TRANSFORMERS

General Information

A transformer is an electric device which transfers electrical energy from one circuit to
another by magnetic coupling and without requiring relative motion between its components.
Usually comprises two or more windings around a common coil. Because the magnetic flux
created by one winding (primary winding) is common to other windings (secondary
windings), the windings, the coils, are magnetically coupled. The inductance between coils is
the mutual inductance.

The operation of the transformer may be explained with the principle of the
electromagnetic induction:

d
e
dt

(1)

demonstrated in 1831 by Michael Faraday which built, in a simplified manner, the first
transformer.

The principle of transformer operation may be explained by consideration of a simple

version, given in figure 1, consisting of a primary and a secondary winding and a core of iron, in
order to have a small value of the resistance of the magnetic flux circulation, a small
reluctance. The primary current generates the magnetic flux and drives it around the magnetic
(iron) core, figure 1.

Figure 1. An ideal step-down transformer showing magnetic flux in the core

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 In accord to the electromagnetic induction principle, the variable flux () through the
core will generate voltages in the secondary windings. In this mode it is easy to explain the
operation of the transformer only in AC.
The transformer circuit is given in figure 2, being valid the simplified transformer
equations:
V P N P IS
= =
V S N S IP

(2)

where (VP,VS) are the r.m.s value of the primary and secondary voltages, (I S, IP) the r.m.s. values
of the secondary and primary currents and (NP,NS) wire numbers.

Figure 2. The ideal transformer as a circuit element

The transformer construction may be in core-type or in shell-type versions, figure 3.

Figure 3. Basic constructions of the small-power transformers

The transformer cores are made of high permeability silicon steel sheets (plates) in order
to concentrate the magnetic flux. Usual are E-shaped, C-shaped, L-shaped or others, figure 4.

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Figure 4. Various shapes of the laminated iron sheets

In order to avoid the air-distances between iron plates, these are mounted like in figure 5.

Figure 5. Laminated core

Transformer energy losses

When a transformer transfers power, this is done with real losses, arising in either
windings or core.
The power loss is given by the electric resistance of wire windings. The power is
dissipated in the form of heat through the resistance of current carrying conductors. (W=Ri 2).
Usually, these are the significant factors in transformer losses.

Another component of the transformer losses is the power loss due to the magnetic
effects in the core. The most significant of these core losses is eddy-current loss, which is a
resistive power dissipation given by the passage of induced currents through the iron of the core.

The ability of a substance to carry a magnetic field is called permeability, specific for
each material. A magnetic core has a maximum magnetic flux they can handle without saturation.

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 When a coil is placed close to a
conductive material, figure 6, an
alternating current through the coil,
generated an alternative field, figure 6b. in
accord to the Faradays law, in the
conductive material are generated eddy-
currents which interact with the initial
magnetic field of the coil. These eddy-
current will heat the conductive material,
in our case, the transformer core.

The transformer coil is made of

steel, a very good current conducting
material. Being placed in variable
magnetic flux (), the voltage induced in
coil generated currents, figure 6.

In order to reduce the eddy-

currents - and as consequence, the coil
heating - is the use of thin laminated steel
plates, figure 7. In order to avoid the
possibility to develop eddy-current
between plates, each of them are insulated.

Figure 6. Explanation of the eddy-current arising

Figure 7. Using steel laminated plates instead of a massive core: a) a massive core, high eddy
current; b) laminated core, small eddy currents

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i1

For the frequency lower than 200-300 Hz, the usual thickness is about 0.35 mm. For
higher frequency (400-500 Hz) are used thinner lamination plates to keep the losses to a desired
minimum.
i2 For higher frequency, in order to minimize eddy current losses, the core is based on iron
powder. The iron fine granules are individually coated in an electrically insulating material,
which makes the core nonconductive, except for within the width of each granule. Powdered iron
core are often found in transformers handling radio-frequency currents.
The iron powder is mixed with oxides of metals and pressed in various forms and then
W2
sintered (fired) in a kiln. The quality of the ferrite is heavily affected by the sintering process.
W1
Ferrite shrinks when sintered. Since the ferrites have very small eddy current loss, they can be
used as transformer core at higher frequencies, up to 500 Hz. The maximum permissible flux
density is smaller, about (0.3 T).V2

The transformer core is made of silicon-steel laminated materials. Cold rolled grain
oriented Silicon Core is a+ferromagnetic material, very sensitive to magnetism and the core starts
behaving like a magnet. The
V1 magnetism is associated with domains. These domains are arranged
in magnetic material in a random manner so that the resultant magnetic field of that material is
zero. Whenever a magnetic _ external field is applied, these initially randomly oriented domains
get aligned toward external field direction. When external field is removed, a number of domains
come back to their random positions but till some domains still remain unchanged. To bring back
these domains to their random position, some external opposite field must be applied. In the case
of transformer core, the external magnetic flux is alternating in nature; a loss is associated with
each half- wave. This kind of loss is known as hysteresis losses.

Dot Convention of the transformer

Figure 8. Transformer simplified circuit

Using the transformer equivalent circuit, figure 8, with (V 1) as primary voltage and (V2) the
secondary voltage, if at the dotted end of the primary winding the voltage (V 1) has a positive
instantaneous value with respect to the un-dotted end, then the voltage at the dotted end of the
secondary winding is also positive with respect to the un-dotted end, figure 8. Also, if the
primary current flows into dotted end of the primary winding, current flows out of the dotted end
of the secondary winding. Referring to the AC, current (I 1) entering the dot of the primary
winding is in phase with current (I2) exiting the dot.

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