AGRICULTURE AND AUTONOMOUS POWER SUPPLY

Giovanni Riva,
Department of Agricultural and Environmental Biotechnology (Dibiaga), University of Ancona,
Italy

Keywords: generation, electrical energy, renewable sources, small power plants

Contents
1. Introduction
2. Power Production and Aspects Concerning the use of Renewable Sources
3. Technologies for Electricity Production at Farm Level From Renewable Energy Sources
4. Internal Combustion Engines Combined with Generators (IC Generator-sets)
5. External Combustion Engines/Turbines Combined with Generators (EC Generator-sets)
6. Hydraulic Engines Combined with Generators (Water Wheels and Turbines)
7. Photovoltaic Solar Plants
8. Wind Generators
9. Combined Production of Electric and Thermal Energy (Co-generators; CHP)
Related Chapters
Glossary
Bibliography
Biographical Sketch
Summary
This contribution is meant to be a brief guide to electrical energy generation from renewable
sources, with special reference to powers ratings relevant to farms which are rarely above 300
400 kW (mostly under 50100 kW in the developed countries and much less in the developing
countries).
The main objective is to provide an analysis of the problems concerned with the supply of
electricity which is an important element of energy self-sufficiency. The following subjects are
discussed:
i. renewable energy sources considered to be those most best suited for power
supply;
ii. relevant conversion technologies to electrical energy;
iii. basic data needed for technical evaluations;
iv. application limits of sources and technologies.
Special attention has been paid to problems that may arise as a result of the adoption of
renewable sources. In fact, one of the reasons why these sources are not fully employed is that
farmers know little about their practical application and the problems relevant to the integration
between the different sources (renewable and non-renewable) representing the most common
case in the practice.
1. Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to provide basic indications for an analysis of the problems
concerned with the supply of power to farms, especially from renewable sources.
In the first instance, it should be noted that electrical energy isfrom a general point of view
the most effective and versatile energy carrier. In fact, electricity consumption is increasing
everywhere in the world and in all the sectors. However, it requires expensive and some times
high-tech plants, difficult to analyze in a few pages, due to the extreme variability from one
situation to another (the spectrum of socioeconomic situations and of size of plants considered in
this report is too broad). Consequently, the aim of the chapter has been restricted to provide the
reader with the necessary elements for an initial evaluation comparing alternative technologies
that are familiar.
Electricity is an essential element in all productive processes. In both agricultural and
manufacturing industries, however, its irreplaceable importance is often underrated. Indeed, in
industrialized countries it may be observed that electricity:
often does not have a significant impact on production costs;
at present is easy to find;
does not pose important technical problems.
On the other hand, electricity becomes a priority when one of these conditions no longer holds,
which is the typical situation in developing countries. The question of power supply and the
choice of related technologies is generally tackled using quite different criteria, depending on the
existence or absence of grids for the continuous supply of energy (Table 1). In the latter case, the
main problem concerns the technical aspects associated with energy self-sufficiency (i.e.,
essential requirements will have to be met even at high costs). In the former case, however, the
following factors are important:
the price of electricity from the grid;
the convenience and reliability of the service;
the risks connected with individual energy production.

Presence of the grid Absence of the grid

Technical and/or economical item
Reliable Unreliable Double Single
supply (1) supply (1) plant (2) plant (2)

Cost/technical constrains for farm connection

to the grid

Cost of the electrical energy from the grid (3) (3)

Cost of electrical energy from generators-sets

fed by fossil fuels

Possibility to rationalize electrical energy

needs

Patterns of electrical needs (throughout the

year and the most representative days)

Type and characteristics of renewable sources

available

Notes:
1: in terms of the presence of problems related to the quality and continuity of electrical energy
supply
2: double plant: generator-set fed with fossil fuels and plant based on renewable sources (the
basic device may be the same: i.e., reciprocating engine fed by diesel fuel and/or vegetable oil).
Single plant: plant based only on a renewable source
3: if the connection to the grid could be considered
Table 1. Basic information useful to select the strategy and the type of an autonomous electricity
supply. The greater the number of bullets, the greater the knowledge is of the relevant
information.

Table 1. Basic information useful to select the strategy and the type of an autonomous electricity
supply. The greater the number of bullets, the greater the knowledge is of the relevant
information.
Although food production requires relatively little energy, agriculture in the developed countries
is critically dependent upon fossil energy. In developing countries conventional energy
consumption is much smaller, but there is a need to modernize the sector, increasing the use of
more advanced (and energy-intensive) technologies.
In addition, there is increasing concern in relation to the environment and, in particular, on the
long-term effects due to the global warming. In fact, agriculture accounts for about one-fifth of
the projected greenhouse gases, producing about 50% and 70%, respectively, of overall methane,
nitrous oxide (N2O) and carbon dioxide emissions. Promising approaches for mitigation include
more efficient conventional technologies and a larger utilization of the renewable sources.
Taking into account these issues, the autonomous power supply should primarily deal with
environmentally sound technologies and energy sources. In particular, the agricultural sector
offers the most concrete opportunity for using renewable sources. In fact:
farm power requirements are generally moderate and they sometimes match
the availability of renewable sources;
electricity could be required in remote areas (easy to find also in grid-
connected farms) where it would be expensive to run cables from a main
power supply;
farmers are normally open to renewable sources and tolerate breaks in power
continuity better;
some renewable sources (i.e. biomass) are unique to agriculture.
On the other hand:
Most of the renewable sources (i.e. solar and wind energy) are intermittent
and the relevant energy should be stored in order to match the requirements.
Consequently, plants are expensive and often need attention.
Some important farm operations are seasonal or typically 2060 days per year
(i.e. drying in mild-climate countries). Then, it is necessary to reduce
investments for energy plants and structures.
Some applications need a reliable power source. In this context, a double
plant (conventional and renewable sources) could be required.
2. Power Production and Aspects Concerning the use of Renewable Sources
2.1 Basic Concepts
From a general point of view, the user is always willing to evaluate various energy plant designs
and the final choice is not always the most economical or rational (indeed, expensive features,
such as increased functional reliability, may be considered useful). When connection to a grid is
possible, the supply of electricity is usually based on strictly economic considerations, while in
other cases a wide range of situations may exist, which have to be examined on a case-by-case
basis. This fact is extremely important when it comes to selecting energy conversion
technologies.
In all cases, the supply and production of power pose two types of problems (Figure 1):
possible modification of existing energy plants;
choice of the most suitable source and energy plants (in case of the absence or
complete reconstruction of the plants themselves).

Figure 1. Basic criteria for selecting autonomous power plants.

2.2 Existing Plants: Criteria for Action
Existing plants are frequently the basis for operation. This is the case when productive activities
have been operating for some time, and all of their technical aspects have been resolved (perhaps
temporarily or improperly). In this context, the various energy plants have to be re-examined for
any one of the following reasons:
the energy sources employed are no longer compatible with certain
environmental aspects (e.g., the use of wood in areas subject to deforestation);
the cost of produced power is too high;
the negative influence of the plants on actual processing or the quantity of
product obtained (e.g., an electric mill which is too small to guarantee a
consistent level of production).
Experience has shown that:
In the first case, the energy source has to be replaced by one that is more
suitable; in the majority of cases, this requires the choice of a new energy
plant.
In the second case, the economic incidence of the energy may be related to
the high cost of the source (e.g., small quantities of diesel fuel that have to be
transported for long distances) or the excessive employment of labour. Cost
reductions may be obtained: by changing the energy source (again requiring a
new plant); by increasing the yield (or level of automation) of the existing
plant.
In the third case, solution of the problem may require the repair of a plant
malfunction or, once again, a new plant.
In all three cases, before formulating a work hypothesis, it is good practice to determine:
the consumption levels of the technologies currently in use for the supply of
electricity, broken down by energy source (e.g., grid, diesel fuel for the
generation set, etc.);
the real requirements, which are generally lower than consumption.
The next step is to determine whether consumption levels and requirements are compatible (or
acceptable) in terms of:
current energy costs;
conversion yields (if they are too low, it is always worthwhile to consider
alternative plants, at least from an economic standpoint);
environmental impact (generally based on emissions and/or wastes of some
types of energy transformations).
The proposed method of analysis can lead to two results:
The existing plant (which may already employ renewable sources) merely
requires limited modifications that do not alter its basic set-up. In this case, it
is always a good idea to evaluate the benefits that could be provided by
rationalizing the users (e.g., by modifying the time-table of daily operations),
to obtain: a reduction in the number of user points, improved employment of
labor, etc.
 The existing plant requires radical alteration. In this case, the situation is
similar to the one described below.
2.3 Selection of the Most Suitable Sources and Power Plants (New Plants)
Both renewable sources and conventional energy sources may be considered in the various
hypotheses. At this point, two questions must be asked:
what criterion should be adopted for selection of the most suitable source?
which of the available renewable sources should be preferred?
The above choices should be made primarily on the basis of economic criteria. In other words,
the most suitable source is the one that is the most advantageous and attractive from an economic
standpoint. At least, a decision has to be made about whether the analysis should involve
individual plants (microeconomics analysis in which the number of variables is generally
limited) or entire regions or nations (macroeconomics analysis in which the number of variables
is usually quite high).
When drawing up a list of the various energy sources to be considered in a technical-economic
analysis, the following aspects should be included:
Traditional sources (i.e., common sources that are willingly accepted by the
user, electric grid included).
Available renewable sources. These sources should be determined by an
analysis of the local conditions of the site under examination (generally, they
are connected with the presence of rivers, windiness, solar radiation, biomass
etc.).
Environmental concerns.
Once the most suitable sources have been chosen, the appropriate technologies for energy
conversion must be selected. As mentioned above, this phase is influenced by the presence or
absence of grid for the continuous supply of energy. In the latter case, the reduction and/or the
rationalization, when possible, of the number of power user points is especially important. This
will limit the size of the generators and increase their use with time.
At this point it may be necessary to examine the possibility of carrying out rationalization
operations aimed at increasing the compatibility of requirements and available energy. These
operations may involve the adoption of energy-saving technologies (e.g., heat recovery from
refrigeration, to be used for the production of sanitary hot water) or the drawing up of special
timetables for farm operations.
The choice of conversion technologies is mainly influenced by:
the availability of sources;
their compatibility with requirements;
energy costs;
the availability of conversion technologies;
investment and maintenance requirements;
 environmental impact;
legislation in force (e.g., with reference to safety standards);
the engineers and users opinions on the subject;
the possibility of modifying the timetable of the utilization of plants in order
to facilitate the introduction of a given source.
3. Technologies for Electricity Production at Farm Level from Renewable Energy Sources
The following technologies may be considered for electricity production from renewable sources
at farm level:
spark-ignition/diesel engines fed by gas (from thermal or biological
gasification) or liquid fuel (alcohol, vegetable oil, etc.);
Stirling or steam engines or ORC (organic Rankine cycle) machines coupled
with biomass boilers;
wind or water wheels/turbines;
photovoltaic solar collectors.
It would be logical to concentrate on technologies that offer the possibility of meeting all the
users energy requirements with a single, easily obtainable source. An example of this type of
technology is the steam engine or ORC turbines coupled respectively with steam and thermal oil
boilers.
Some energy conversion processes transform an energy source into a second source with
different characteristics. Two examples are combustion (the transformation of fuel into hot gases)
and gasification (the transformation of biomass into combustible gas). Naturally, the products of
these processes have to be transformed, with the use of other technologies, into their final form.
Given the basic characteristics of farms, the following technologies may be proposed:
combustion, gasification, anaerobic fermentation and raw vegetable oil production. These
processes can be carried out by small plants and do not require expert assistance. On the other
hand, alcoholic fermentation and the production of refined or processed oils and charcoal should
usually only be undertaken by companies or well organized/experienced farms. A table is
presented for each of the proposed conversion processes (Tables 26).

Energy source: SOLAR RADIATION

Operative flexibility: poor
Availability: generally good at sites whose latitude is between 35N and 35S
Essential data for preliminary evaluation: average monthly radiation values on a horizontal
surface
Typical energy intensity values:
maximum power, 1 kW m2
maximum daily radiation: 2530 MJ m2
average annual radiation in the tropics: 1722 MJ m2 day1
share recoverable for the production of electricity: 515 per cent (see below)
Electrical technology: PV SYSTEMS
Operative flexibility: low
Operation: fairly simple
Most obvious limitations: (i) solar energy varies over time, and hence photovoltaic collectors
have to be connected with other systems (i.e., generator-sets) to ensure continuous service
(otherwise a large plant is needed); (ii) complete plants (i.e., with electrical storage and inverter
for the production of alternating current) are required for application to processing plants; (iii)
high construction costs.
Recommended models and their technological level:
Standard silicon photovoltaic modules. The technological level required for their construction
(cells) is high.
Energy yield (solar energy to electricity)
complete systems (with storage): 58 per cent;
other systems (without storage): 815 per cent
Can this technology achieve a fully autonomous supply with a single plant? No, since a solar
source cannot be relied on to power a continuous process, unless the system is highly oversized
or the power requirements very small (i.e.: electronic devices, a few lights, small refrigerators,
etc.) or unusual (i.e.: water pump that could operate only in the daylight hours).

Table 2. Photovoltaic (PV) systems

Energy source: WIND

Operative flexibility: average in "windy" places
Areas of acceptable use: anywhere, as long as the yearly average wind speed is equal to or greater
than 5 m s1 and its systems are acceptable to the local communities.
Essential data for preliminary evaluation: average annual speed; information about the duration
of periods in which there is no wind
Typical energy intensity values:
annual energy available at an average speed of 5 m s1: 4.900 MJ m2 of surface perpendicular
to the wind flux
share recoverable for the production of electricity: 515 per cent (see below)
Electrical technology: WIND TURBINES
Operative flexibility: low
Operation: fairly simple when the machine and its connection to the user points has been
properly designed
Most obvious limitations: (i) wind energy is extremely variable over time, and the production of
alternating current (AC) may be a problem. Consequently, it should be preferable to operate with
direct current (DC), but the relevant plants are expensive and require non standard appliances;
(ii) storage (batteries) is always necessary in order to avoid oversized plants; (iii) possible
operation in parallel with other electrical generators requires fairly complex energy plants.
Recommended models and technological level: horizontal axis machines. The technological
level required for construction of a good wind system is high.
Energy yield (wind to electricity): average operating yields are closely connected with the
average wind speed. With reference to average values and small plants:
AC electricity: 810 per cent;
unregulated electricity for heat production or DC electricity: 15 per cent.
Can this technology achieve a fully autonomous supply with a single plant? No, since a wind
source cannot be relied on to power a continuous process, unless the system is highly oversized
or the power requirements very small (i.e.: electronic devices, etc.) or unusual (i.e.: equipment
that could operate only in the daylight hours).
 Table 3. Wind systems

Energy source: HYDRO

Operative flexibility: generally very high
Areas of acceptable use: anywhere that a pressure head with the required characteristic is
available near the user point (preferable distance < 500 m)
Essential data for preliminary evaluation: changes in the waters flow rate over the course of the
year
Typical energy intensity values:
power generated by 1 dm3 s1 that falls from 1 m: 9.8 W
energy generated annually by 1 dm3 s1 that falls from 1 m: 309 MJ
share recoverable for the production of electricity: 6090 per cent (see below)
Electrical technology: WATER TURBINES
Operative flexibility: high
Operation: fairly simple.
Most obvious limitations: (i) water turbines require the presence of a stream with the appropriate
characteristics near the user point; (ii) operations connected with water conveyance to turbine are
often laborious and sometimes complex.
Recommended models and their technological level: versions are based on available head. The
Michell-Banki model is recommended for use in developing countries because of its operative
flexibility. The technological level required for construction of Pelton, Francis and Kaplan
turbines is fairly high when satisfactory yields are desired. However, Michell-Banki turbines can
be produced in simpler workshops, but adequate technical back-up is required.
Energy yield (water head to electricity)
electricity generation yield (regulated electricity): 6090 per cent;
electricity generation yield (unregulated electricity for heat production or DC current): 7090
per cent.
Can this technology achieve a fully autonomous supply with a single plant? Yes, as long as the
flow rate is constant.

Table 4. Hydro systems

Energy source: BIOMASS (solid and liquid fuels)

Operative flexibility: high
Areas suitable for its use: any place where dry wood-pulp products, energy crops and relevant
residues are available
Essential data for preliminary evaluation: type of biomass, its moisture content, available
quantities, melting temperature and quantity of ash.
Typical energy intensity values:
solid material with 1020% moisture content: 1316 MJ kg1
raw vegetable oil: 3234 MJ dm3
share recoverable for the production of electricity: 530 per cent (see below)
Electrical technology: GENERATOR SETS FED BY GASIFICATION GAS
Operative flexibility: high
Operation: fairly simple when the gasification gas is cooled (so that all condensables are
eliminated) and filtered (to eliminate all particles). But operation is more difficult than in the case
of similar engines fed with standard quality fossil fuels. The lubricant has to be changed more
frequently, and various components have to be checked more often.
Most obvious limitations (with special reference to spark-ignition engine based systems): (i) the
feed system has to be modified substantially (oversized pipes are required) and the ignition
system has to be adjusted; (ii) the use of fossil fuels is no longer possible; (iii) although high
energy transformation yields can be obtained, the maximum power that can be developed is
approximately 50 per cent that generated by fossil fuels (thus, bigger engines are needed); (iv) the
cleanness of the components has to be checked continually (especially the valves); (v) the noise
level should be considered (this problem also exists in standard models)
Recommended models and their technological level: 10001500 rpm engines with water cooling
to make use of thermal recovery, electronic ignition, large lubricant pan. Self-exciting generators
without sliding elements. The technological level required for construction of these engines is
well known. Simple transformation (for the use of renewable fuels) does not require special
equipment, but a good understanding of this field is still necessary.
Energy yield (solid biomass to electricity): 1520 per cent
Can this technology achieve a fully autonomous supply with a single plant? Yes.
Electrical technology: STEAM AND ORC (organic Rankine cycle) PLANTS FED BY SOLID
BIOMASS FUELS
Operative flexibility: high
Operation: fairly simple, except in the case of fuel loading and boiler maintenance
Most obvious limitations: (i) steam turbines are available over 100300 kW; (ii) steam
reciprocating engines are hard to find; (iii) ORC machines are also difficult to find but easy to
operate; (vi) systems are generally expensive but very reliable.
Recommended models and their technological level: steam can be produced at different pressures
and temperatures. Increasing their values, the power generation is more effective but investments
and need of maintenance are greater. For small sizes (<50100 kW) reciprocating steam engines
working at low pressures could be the best solution especially in developing countries; for
medium and large sizes (> 12 MW) steam turbines are better especially when steam is required
also for other purposes. ORC systems are always very interesting for sizes below one MW.
Energy yield (solid biomass to electricity):
small systems based on reciprocating engines: 5 per cent
small and average systems based on steam turbines: 1015 per cent
ORC based systems (0,1 2 MW): 1517 per cent
Can these technologies achieve a fully autonomous supply with a single plant? Yes.
Electrical technology: STIRLING SETS FED BY VARIOUS FUELS
Operative flexibility: high
Operation: fairly simple
Most obvious limitations: none, except the fact that Stirling engines are very difficult to find
Technological level: The technological level required for construction of modern and efficient
Stirling engines suitable for operation at a fixed site is high. In fact, research into these engines is
currently being conducted in developed countries only.
Energy yield (solid biomass to electricity): 35 per cent (simpler technologies in which the
working fluid is air); 2530% (high tech versions in which the working fluid is helium)
Can this technology achieve a fully autonomous supply with a single plant? Yes.
Electrical technology: GENERATOR SETS FED BY RAW VEGETABLE OILS
Operative flexibility: high
Operation: fairly simple when the oil has been carefully filtered and degummed, but operation is
more difficult than in the case of similar, standard quality, diesel-oil-fed engines. The various
components have to be checked more frequently.
Most obvious limitations (with respect to standard models): (i) indirect injection engines or
special versions (i.e.: Elsbett engine) should be used; (ii) possible paraffin formation at
temperatures as low as 0C; (iii) the components' condition must be checked constantly; (iv) the
noise level should be considered (this problem also exists in standard models).
Technological level
The technological level required for construction of these engines is well known. Simple
transformation (for the use of vegetable oils) does not require special equipment, but a good
understanding of this field is still necessary.
Energy yield (oil to electricity): 2530 per cent up to 35 per cent
Can this technology achieve a fully autonomous supply with a single plant? Yes.

Table 5. Biomass systems (solid, liquid and gaseous biofuels obtained from solid biomass)

Energy source: WET BIOMASS

Operative flexibility: poor
Areas suitable for its use: any place where there the needed basic material is available to ferment
Essential data for preliminary evaluation: quantity of waste; volatile solid content; chemical
analysis
Typical energy intensity values:
100 kg of animal live weight provide 2535 MJ day1
share recoverable for the production of energy in electricity : 520 per cent (see below)
Electrical technology: DIGESTERS AND GEN - SETS
Operative flexibility: average to poor
Management: not simple when a fairly consistent level of gas production is desired.
Limitations: (i) the process must be kept going at all times, and when it stops, it takes several
days to start up again; (ii) high-level production can only be obtained by heating the waste; (iii)
the gas often has to be stored.
Technical features of the most highly recommended technical solution:
reactor types: batch (intermittent loading and unloading); single-stage (plug-flow or the like);
suggested substrates: animal waste with total solid content between 8 and 15 per cent;
quantity of waste: the addition of 100 kg day1 of undiluted material produces 12 m3 of gas
day1. Around 2 m3 of gas is needed to obtain the same energy potential as 1 kg of diesel fuel;
generator-sets: spark-ignition engines are easier to use (the engines' feed mechanisms should be
modified). The inlet gas has to be dehumidified and the engine cannot contain any copper parts;
labor required: variable for loading and unloading (depending on the level of mechanization); in
addition, constant attention is required, especially in the case of continuous digesters and for the
engine maintenance (lubricant oil, gas quality surveillance etc.);
Technological level: expertise for construction/modifications: facility capable of doing
construction work (masonry, tanks, etc.) and to refurbish standard IC engines.
Energy yield (gas to electricity): 2530 per cent
Can this technology achieve a fully autonomous supply with a single plant? Yes.

Table 6. Biogas from manure or wet vegetables

4. Internal Combustion Engines Combined with Generators (IC Generator-sets)

This is the classic solution for the production of electricity in isolated areas. Diesel engines are
usually used because of their low level of consumption.
Generally, with machines whose capacity is: under 10 kW: 380410 g of diesel oil per kWh of
electricity generated; between 10 and 50 kW: 300380 g kWh1; above 50 kW: 220300 g kWh1
(average figures).
Utilizing renewable fuels, consumption depends on the heat value. Specific consumption is
higher in small machines, since smaller engines and generators tend to be less efficient (mainly
for economic reasons). This aspect is more evident in generators than in engines.
IC engines use part of the energy released by fuel combustion; these include diesel and spark-
ignition engines. The consumption levels of the latter type of engine are generally 2025%
higher than those of diesel engines. It should be noted that specific consumption increases for all
engines as the load decreases. For more complete information about performance, the following
values have to be known:
i. patterns of the power and torque curves as a function of the number of
revolutions;
ii. the maximum power that can be continually supplied;
iii. consumption pattern.
Parameters (i) and (ii) make it possible to identify the machines basic features and determine
whether it is suitable for use. Parameter (iii) makes it possible to evaluate the slope of the
specific consumption curve as a function of the load and the related yields.
Apart from the traditional fuels (gas, kerosene, natural gas and oil, diesel oil, etc), the following
renewables can be used: ethanol, methanol and vegetable oils; gasification and biological gas.
Tables 26 consider the practical performance of the above-mentioned generator-sets in relation
to energy source.
In addition to IC engines, gas turbines also have to be considered. Gas turbines the modern
industrial approach to power production will only be feasible in the medium to large plants
(over 15 MWe), due to the complexity of the biomass gasification process (a clean gas is
needed) and to the poor efficiency of gas units under 1 MWe. For these reasons, such units are
limited in biomass applications. Some generator-set units based on small gas turbines were also
introduced on the market recently. The minimum powers are around 40 kW (up to 200 kW) and
there is some experience limited to the relevant use with natural gas and diesel oil.
5.External Combustion Engines/Turbines Combined with Generators (EC Generator-sets)

The most interesting units to consider are steam, Stirling and ORC turbines/engines. The basic
feature of these machines is external combustion. Therefore, they can theoretically use any type
of fuel (including solids).
Steam engines are already in use in some underdeveloped countries. When less power is needed
(in the range 101000 kW), they provide some advantages over steam turbines (simplicity of the
layout). Steam engines naturally have to be combined with steam boilers (adapted to operate at
10 bar at least) and are not easy to find in the market, as they are seen as an old technical design.
Steam turbines represent instead the preferred technology starting at a few hundred kW. They
have a good performance for relatively high powers (over 23 MWe; 1015% as an average
figure). Steam turbines should be supplied with super-heated steam, in order to avoid the
formation of liquid drops which would erode the turbine blades and decrease its efficiency.
Consequently, boilers should have a super-heater, resulting in: a higher complexity and expense
(especially for small plants), careful management and, often, a necessity for licensed operators.
However, steam turbines coupled with steam boilers are popular and accepted as a reliable
technical layout able to operate more than 7000 hours per year. Existing plants are numerous
both in the developed and less developed countries.
Stirling engines are operated by the expansion and contraction of a gas (usually air or helium)
through a hot and cold source, both of which are located outside the machine. Engines with small
capacities (45 kW) are currently available, but they are expensive and difficult to find (for
commercial reasons).
Stirling engines are suitable for small sizes and present some advantages like:
i. the working fluid is an inert gas;
ii. the cycle, thanks to regeneration, efficiently exploit the available temperature
difference between the hot and the cold source;
iii. the maximum cycle temperature is not limited by the working fluid, hence
efficiencies in the range 3040% are possible (but these figures are much
lower less than 58% if air is used as working fluid gas) and reached in
some pilot plants.
These advantages justify the great effort which has been dedicated to the Stirling concept.
However, the use of this engine has been hindered by a number of problems, which become more
evident when biomass is selected as an energy source.
ORC machines (organic Rankine cycle) represent a valid alternative to the above-mentioned
technologies, especially for biomass application in the range 101000 kWe. An organic working
fluid of a closed Rankine cycle, where the energy for heating and vaporization is supplied from a
conventional biomass boiler, can be used to produce electricity in a wide range of power (from a
few kW to over 2 MWe per unit). Considering an average boilers efficiency of 80%, an overall
efficiency (biomass energy to electricity) of nearly 15% is normally achieved even for power
outputs below 200 kWe (Table 2).
This type of result is hardly attainable by other standard technologies in the same range of power.
Thermal energy is available at a temperature of 90 C, appropriate for space heating or some
industrial process. Typically, working fluids are HCFC class ones, which feature low ozone
depleting action (they will be accepted in European Union until 2030). ORC machines represent
a valid alternative to steam generators but are difficult to find on the market.

Data Value

Biomass lower heating value 3.84 kWht k1 (13.8 MJ kg1)

Biomass consumption 0.7 t h1

Boiler efficiency 80%

Transfer fluid Thermal oil

 Thermal oil nominal temperature (boiler 250300 C
inletoutlet)

Thermal oil flow rate 16 kg s1

Available thermal power 2220 kWt

Cooling water temperature (to the users; 6090 C

ORC inletoutlet)

Cooling water flow rate 14.2 kg s1

Thermal power available for final users 1780 kWt

Net electrical power output (ancillary 400 kWe

equipment included)

Electrical generator 3-phase, 400 V, 550 kVA

Electrical efficiency (net electrical 18%

power/ORC thermal input)

Electrical efficiency (net electrical 15%

power/biomass flow rate)

Overall efficiency (output/input) 79%

Table 7. General characteristics of the 400 kWe ORC plant fed by biomass displayed in Figure 3
(source: Tuboden Company, Brescia, Italy).
6. Hydraulic Engines Combined with Generators (Water Wheels and Turbines)
Wheels that convert the potential energy of a head (elevation of water) are equipped with boxes
(overshot wheels), while those that convert the kinetic energy of streams have paddles (undershot
wheels). The power P obtainable with overshot wheels is calculated as follows:

P = 10QH [kW]

where Q is the flow rate [m3s1], H is the available head, and is the wheels total efficiency
(0.50.7). For undershot wheels:

P = 0.25AV3 [kW]

where A is the submerged section measured perpendicularly to the flow [m2], V is the speed of
the stream [ms1], and is the wheel efficiency (0.50.7 again).

Given their low speed (620 rpm), wheels are not recommended for the production of electrical
energy (a velocity ratio of 1/100 is generally required and this further reduces the total yield, as a
consequence of the transmission efficiency).
Water turbines are basically composed of a nozzle and a rotor. The purpose of the nozzle is to
direct the water to the rotor and transform (completely or partially) its pressure energy into
kinetic energy. The rotor is composed of paddles that convert the energy of the water Ea into
mechanical energy Em (rotation around a fixed axis; machine yield: =Em/Ea).

When all the energy at the rotors inlet is kinetic, the machine is called an impulse turbine; when
the energy is mixed (i.e., in the form of pressure and velocity), it is called a reaction turbine. The
latter are also equipped with a diffuser, which connects the rotors outlet to the tailrace. Its
purpose is to create pressure and then suck in the water (this is important for low heads). Each
kind of turbine is suitable for different values of available head. There are different types, as
described below.
Propeller or Kaplan turbines (reaction turbines). These turbines operate with
low heads (120 m) and high flow rates. They are available above 50 kW. The
rotor is composed of a bulb-shaped hub and 46 paddles with variable slant,
which guarantees high yields ( ; defined as the ratio of the mechanical
energy produced to the total energy of the flowing water) even with variable
flow rates (0.8< <0.9).

Francis turbine (reaction turbine). Suitable for average heads (15150 m) are
available only for large units; composed of a rotor (rotation speed: 250
1000 rpm) with fixed paddles and generally a nozzle containing several
paddles with variable slant (0.8< <0.9).

Pelton turbine (impulse turbine). Requires large heads (>100 m) and the rotor
(rotation speed: 5001000 rpm) is composed of a disk around which a set of
paddles (in the shape of a double spoon) are placed. Injectors (16) direct an
equal number of jets towards the paddles, thereby generating torque (0.82<
<0.9). Pelton turbines coupled with generators are available in small units
(200 W or less for direct current generation; 1 kW for alternating current
generation).
Other kinds of turbines also exist, including the Michell-Banki turbine (from a few kW) which is
suitable for heads between 1 m and 200 m; in this case, the water passes through the rotor.
To calculate the amount of power that can be produced (see, Energy Sources: Non-renewable and
Renewable), it is necessary to evaluate:
the heads potential;

the plants total yield, t.

The latter value is equal to: t = c g, where is the water machines yield (defined above),
c is the water pipes yield (if this exists; 0.930.98), and g the electric generators yield (0.88

0.98 in average and medium-high capacities). When the plant has been well constructed, t =
0.650.88.
7. Photovoltaic Solar Plants
When certain materials are reached by solar radiation, they generate an electromotive force
(photovoltaic effect; see, Energy Sources: Non-Renewable and Renewable). Examples include
silicon crystal wafers (thickness: 0.20.4 mm) cut from bars (salami) and contaminated by
impurities (doping) in order to turn the two sides into positive and negative semiconductors,
respectively. When solar radiation is present, electrical energy is supplied by connecting the
bottom surface (metal coated) to the top (to which a metal grate is applied). The wafers are round
when the original structure is a single crystal; when the silicon contains several crystals, the
wafers are square. Other materials can be used in addition to silicon. Examples include indium
phosphorus (InP), gallium arsenide (AsGa) and cadmium sulfide combined with copper sulfide
(CdSCu2S). Amorphous silicon can be very useful (because of its low cost), but its durability is
limited.
The cells are characterized by peak power (Wp), which is the electric power supplied with 1000
W m2 of radiation.
A complete photovoltaic plant is composed of:
solar modules, made up of several cells protected by a transparent cover and
connected in series to obtain voltages of 12 or 24 V);
electric storage;
a charge conditioner, which prevents the currents return from the storage to
the collectors in the case of weak radiation and overcharging of the storage in
the case of intense radiation;
a converter and transformer (to supply users with alternating current).
When the storage is necessary (most common practical case), the average yields are always
below 10% (solar energy to useful electricity).

8. Wind Generators
Wind generators can be divided into two groups (see, Energy Sources: Non-Renewable and
Renewable for theoretical aspects): those with horizontal axes and those with vertical axes. The
former (unlike the latter) do not have moving parts that are faster than the wind, and they must
rotate around a vertical axis for the rotor to be in an operating position.
Machines with 13 vanes are generally used for electricity production. The most complete
versions include:
i. a rotor with a device for regulating the vanes pitch (to keep the rotation speed
constant when wind speed varies);
ii. a brake (generally disc type) to stop the machine for maintenance or when the
wind speed is excessive;
iii. a revolution multiplier;
iv. an electric generator;
v. an orientation system (not included in vertical machines).
The rotor is the most important component; the vanes must have a special shape, and their fatigue
strength and resistance to stress have to be high (wind speed varies constantly, and this causes the
structure to vibrate). The supply of electrical energy is dependent on the wind speed v.
Once three typical values of v (v1, v2, v3, where v1<v2<v3) have been established, the machine will
operate in the following manner: when v<v1, the machine will not start; when v1<v<v2, variable
power is supplied; when v2<v<v3, constant power is supplied, and when v>v3, the machine stops
working to prevent damage. Generally: v1 = 5ms1; v2 =12 ms1; and v3= 2530 ms1. Between v1
and v2, electric energy is not regulated (variable frequency). Theoretically, the transformation
yield (defined as the ratio of energy produced to wind energy) can reach 59% (Betzs criterion),
but it generally ranges from 10 to 40%.
In brief:
Direct or alternating current is generated, at variable frequency or voltage, for
resistive loads (heating) or storage (with transformation into direct current),
from which it is then drawn and transformed into alternating current, if
necessary. The machine operates when v>v1.
Only regulated alternating current is generated. The machine functions only
when v>v2.
Production of unregulated alternating current and energy management with a
controller that supplies resistive-load power when v<v2, or power at any load
when v>v2.
When the machine is connected to the national grid, speed can be controlled by a generator
excited by the grid itself (hence, the machine is forced to rotate at a fixed number of revolutions).
9. Combined Production of Electric and Thermal Energy (Co-generators; CHP)
Users could require electrical and thermal energy at the same time. Consequently, a plant capable
of the simultaneous generation of these two types of energy certainly merits discussion here.
CHPs are based on the recovery of waste heat from an engine (internal or external combustion)
connected to a generator. For example, with generators based on spark-ignition (fed with any
kind of fuel) or diesel engines, 1030% of the fuels energy is transformed into electric energy,
and the remaining portion is dispersed as heat by the exhaust gas (3035%) and engine and
lubricating oil cooling (3040%). Thus, it is possible to recover (using simple exchangers)
thermal power that is 1.22.5 times greater than electrical power (total yield: 7595%).
Positive results can only be obtained with water-cooled engines. When all the exchangers
(operating on the exhaust gas and engine, respectively) are in series, thermal energy, 80 C can
be produced. With exhaust gas alone, steam is produced. Co-generation can also be applied to
Stirling engines and gas turbines.
Steam engines/turbines and ORC turbines unlike all other types of engines, can produce thermal
energy independently from electric energy and this makes the EC generators very flexible as
CHP units. Indeed, in addition to recovering steam from the engines exhaust, desired quantities
of this product can also be drawn directly from the boiler.
Related Chapters
Click Here To View The Related Chapters
Glossary
AC : Alternating current
CHP : Combined heat and power production
DC : Direct current
E : Energy (possible subscripts are defined in the text)
EC : External combustion
HCFC : Ecological thermal fluids
IC : Internal combustion
ORC : Organic Rankine cycle
rpm : Revolutions per minute
We : Watt in terms of electrical energy
Wp : Peak power (photovoltaic collectors)
Wt : Watt in terms of thermal energy
: Efficiency, yield (ratio between energy output and input of a energy plant)
Bibliography

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Biographical Sketch

Giovanni Riva was born in 1952 in Varese (Italy). University (Polytechnic of Milano): 19711976; Ph.D. on
Agricultural Machinery in 1977; Associate Professor of Energy Technologies from 1987 at the University of Milano.
Present position: Full Professor of Mechanics (relevant field: energy) at the University of Ancona (Italy). Secretary-
General of the Italian Thermotechnical Committee and of the Italian Thermotechnical Association; President of the
IV Section of the Italian Association of Agricultural Engineering (Energy and Rural Electrification); Member of the
International Energy Economist Association (IEEA) and of the American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE).
Collaboration with several profit and non-profit organizations. Tasks carried out: design of different energy systems
for rural environment; design and manufacture of dryers operating with simplified water solar collectors and PV
collectors; design and preparation of tractors and generator-sets operating with raw vegetable oil. Collaboration with
UN (FAO) on rural energy. Summary of goals: development and application of two models for the simulation of
energy producing systems; identification of barriers to the spreading of innovative energy technologies; procedures
to check the performance of innovative plants. Collaboration, as expert, with the EU in the framework of different
projects on the dissemination of renewable energies (China and India). Tasks carried out: delivery of two tractors
and one generator set working with raw and esterified vegetable oils; assistance to local institutions for the control of
engine exhausts; visit to local mechanical industries for power production. The main fields of research are related to:
mechanics; efficient use of conventional and renewable sources of energy. Specific topics are: data collection in
different environments (also design and manufacture of instruments data logger included and probes); study,
design and set-up of cogeneration plants up to 12 MW.

To cite this chapter

Giovanni Riva, (2004), AGRICULTURE AND AUTONOMOUS POWER SUPPLY, in Agricultural
Mechanization & Automation, [Eds. Patrick M. Grace, and Paul McNulty], in Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems
(EOLSS), Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford ,UK, [http://www.eolss.net]
[Retrieved August 31, 2007]