransparent white
contact paper to eliminate any pre- or postreactor sunlight interference. The feed bottles were
capped with a rubber stopper having two 1/8-in.-diameter holes. Two copper tubes were run
through these holes, one approximately 2 in. longer than the other. The longer stem was open to
the atmosphere via flexible tubing on the outer end. The shorter stem was connected to the inlet
port of the solar unit (Fig. (Fig.1b).1b). The 2-in. head provided uniform flow rate, controlled with
an adjustable valve, throughout a run.

Sample collection.

Water was taken from three different sources: two local municipal wastewater treatment plants in
Phillipsburg, N.J., and Easton, Pa., and the Delaware River in Easton, Pa. Water from the treatment
plants was sampled between the postsecondary clarifier and chlorination processes. Water used in
all experiments, except turbidity studies, was relatively clear and free of visible suspended solids.
Water used in turbidity studies was transparent, with nephelometric turbidity unit (NTU) values
between 0.09 and 0.32.

Sample treatment.

The disinfection unit was tilted upward at the outlet end for approximately 1 in. to aid escape of
any trapped air. Once the disinfection unit was filled with water, it was allowed to run for more
than 1 unit volume at the set flow rate before any samples were collected. Multiple 100-ml samples
(usually three) were collected at 10-min intervals for each of the residence times, which ranged
from 5 to 74 min. Trials were conducted in June, July, and August 2000, under clear skies at
ambient temperatures ranging from 22.9 to 33.3C in Easton, Pa., between 11 a.m. and 3 p.m. to
ensure the highest sunlight intensity.
Sample testing.

The pH, dissolved oxygen (model 50 B; YSI Inc., Yellow Springs, Ohio), turbidity (HF
Instruments DRT 100B; Shaban Manufacturing, Inc., Fort Myers, Fla.), nitrate (method 8507;
Hach Co., Loveland, Colo.), orthophosphate (method 8048; Hach Co.), and temperature of water
flowing in and out of the solar disinfection unit were monitored for all runs. Samples collected
from the solar disinfection unit were filtered through a 0.45-m-pore-size sterile membrane filter
(Millipore Co., Bedford, Mass.). The filters were then placed into a 47-mm-diameter sterile
Millipore petri dish (Precision Scientific Group, GCA Co., Chicago, Ill.) with m-ColiBlue24 broth-
saturated pads (Millipore Co.; method 10029 [Hach Co.]) and incubated at 35C for 24 h. A sample
of the wastewater or river water was tested on the morning of each trial. Total coliforms and E.
coli bacteria were counted following incubation.

Water samples from the solar disinfection unit were tested by Benchmark Analytics Laboratory
(Center Valley, Pa.) using standard method 9222B, which corresponds to EPA-600-R-00-013 for
E. coli (6). The limit of detection is <1 coliform/100 ml of water (6).

The unit also was field tested by CEPIS in Lima, Peru. Sunlight intensity was measured using a
Haeni Solar 130 solarimeter. Tap water samples were inoculated with an overnight culture of
mixed coliforms (Escherichia, Klebsiella, Enterobacter, and Citrobacter spp.) at 105 CFU/100 ml.
Water samples were run through the solar disinfection unit, and effluent was tested by membrane
filtration with sulfate lauryl broth (17) followed by incubation at 44 0.1C for 24 h. Total
coliforms on the filters were counted.

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RESULTS

The pH, turbidity, and dissolved oxygen were measured before and after each experimental run
(data not shown). There were insignificant differences between the properties of water entering
and leaving the unit. The low turbidity values for the water samples (0.09 to 0.32 NTU) indicate
that the water used in these experiments was relatively clear. Nitrate (<0.2 mg liter1) and
orthophosphate (<0.2 mg liter1) were analyzed for one of the three samples tested in each run-
time interval (22.5, 30, 45, and 60 min). The change in total bacterial counts over the span of
residence times (from 7 to 74 min) for municipal wastewater samples is shown in Fig. Fig.2.2. The
temperature difference between the inflow and effluent of the unit ranged from 14 to 30.2C,
respectively.

FIG. 2.
Change in total coliform counts with increasing residence times in the continuous solar disinfection
unit for municipal wastewater samples. Each data point represents the average of three samples.
Error bars indicate standard errors.

Benchmark Analytics Laboratory confirmed our results of the municipal wastewater experiments
with the solar disinfection unit (data not shown). Benchmark Analytics Laboratory tested the total
coliform and noncoliform heterotrophic bacterial concentration in five samples: one from raw
wastewater and four from experimental runs through the solar disinfection unit at residence times
of 30 (two samples), 45, and 60 min. Except for the duplicate sample, all treated water samples
contained <1 coliform/100 ml of water tested (6). The duplicate 30-min treatment sample
contained 8 coliforms/100 ml of water.

Water from the Delaware River was used to test the effectiveness of the disinfection unit on
treating water samples with a low level of bacterial contamination. Water was collected from the
Delaware River 2 mi upstream from the Easton municipal drinking water treatment plant. The
samples were tested in the solar disinfection unit at residence times of 9, 20.5, and 41 min (Fig.
(Fig.3).3). In approximately 40 min, the coliform count was reduced by 2 orders of magnitude.
Feed water entered the unit at 25C; the temperature of the effluent was 35 and 45C for the 9-
and 41-min residence times, respectively.

FIG. 3.
Change in total coliform counts with increasing residence times in the continuous solar disinfection
unit for Delaware River water. Each data point represents the average of three samples. Error bars
indicate standard errors.

Feed water samples with relatively increasing turbidities (NTU values between 0.20 and 1.16)
were used to study the impact of turbidity on the rate of bacterial inactivation by the solar
disinfection unit. Water samples were collected from the Easton wastewater treatment plant at four
stages of purification: the inflow channel, off the weirs of the primary clarifier, influent to the
secondary clarifier, and off the weirs of the secondary clarifier. These samples were filtered
through cheesecloth to remove large particles that would have clogged the system without
significantly affecting their turbidity. Wastewater samples were treated in the solar disinfection
unit, and all samples had similar disinfection trends. The higher the turbidity of the sample, the
longer the residence time required to reach a 4-log10-U reduction in bacterial load (Fig. (Fig.44).

FIG. 4.
Effect of turbidity on the time to achieve a 4-log10-U reduction in bacterial load for wastewater
samples in the continuous solar disinfection unit. Water from four points in the Easton wastewater
treatment facility (0.20 to 1.16 NTU) was treated in the ...

A prototype of the solar disinfection unit was successfully tested by CEPIS in Lima by using
controlled contaminated tap water samples. The average irradiation intensity ranged from 500 to
800 W m2 with residence times of 20 to 60 min and final effluent temperatures of 50 to 60C. The
discrete values for radiation intensity reported in Table Table11 are calculated based on the data
collected under normal sun irradiation. Bacterial concentrations in the effluent were determined
by membrane filtration with sulfate lauryl broth as the culture medium (17) followed by incubation
at 44 0.1C for 24 h. With increasing residence time in the solar disinfection unit, an increase in
temperature and a decrease in CFU of the mixed coliform culture occurred (Fig. (Fig.5).5). At an
average flow rate of 0.4 ml/s the effluent temperature reached 55C in approximately 44 min.
During this process, the bacterial contamination was reduced by more than 4 log10 U (99.99%, Fig.
Fig.55).
FIG. 5.
Change in total coliform counts with increasing residence times in the continuous solar disinfection
unit for a controlled contaminated water sample at CEPIS. Tap water samples were inoculated
with 105 CFU of a culture of mixed coliforms/100 ml and processed ...

TABLE 1.
Treatment time and flow rate to reach a 4-log10-U reduction of coliforms for the experiments
conducted at CEPIS with controlled contaminated tap water
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DISCUSSION

We report the eradication of coliforms from highly contaminated water or wastewater by using a
continuous flow solar disinfection unit. The bacterial kill rate is highest during the first 30 min of
the process (Fig. (Fig.2)2) and plateaus thereafter. By the use of this solar disinfection unit,
decontamination below the level of detection (<1 coliform/100 ml) of partially treated wastewater
occurs in 45 min, which is far faster than earlier reports (2, 14, 24). Our solar disinfection unit may
be more efficient than other units because the exposure surface exceeds that of other tested units,
thus maximizing the irradiation time. Joyce et al. (14) reported that complete disinfection of highly
contaminated water (106 CFU/ml) in 2-liter transparent plastic bottles (a batch system) was
achieved in 7 h by heating the water to approximately 55C. No viable E. coli was observed over
the following 12 h, indicating no bacterial recovery (14). A 3-log reduction in E. coli concentration
by solar irradiation of contaminated water in a batch system in about 5 h has been reported (24).
In a continuous flow reactor, 99.9% of total coliforms were eliminated in 90 to 310 min depending
on the wavelength of light (320 to 490 nm, respectively [3]). The solar reactor tested in this study
successfully eradicated more than 4 log10 U (99.99%) of total coliforms within 30 min in midday
summer sunlight.

Water with low contamination (about 200 coliforms/100 ml) took longer to purify in the solar
disinfection unit than did a more highly contaminated water sample (Fig. (Fig.22 and and3).3).
This is in agreement with previous studies noting that less-contaminated water required a longer
residence time for purification (23). Solar disinfection of water from the Kriesbach River (10
CFU/ml) required at least 500 W of solar radiation/m2 for a period of 5 h (24).

The effect of turbidity on the bacterial inactivation is shown in Fig. Fig.4.4. It is evident that
turbidity inversely affected the kill rate for bacteria; at higher turbidities, a longer time was needed
to obtain the 4-log10-U reduction of coliforms. This finding corroborates similar results that have
shown enhanced bacterial elimination under similar light intensity by lowering turbidity (2, 14,
24).

Experiments with controlled water samples at CEPIS demonstrated the interaction of radiation
intensity, flow rate, and reaction space-time to achieve a similar coliform level (Table (Table1).1).
At 800 W/m2, 60C, and 0.5 ml/s, it took 32 min to reach 10 coliforms/100 ml whereas it took 60
min to reach similar results at 500 W/m2, 60C, and 0.3 ml/s. These experiments point to the
effectiveness of the solar unit in eradicating contaminating bacteria under a variety of radiation
intensities and flow rates.

In summary, a solar disinfection unit has been designed and successfully tested for disinfection of
contaminated water under polychromatic solar light. The unit destroyed more than 99% of
bacterial coliforms in both controlled and naturally contaminated water samples in less than 30
min. The unit is portable, and it can easily produce 2 gal of treated water on a sunny summer day.
The major application of solar water disinfection could come in areas rich in sunshine but distant
from reliable water purification systems.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We thank Richard Reeman and the staff of the Engineering Machine Shop at Lafayette College
for technical support and Christina Morgan of the Phillipsburg-Easton wastewater treatment plants
for assistance with wastewater samples. We thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive
comments.

Funding for this project was provided in part by Air Products & Chemicals, Inc. (Bethlehem, Pa.)
(to J.T.) and through the Lafayette College EXCEL Scholars Program (to D.J.C., V.M., and
C.M.D.).

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