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Manuscript Number: WM-15-1265R1

Title: Faecal sludge - a solid industrial fuel

Article Type: Full Length Article

Keywords: resource recovery; sanitation; waste-to-energy; co-combustion;

heavy metals

Corresponding Author: Mr. Moritz Gold,

Corresponding Author's Institution: Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of

Aquatic Science and Technology

First Author: Moritz Gold

Order of Authors: Moritz Gold; Daniel Isaac Waya Ddiba; Alsane Seck;
Patrick Sekigongo; Alassane Diene; Serigne Diaw; Seydou Niang; Charles
Niwagaba; Linda Strande

Abstract: In low-income countries, lack of financial resources frequently

results in inadequate management of faecal sludge (FS) that accumulates
in onsite sanitation technologies such as pit latrines or septic tanks.
Revenues from FS treatment endproducts could help offset treatment costs,
but currently there is only very limited use as soil conditioner. In
urban Sub-Saharan Africa, energy-producing resource recovery options such
as use as a solid fuel and biogas have a greater potential to generate
revenue. However, in contrast to wastewater sludge, the technical
feasibility of using dried FS as solid fuel in industries has not been
investigated. In this study, this was evaluated through proximate and
ultimate analyses, and by assessing performance in two different
industrial pilot-scale kilns in Kampala, Uganda, and Dakar, Senegal.
Results of this study demonstrate that knowledge from combustion of
wastewater sludge in industries is transferable to FS, and dried FS can
be as effective as coffee husks and charcoal in providing energy for
industries. In Kampala, maximum temperatures within a kiln fueled by FS
were 850 C, which is sufficient for curing of clay bricks. In Dakar,
maximum temperatures were 437 C, which is sufficient for waste oil
regeneration. Proximate and ultimate analysis demonstrated that dried FS
has a comparable ash content to wastewater sludge of 27.5-42.0%, and 36-
85% less heavy metals concentration than those reported for wastewater
sludge. In Kampala and Dakar, an estimated 20,000 tons of FS (TS/year)
accumulate in onsite sanitation technologies. Tapping the industrial fuel
market and financial benefits could be realized through optimization of
onsite sanitation and FS treatment technologies.
*Detailed Response to Reviewers

Dear Editor,
Dear Reviewers,

Thank you very much for considering our manuscript for publication. The authors are very grateful for your
thorough review. Your comments were very helpful to us in order to improve the quality of the manuscript.

Please see how we addressed your comments below. Any further assistance on improving the manuscript
is much appreciated.

Kind regards,

Moritz Gold

Reviewer Comment Author Revised Text

Experiments showed that faecal sludge
might be combusted in these incinerators,
but one important aspect is omitted.
In line 232 and subsequent lines authors
mention possible emissions of dioxins,
furans and acid gases, but they minimize
that issue. It should be pointed out that
temperature in the tested installation is
considerably low (too low to destroy dioxins
and furans). Although waste contains low
concentration of chlorine and heavy
metals, Cu and Zn are well known as
dioxin formation catalysts, so the problem
of dioxin emission cannot be minimized. It
was not the main objective of the research,
but it should be at least mentioned in the
discussion and conclusions.
I would recommend adding more warning
about possible emission, in particular with
respect to sludge composition.
Please, use the term "transportation"
instead of "transport". Check also along the
manuscript.
The authors have written "The objective of
this study was to assess the potential of
using dried FS as solid industrial fuel
through proximate and ultimate analysis of
dried FS from unplanted drying beds and
subsequent combustion in two different
pilot-scale industrial kiln applications.". This
sentence is very confusing. The objective
of the study is not clear. Please, re-write.
The authors have written "This research
was conducted over a period of ten months
in Senegal in Dakar and This, and in
Kampala, Uganda." (lines 68-69). The
phrase is confusing. Please, re-write.
The authors have written (line 118)
"Experiments were started by igniting 150
ml of organic solvent.". Please, indicate
what organic solvent was used.
The authors have written "FS was analyzed
Response
Information Temperatures in the pilot-scale experiments
added. were < 600 C, the temperature above
Line which dioxins and furans are completed
251-255 destroyed (Werther and Ogada, 1999). This
means that dioxins and furans could be
emitted, in particular considering that copper
and zinc, catalysts for their formation, were
present in the FS fuel (Werther and Ogada,
1999). Therefore, use of a dried FS fuel
should kept to large-scale applications
which can effectively control emissions.
Corrected Changed to transportation in the entire
Line 35, 49, document.
304 and 317
Re-written The objective of this study was to assess
Line 68-70 the suitability of dried FS from unplanted
drying beds as solid industrial fuel based on
the performance in two different pilot-scale
industrial kiln applications and fuel
characterization.
Re-written This research was conducted over a period
Line 73-74 of ten months in Dakar and This, Senegal,
and in Kampala, Uganda.
Corrected The organic solvents used to ignite each
Line 123, experiment was mostly comprised of
212, 213 acetone.
and 216.
Corrected TVS results are not reported in the
for TS, total volatile solids (TVS), chemical
oxygen demand (COD), calorific value,
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),
electric conductivity (EC), salinity, pH,
temperature and helminth eggs.". I think
that the authors have forgotten to indicate
the parameter "ashes".
Why did you measure the parameter
helminth eggs?
The authors have written "As shown in
Table 1, FS in Dakar and Kampala
contains significant amounts of helminth
eggs which can pose a health risk when
handling FS fuel (WHO, 2006).". Faecal
sludges are very well studied. Namely, in
what concerns their biological risks. Faecal
sludges are composed by bacteria, virus,
protozoaries, and several others biological
organisms, which represents a serious
health issue. Therefore, the handling of
faecal sludges must follow very rigorous
procedures.
The authors have written "The application
of organic solvent led to a spike in the
temperature profile within the first five
minutes of each experiment." (lines 201-
202). Normally, the evaluation of the
combustion characteristics only starts after
steady-state, i.e., when the conditions
(temperature, for example) stabilize.
line 235: please remove "HCL" and write
"HCl".
The paragraph starting in line 293 and
ending in line 305 should be transferred to
the Introduction section.
Line manuscript. Therefore, the sentence was
148-149 changed as follows:
Line 151- FS was analyzed for TS, ash, chemical
152 oxygen demand (COD), calorific value,
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), electric
conductivity (EC), salinity, pH, temperature
and helminth eggs.
Ash content was determined as the
remaining following determination of Total
Volatile Solids (TVS) in a furnace at 550C.
Explanation Helminth eggs were measured in order to
provided assess whether dried FS is safe for
Line handling.
188-195 Based on the reviewers comments, the
included helminth eggs results of dried FS.
These highlight that FS treatment on drying
beds reduces the helminth egg
concentration but not sufficient for safe
handling of the pellets without protection
(see comment below).
Information In Dakar and Kampala, the dried FS
added collected from drying beds for pilot-scale
Line experiments had helminth egg
188-195 concentrations of 197 eggs/g TS (SD: 247
eggs/g TS) and 75 (SD: 96 eggs/g TS)
respectively, comparable to those observed
by Seck et al. (2015) of 69 Ascaris eggs/g
TS. These results mean that treatment on
drying beds reduce helminth egg
concentrations compared to untreated FS
but highlights the need to provide adequate
protection for kiln and treatment operators.
However, a benefit of using dried FS as an
industrial fuel, in comparison to enduse of
FS as soil conditioner in agriculture, is that
pathogen transmission pathways are greatly
reduced, and that combustion leads to the
complete inactivation of pathogens.
Corrected. Based on the reviewers comment, the
Line authors excluded the first five minutes of the
213-215 pilot-scale experiments in Dakar from the
analysis (and Figure 3( as they cannot be
considered as stable conditions.
The application of acetone led to a spike in
the temperature profile within the first five
minutes of each experiment. Therefore,
these results were excluded from the
analysis (see Figure 3).
Corrected HCl
Line 248
Corrected The sentences about the use of wastewater
Line 54-58 sludge in coal power plants (in Germany)
Line 313- and cement companies (in Switzerland)
314 Was transferred to the introduction section.
The remaining paragraph references the
total solids concentration results from this

Table 1: What is the meaning of the value
after the average concentration?
Table 1: What is the meaning of the
parameter "dryness"?
Table 1: the unit of COD is "gO2/L
Table 1: the unit of BOD is "gO2/L
Table 2: What is the meaning of the value
after the average concentration?
Table 3: What is the meaning of the value
after the average concentration?
Table 4: What is the meaning of the value
after the average concentration?
Table 4: The standard deviation of Cr is
very high. Problems on sampling? On
quantification?
study, therefore, it needs to stay in the
results section. This is logical, as the
implementation of faecal sludge as a solid
fuel in industries is discussed after the
results and discussion of faecal sludge fuel
characteristics.
Corrected In Dakar, samples were collected from
Line 79 individual vacuum trucks discharging onto
Table 1, 2, 3 drying beds. In contrast, in Kampala, one
and 4 composite sample was prepared from all
vacuum truck grab samples.
To highlight this, in the section faecal
sludge sampling the word individual was
added for samples collected from vacuum
trucks.
Furthermore, separate columns were
introduced for the mean and standard
deviation (SD).
Re-written Dryness was changed to total solids.
Table 1
Corrected g O2/L
Table 1
Corrected g O2/L
Table 1
Corrected A separate column was introduced for the
Table 2 mean and the standard deviation (SD) in
order to clarify what the meaning of the
value after the average is.
Corrected A separate column was introduced for the
Table 3 mean and the standard deviation (SD) in
order to clarify what the meaning of the
value after the average is.
Corrected A separate column was introduced for the
Table 4 mean and the standard deviation (SD) in
order to clarify what the meaning of the
value after the average is.
Considered Problems on sampling?
In Kampala, FS from 6-12 vacuum trucks
were loaded onto one drying bed. A
composite sample was prepared out of grab
samples from the drying bed.
In Dakar, FS from 9-11 vacuum trucks was
thickened and loaded on one drying bed. A
composite sample was collected from grab
samples collected from one drying bed.
The objective of loading the drying beds with
multiple trucks was to reduce the variability
of FS. However, as highlighted by the
physical-chemical characteristics, a
variability still remains.
We suspect that the variability in Cr
concentrations between the different
samples is due to potential greywater and
commercial wastewater (e.g. workshop)
entering onsite sanitation technologies. In
wastewater, faeces and urine contribute
very little amounts of Cr.

Authors may possibly consider revising the
manuscript title such that it does not pose a
question. There are good findings
presented in this work and authors should
not be afraid to structure the title in line
with those key findings.
Authors are advised to insert a comma
between the citation author and year of
publication in text.
On quantification?
A calibration curve was established with
standards for Cr with the XFR. The deviation
between the standards and the calibration
curve was smaller than 5%. Therefore, it
can be assumed that the XFR produces
precise and accurate results.
Before XRF analysis, the dried FS samples
were processed with a Retch mixer mill. The
mill is manufactured out of stainless steel
and stainless still constitutes of chromium.
This could contaminate the sample.
However, this mixer mill has been used for
many other samples (e.g. wastewater
sludge) and no elevated concentration were
observed. Therefore, this seems to be
negligible.
Corrected The authors like the short title. The question
Line 1 mark was removed and the title changed to
Faecal sludge - a solid industrial fuel.
Corrected A comma was introduced between the
Entire author and data in the entire document.
document
*Revised Manuscript (clean copy)
Click here to view linked References

Faecal sludge - a solid industrial fuel

1 2 3 2
Moritz Gold (corresponding author), Daniel Isaac Waya Ddiba , Alsane Seck , Patrick Sekigongo ,
4 5 6 2 1
Alassane Diene , Serigne Diaw , Seydou Niang , Charles Niwagaba , Linda Strande

1
Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology

Sandec: Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries

Ueberlandstrasse 133, 8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland

moritz.gold@eawag.ch, +41 58 765 50 15

2
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

College of Engineering, Design, Art and Technology

Makerere University

P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda

3
Institute of Environmental Sciences (ISE)

Faculty of Sciences and Technics

Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar

B.P 5005, Dakar-Fann, Senegal

4
Technical University of Thies

B.P 10A, This, Senegal

5
Omega Technologie

167 Mbour 1, This, Senegal

6
Laboratory of Wastewater Treatment, Fundamental Institute of Black Africa (IFAN)

Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar

B.P 206, Dakar-Fann, Senegal

1
1. Introduction
Worldwide, the sanitation needs of 2.7 billion people are met by onsite sanitation technologies such as pit
latrines and septic tanks (Cairns-Smith et al., 2014). This results in the accumulation of large quantities of
faecal sludge (FS), defined as the raw or partially digested, semisolid or slurry resulting from collection,
storage or treatment of combinations of excreta and blackwater, with or without greywater, in onsite
sanitation technologies (Strande, 2014). Faecal sludge management (FSM) includes the safe collection,
transportation, treatment and enduse or disposal of FS, and in this way onsite sanitation technologies can
provide adequate sanitation that is more affordable than centralized sewer-based wastewater treatment
systems (Dodane et al., 2012). However, due to a lack of financial resources, in low-income countries,
FSM services are still frequently not in place or sustained (Bassan et al., 2014; Murray and Drechsel,
2011). Hence, large amounts of FS are discharged untreated into the urban environment or adjacent
water bodies, jeopardizing public and environmental health (Peal et al., 2014).

In low-income countries there is a market for FS treatment endproducts, including solid fuels, biogas, soil
conditioner, fertilizer or compost, protein and electricity (Diener et al., 2014; Gold et al., 2014; Kegne et al.,
2014; Tilley et al., 2014). However, most of these markets remain untapped, with only limited use of
treated FS as soil conditioner in horticulture and agriculture. In Sub-Saharan Africa, energy producing
options such as solid fuel for combustion or biogas have a higher revenue potential, and could be used by
industries that have large and consistent fuel demands such as cement or coal-power plants (Diener et al.,
2014). For example, in Kampala, Uganda, treated FS sells for 10 USD/ton as a soil conditioner, whereas
coffee husks and sawdust sell for up to 150 USD/ton as a solid fuel (Diener et al., 2014; Musisi, 2002). FS
also has the advantage that its vicinity to the urban market reduces transportation costs. Therefore,
depending on local market demands, the use of dried FS as a solid industrial fuel has the potential to
generate significantly higher revenues than its use as soil conditioner, which could offset FS treatment
costs.

In Europe, the US, China and Japan, wastewater treatment sludge is used as solid fuel in cement
industries and coal power plants (Spinosa, 2011; Werther and Ogada, 1999). For example, in Germany,
power plants substitute 3-10% of coal usage with 10,000-100,000 tons of wastewater sludge TS/year
(Richers et al., 2002). In Switzerland, one cement company uses around 15,000 tons wastewater sludge
TS/year and in 2012, 27% of wastewater sludge produced in Switzerland was used as fuel in cement
production (Tezcan, 2013). The calorific value of FS is 12.2-19.1 MJ/kg total solids (TS), which is
comparable to wastewater sludge and other biofuels (Muspratt et al., 2014; Seck et al., 2015). However, in
contrast to wastewater sludge, experience with combustion of FS as a fuel is very limited (Luts, 2000;
Niwagaba et al., 2005; Werther and Ogada, 1999). Research is lacking in FS characteristics that influence
combustion and adverse environmental impacts from emissions, such as ash content and composition,
ash fusion temperature, and heavy metal, sulfur and chlorine concentrations (Obernberger et al., 2006;
Trezza and Scian, 2005; WBCSD, 2014). FS is also highly variable, with solid, organic and nutrient
concentrations ranging from one to two orders of magnitude greater than wastewater sludge (Niwagaba et
2
al., 2014). This suggest that experience with the combustion of wastewater sludge is not directly
transferable to FS.

The objective of this study was to assess the suitability of dried FS from unplanted drying beds as solid
industrial fuel based on the performance in two different pilot-scale industrial kiln applications and fuel
characterization.

2. Materials and methods

Study context

This research was conducted over a period of ten months in Dakar and This, Senegal, and in Kampala,
Uganda. In Dakar, FS was dried at the Cambrne Wastewater and Faecal Sludge Treatment Plant
(FSTP) for use in the pilot-scale kiln located at This Polytechnic Institute (Seck et al., 2015). In Kampala,
FS was dried at Bugolobi Wastewater Treatment Plant, where the pilot-scale kiln was also located. Dried
FS was analyzed for ultimate analysis at Eawag in Duebendorf, Switzerland.

Faecal sludge sampling

In Dakar, FS samples were collected from: individual vacuum trucks discharging into settling-thickening
tanks; a mixing tank; from the surface of drying beds; and dried FS following removal from beds. To obtain
representative samples, from the vacuum truck discharge, four one liter grab samples were collected once
at the beginning, twice in the middle and once at the end. From the mixing tank a sample was collected
following 20 minutes of mechanical mixing. From the drying bed surface, they were divided into four
sections, and grab samples were collected from the center of each section. For the dried FS, grab
samples were collected from the entire sludge volume removed from beds.

In Kampala, FS samples were collected from: vacuum trucks discharging onto drying beds; from the
surface of drying beds; and dried FS following removal from beds. Samples from vacuum trucks and the
dried sludge were collected in the same way as in Dakar. For the drying bed samples, the beds were
divided into nine equal sections, and then grab samples were collected from the center of the eight
accessible sections. Field duplicates were collected from the surface of drying beds and the dried sludge
in order to determine sampling accuracy. One composite sample was prepared from grab samples and all
collected samples were kept on ice and transported to the laboratory the same day for analysis.

For comparison of FS characteristics, one grab sample of faeces was also collected from a source
separation toilet in Nairobi, Kenya.

Loading patterns of drying beds

3
FS drying reduces the FS moisture content and may change other FS characteristics relevant for
combustion such as the ash content (Seck et al., 2015). Therefore, next to proximate and ultimate
analysis and pilot-scale kiln experiments, monitoring of FS fuel production was included in this study.

In Dakar, FS was dried in four repetitions. In each repetition, FS from nine to ten vacuum trucks was
discharged through a bar screen into the settling-thickening tank for thickening between two and six days.
Following thickening, the sludge was pumped into a mixing tank for homogenization and sample collection
before loading onto the drying beds. In repetitions one and two, the sludge was dried to 90%TS and
removed as sludge cakes that were three to five centimeters thick. In repetitions three and four, the sludge
was dried to 60%TS and mechanically processed into FS briquettes and pellets before drying to 90%TS.
On average, the hydraulic loading rate was 33 cm, which is in reason with the 30 cm recommended by
Heinss et al. (1998). Based on the actual time it took to achieve 90%TS, the solid loading rates were 316,
2
205, 214 and 207 kg TS/m *year and sludge was mixed on the drying beds once a day (Seck et al., 2015).

2
In Kampala, FS was dried in parallel on four full-scale drying beds with drying areas between 130-195 m .
On each drying bed, FS from six to 21 vacuum trucks was discharged through a bar screen. One drying
bed was loaded with FS collected from septic tanks, one with FS collected from lined pit latrines, and two
with a mix of FS collected from septic tanks and lined pit latrines. FS drying was hindered by poor
drainage due to clogged sand filter layers and rainfall within the study period. Therefore, solid loading
rates based on the actual drying times are misleading. On average, the hydraulic loading rate was 52 cm.
3 3 3
Drying beds were loaded with 62 m septic tank FS, 96 m lined pit latrine FS, and 103 and 77 m mixed
FS. Prior to pilot-scale kiln experiments, the 90%TS FS was milled into a fine powder.

Design and operation of pilot-scale kilns

The pilot-scale kilns are depicted in Figure 1a and 1b. They were designed and operated to replicate brick
curing at Ugandan Clays in Kampala, and waste oil regeneration at Socit Sngalaise de Rgnration
des Huiles Minrales (SRH) in Dakar.

In Dakar, the kiln was loaded with five kilograms of dried FS for each repetition, which lasted one hour. In
different experiments, combustion of FS cakes, pellets and briquettes were compared to charcoal as a
control. Based on preliminary experiments, ventilation of the combustion chamber was set to 7 to 16 m/s.
Experiments were started by igniting 150 ml of acetone. Flow of waste oil from the top collection container
through the heating coil into the bottom collection container was controlled with a valve based on the
temperature in the combustion chamber. Experiments with FS cakes, pellets and charcoal were done in
triplicate and FS briquettes in duplicates.

In Kampala, the kiln was loaded with between 340 and 460 unfired clay bricks that were obtained from
Uganda Clays. In accordance with the operation at Ugandan Clays, the kiln was pre-heated with firewood
for a duration of 2.3 to 5.3 hours to remove any remaining moisture in the bricks. After pre-heating, the kiln
was fed with dried FS through holes located at the top of the kill, for a duration of 2.3 to 2.5 hours.
4
Between 70 and 160 kg of dried FS were used for each experiment. Experiments with dried FS were
replicated four times, and compared to firing with coffee husks as a control as they are currently used by
Ugandan Clays. In these two experiments, the kiln was pre-heated for 4 and 4.5 hours with firewood and
fed with 140 and 180 kg of crushed coffee husks for 3 and 3.2 hours respectively.

Monitoring of kiln operation

In this study, kiln temperatures and quality of the industrial endproducts (i.e. bricks and waste oil) were
used as metrics to assess the performance of FS as a solid industrial fuel. Coffee husks in Kampala and
charcoal in Dakar were used for comparison as controls. In Dakar, temperatures in the combustion
chamber (temperature probe 1 and 2) and the waste oil (temperature probe 3) were recorded every 30
seconds as shown in Figure 1. In Kampala, temperatures in the kiln were measured every 30 seconds at
three points (temperature probe 1, 2, 3) as shown in Figure 1. In Kampala, temperature measurements
were hindered during fuel loading when dust particles came in contact with the thermocouple wire. This
resulted in abrupt temperature drops and low temperature during pre-heating and firing (<50 C) being
erroneously recorded. Based on consultation with the thermocouple manufacturer, these measurements
were not used for analyses. The fired bricks were removed from the kiln following cooling to ambient
temperature.

Analyses

FS was analyzed for TS, ash, chemical oxygen demand (COD), calorific value, biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD), electric conductivity (EC), salinity, pH, temperature and helminth eggs. Analyses of solids
was based on Standard Methods (APHA et al., 2005). TS was measured gravimetrically by drying in an
oven at 105 C. Ash content was determined as the remaining following determination of Total Volatile
Solids (TVS) in a furnace at 550C. BOD was determined by incubating samples at 20 C for five days.
COD was determined with Hach kits based on manufacturers directions. In Dakar, a Hach DRB200
heating block and DR4000v spectrophotometer and in Kampala a Hach COD Reactor 45600 heating
block and a Helios Aquamate NRTL/C spectrophotometer were used. Calorific value was determined
according to manufacturers specifications on dry FS samples after TS analysis. In Dakar, a Parr
Instrument calorimeter 1341EE and in Kampala a Gallenkamp Auto-Bomb were used. Helminth eggs were
enumerated according to Bailenger (1979) in Dakar and Moodley et al. (2008) in Kampala. In Dakar, EC,
salinity, pH and temperature were measured according to manufacturers directions with a WTW MultiLine
P4 and a Hanna HI 9124.

Ultimate analysis was conducted by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) with a Spectro Xepos according to
manufacturers directions. For ultimate analysis, FS samples were pulverized with a Retch mixer mill and
pressed into 32 mm pellets. Carbon, nitrogen and sulfur were analyzed at Eawag and at Zurich University
of Applied Sciences (ZHAW) in Waedenswil, Switzerland. At ZHAW, analyses were done in duplicate.

5
In Kampala, compressive strength of bricks was determined with an Avery Denison Universal
Compressive Testing Machine according to Standard Methods (BSI, 1983). Brick color was determined
qualitatively by comparison to bricks produced by Ugandan Clay.

3. Results and discussion

Faecal sludge characteristics

The physical and bio-chemical characteristics of FS that was loaded onto drying beds for drying for
pilot-scale kiln experiments are presented in Table 1, illustrating the high variability of FS. In both Dakar
and Kampala, FS was comprised of over 95% water and had a high ash content (42.4 and 27.5%
respectively). Industries commonly require fuels with less than 10% water, therefore, dewatering and
drying are most important treatment goals for the production of dried FS fuel (Seck et al., 2015). The
values are similar to others reported for Dakar and Kampala, for example 0.5-0.9%TS and 30-45% ash for
un-thickened FS and 5.1%TS and 59.4% ash for thickened FS in Dakar, and 2.2%TS and 45.0% ash for
septic tank FS and 3.0-4.0%TS and 35-45% ash for pit latrine FS in Kampala (Fichtner Water &
Transportation, 2008; Gold et al., Submitted; Seck et al., 2015; Sonko et al., 2014; Vonwiller, 2007).

As shown in Table 1, FS in Dakar and Kampala contains significant amounts of helminth eggs which can
pose a health risk when handling FS fuel (WHO, 2006). The values are also comparable to those reported
by other studies for Dakar of 1,138 eggs/g TS and Kampala of 182-1000 eggs/g TS (Fichtner Water &
Transportation, 2008; Seck et al., 2015).

Faecal sludge drying

In Dakar it took 16-22 days to dry FS from 4.9%TS to 90%TS, which is comparable to the 11-24 days
observed by Seck et al. (2015). In Kampala, dryness of 90%TS could not be achieved on drying beds, due
to frequent rainfall, clogging of the filter layer, and higher hydraulic loading rates. FS was removed from
beds after 59-96 days with a dryness of 69-80%TS, and dried to 90%TS in covered storage.

In Dakar and Kampala, the dried FS collected from drying beds for pilot-scale experiments had helminth
egg concentrations of 197 eggs/g TS (SD: 247 eggs/g TS) and 75 (SD: 96 eggs/g TS) respectively,
comparable to those observed by Seck et al. (2015) of 69 Ascaris eggs/g TS. These results mean that
treatment on drying beds reduce helminth egg concentrations compared to untreated FS but highlights the
need to provide adequate protection for kiln and treatment operators. However, a benefit of using dried FS
as an industrial fuel, in comparison to enduse of FS as soil conditioner in agriculture, is that pathogen
transmission pathways are greatly reduced, and that combustion leads to the complete inactivation of
pathogens.

Pilot-scale kiln experiments

6
In Kampala, pilot-scale kiln experiments were designed to replicate industrial curing of bricks at 800 C for
one hour (Gita, personal communication), temperature profiles are shown in Figure 2. Kiln temperatures
were highly variable within the kiln (Figure 2a) and between repetitions (Figure 2b). As shown in Figure
2a, in general, temperatures and variability were highest in the middle of the kiln within the combustion
zone, and lowest at the bottom of the kiln next to the chimney. Average temperatures over all four
repetitions were 524 C with maximum temperatures of 850 C. The achieved temperatures were
comparable to those obtained during the two repetitions with coffee husks of 421 and 552 C, with
maximum temperatures of 850 C.

The compressive strength of bricks that were cured with combustion of FS was 8.3 2.4 MPa, and those
cured with coffee husks were 5.9 and 8.4 MPa, which was comparable to the compressive strength of
commercial products obtained from Ugandan Clays of 6.2 and 7.9 MPa. In addition, except for one
repetition, 80% of the bricks had a similar color in comparison to the commercial products.

In Dakar, pilot-scale kiln experiments were designed to replicate an industrial waste oil regeneration
process. This requires heating the oil to 360 C to remove water vapor and volatile compounds.
Temperature profiles of the pilot-scale kiln are shown in Figure 3. As shown in Figure 3a, repetitions with
the same fuel type were replicable. However, the position of the thermocouples and the acetone that was
used to start combustion influenced the temperature profile. The application of acetone led to a spike in
the temperature profile within the first five minutes of each experiment. Therefore, these results were
excluded from the analysis (see Figure 3). In 50% of the experiments that were conducted with FS,
additional acetone was required during operation for continued combustion. Figure 3b shows the average
temperature within the kiln over all repetitions. For each repetition, the average temperature of the two
thermocouples was used as a proxy for the average temperature in the kiln. The highest achieved
temperatures were obtained with FS cakes of 437 C compared to 315 C for FS pellets, 280C for FS
briquettes, and 262 C for charcoal. As illustrated in Figure 3b, FS briquettes and pellets performed
comparable to charcoal with reasonably stable temperatures around 250 C. However, the achieved kiln
temperatures were not adequate to remove water and volatile compounds from the waste oil, as the
maximum waste oil temperature was 248 C. This could likely be resolved through increase in fuel
quantity and optimization of the kiln design. Qualitative observation of odor from FS combustion was
negligible in both Kampala and Dakar.

The performance of both pilot-scale kilns with FS fuel demonstrate that temperatures suitable for brick
curing and waste oil regeneration can be achieved when using dried FS. Further, temperature
performance with dried FS fuel was comparable to coffee husks and charcoal, and compressive strength
results verified the quality of the cured bricks. These results indicate that dried FS could be used as an
industrial fuel at Ugandan Clays, with further optimization at SRH, and dried FS also has the potential to
fuel other industrial applications.

Faecal sludge fuel characteristics

7
In addition to demonstrating the feasibility of FS as a fuel with pilot-scale kilns, a comprehensive
characterization of parameters relevant for combustion was conducted through proximate and ultimate
analyses of the dried FS from this study, as presented in Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4. Fixed carbon and
oxygen could not be analyzed in this study.

The composition of dried FS in this study was comparable to values reported in the literature for
wastewater sludge. The average calorific value of FS was 10.9 MJ/kg TS in Kampala and 13.4
MJ/kg TS in Dakar compared to 13.1-14.4 MJ/kg TS for wastewater sludge. The ash content was 59%TS
in Kampala and 47%TS in Dakar compared to 39.5-57%TS for wastewater sludge. In contrast, faeces and
excreta have an ash content of 8 and 21%TS respectively (DWA, 2008; Schouw et al., 2002). High
concentrations of ash are not desirable, as it does not have a fuel value. Ash from combustion needs to be
disposed of, either in landfills, or some type of resource recovery such as in use building materials (Tyagi
and Lo, 2013).

Concentrations of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and chlorine were also comparable to reported
values for wastewater sludge, which indicates there are various sources of potential pollutants that need
to be controlled during combustion and ash disposal. Potential pollutants formed during combustion of
chlorine, nitrogen and sulfur include dioxins, furans, NOx, N2O, SO2, HCl, HF and CxHy which require post-
combustion control measures in accordance with legal regulations (Roy et al., 2011; Werther and Ogada,
1999). As shown in Table 2, in comparison to coal and recommended guideline values, dried FS has
elevated concentrations of ash, nitrogen, sulfur and chlorine. Temperatures in the pilot-scale experiments
were < 600 C above which dioxins and furans are completed destroyed (Werther and Ogada, 1999). This
means that dioxins and furans might have been emitted in particular considering that catalyst for their
formation such as copper and zinc were present in the FS fuel (Werther and Ogada, 1999). Therefore, use
of a dried FS fuel should kept to large-scale applications which can effectively control emissions. For
example, large-scale industries which already use coal or wastewater sludge and comply with emission
regulations are likely to be able to switch to dried FS without impacts. Instead, as wastewater sludge, FS
is a renewable biomass and if it was used as a substitute for coal, net CO2 emissions could be reduced
(Murray and Price, 2008).

As shown in Table 3, dried FS in this study had comparable concentrations for elements affecting ash
production and ash fusion temperatures as those that have been reported for wastewater sludge. In
contrast to conventional biomass fuels such as woodchips, fouling and slacking of ash can be more of an
operational problem with wastewater sludge due to high ash concentrations and elemental composition
(Obernberger et al., 2006). Ash fusion temperatures of 1142-1361 C (sintering temperature), 1194 C
(softening temperature), 1284 C (hemisphere temperature) and 1361 C (melting temperature) were
reported for FS in Ghana, which was also comparable to wastewater sludge with 1183-1374 C and coal
1157-1253 C (unpublished data, Pivot Works; Weidong et al., 2010). In comparison, ash fusion

8
temperatures of wood chips are 1100-1700 C. These results indicate that for industries already using
wastewater sludge, the use of FS would not increase fouling or slacking.

As shown in Table 4, dried FS analyzed in this study had significantly lower heavy metal concentrations
than those reported for wastewater sludge. The concentrations were also comparable to those reported
for FS in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, of 751-782 ppm zinc, 113-139 ppm copper and 66-77 lead, and
Kumasi, Ghana, of 2.3 ppm arsenic, 0.7 ppm cadmium, 61 ppm copper, 2.4 ppm lead and 34 ppm zinc
(Appiah Effah et al., 2015; Bassan et al., 2013). This means that except for chromium, FS in this study
had 36-85% lower median heavy metal concentration compared to wastewater sludge (Helena Lopes et
al., 2003; Luts, 2000). This is promising, as it facilitates ash disposal and indicates that phosphorus
contained in the ash could be recovered for fertilizer production at lower cost compared to wastewater
sludge (Franz, 2008).

Although the heavy metal concentrations are lower than wastewater sludge, they are still elevated
compared to concentrations found in faeces. The excreta sample from Nairobi contained 0.5 ppm
cadmium, 18 ppm chromium, 29 ppm copper, 7.5 ppm nickel, 3.8 ppm lead and 241 ppm zinc, which is
comparable to other studies in Sweden and Thailand (Schouw et al., 2002; Vinners et al., 2006).
Comparison of the FS heavy metals concentrations to faeces indicates that FS gets contaminated with
heavy metals. These contaminations are likely due to solid waste disposal and discharge of greywater into
onsite sanitation technologies and contamination during FS collection. For example in Dakar, vacuum
trucks used for FS collection are frequently also used to provide collection services for harbors, petrol
stations and industries (Mbgur et al., 2010). By mitigating these heavy metal contaminant sources,
disposal and enduse of ash for use in agriculture could be improved.

Fuel requirements of three cement companies in Switzerland, Uganda and Senegal are included in Table
2 and Table 4 and have a high variability between locations for most parameters. For example, maximum
ash concentrations of 60%TS in Switzerland compared to maximum ash concentrations of 12%TS in
Uganda. Whether dried FS from Kampala and Dakar meets limits for ash, sulfur and phosphorus depends
on the location. In contrast, heavy metal concentrations were below guiding values for cement production.
In general, cement industries only accept fuels with total heavy metal concentrations of
As+Ni+Co+Se+Te+Cr+Pb+Sb+Sn+V <10,000-2,500 ppm, and Cd+Hg+TI <100 ppm (Diaw, personal
communication; Madlool et al., 2011; WBCSD, 2014). These values were on average 594 ppm and 1 ppm
in Kampala, and 549 ppm and 2 ppm in Dakar.

Based on these results it appears that the dried FS composition for combustion is comparable to
wastewater sludge. This suggest that knowledge from combustion of wastewater sludge, e.g. in coal-fired
power plants or cement industries is transferable to FS (Diener et al., 2014; Luts, 2000; Werther and
Ogada, 1999; WBCSD, 2014).

Implications for faecal sludge management

9
Every step in the FSM service chain has an impact on potential fuel characteristics, from the type of onsite
containment, to collection, transportation, and treatment. In order to maximize revenue from combustion of
dried FS in industries, FSM needs to be optimized. Use of FS as an industrial fuel has the potential to
create a significant, year-round demand for FS treatment endproducts. This is a significant benefit,
because increasing the demand for FS treatment endproducts could provide an incentive for reliable
operation of FSTPs, thereby reducing the amount of FS dumped in the environment, and increasing
overall public and environmental health.

Currently, the potential fuel demand of industries outstrips the FS treatment capacity in Dakar and
Kampala. An estimated 2,600 tons FS TS/year are delivered for treatment in Dakar and 2,700 ton FS
TS/year in Kampala (based on the average TS concentration in Table 1 and a FS treatment capacity of
3
400 m /d at Lubigi Wastewater and FSTP) (Seck et al., 2015). In Uganda and Senegal there are cement
companies operating on the same scale as in Germany and Switzerland (see introduction). Applying the
same range of values used in those countries indicates that the demand of industries for FS fuel currently
outstrips the capacity of FSTPs by 4-40 fold in Dakar and Kampala. However, demands of industries could
be met by increasing FS collection, transportation and treatment capacities. For example, in Dakar and
Kampala it is estimated that 20,000 tons FS TS/year accumulate in onsite sanitation technologies (Diener
et al., 2014; Vinners et al., 2006). This indicates how the demand from industry for a fuel could potentially
result in an increased treatment of FS, ultimately increasing public and environmental health.

Fuel characterization in this study identified that high ash, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus concentrations
can be obstacles for uptake of FS by industries. High ash concentrations of FS can be partially explained
by mineralization of organic matter during anaerobic digestion in onsite sanitation and FS treatment
technologies such as settling-thickening tanks. This is undesired for energy recovery as it decreases TVS
and COD, thereby decreasing the calorific value available for combustion (Still and Foxon, 2012;
Tchobanoglous et al., 2013; Zanoni and Mueller, 1982). Additionally, inorganic material (i.e. sand, soil)
from poorly designed onsite sanitation technologies, disposal of inorganic solid waste and adherence of
sand during FS treatment on drying beds all contribute to increased ash content. For example, in this
study, dewatering of FS on drying beds increased ash contents by 24.7% in Kampala and 9% in Dakar,
which was also observed by Seck et al. (2015). Ash concentrations could be reduced by shorter retention
times in onsite sanitation technologies and optimizing FS treatment technologies. For example, grit
chambers and coarse and multiple fine screens in series at the inflow of FSTPs could remove some
inorganic material and solid waste from FS. Technologies other than sand drying beds could be
implemented, such as setting-thickening tanks with use of coagulants, followed by filter press and
solar-drying in greenhouses (Gold et al., Submitted). Optimized treatment could also increase fuel
production, as frequently solids are lost due to poor solid-liquid separation efficiency of settling-thickening
tanks and drying beds (60% and 95% respectively) (Heinss et al., 1998). However, treatments benefits
need to be carefully balanced with increased capital, and operation and maintenance costs. Treatment

10
technologies that are not aligned with local operation and maintenance capacities is frequently a reason
for the failure of FS treatment (Bassan et al., 2014).

4. Conclusions

This research demonstrated that dried FS can be used as an industrial fuel in industries thereby providing
revenues to offset treatment costs and provide an incentive to sustain FS treatment. Key findings include:

Knowledge from combustion of wastewater sludge appears to be transferable to FS;

FS becomes contaminated with heavy metals along the FSM chain, although concentrations are
significantly lower than wastewater sludge;
Dried FS can be as effective in providing energy for industries as coffee husks and charcoal;
FS fuel characteristics require further refinement (e.g. ash content), and quantities need to be
increased through optimization of treatment technologies to meet industrial demand;

Acknowledgements

Funding for this study was provided by the European Union Water Initiative Research Area Network
(EUWI ERA-net) SPLASH program, and the Swiss Development Corporation (SDC), and was conducted
as part of the FaME (Faecal Management Enterprises) project (www.sandec.ch/fame). The authors would
like to thank Simon Amrein (Zurich University of Applied Sciences), Mohammed Babu (National Water &
Sewerage Corporation), Gabriel Gerner (Zurich University of Applied Sciences), Francis Gita (Gita Kilns
Enterprises/Uganda Clays), Timon Kser (Paul Scherrer Institut), William Kabasa (Makerere University),
John Baptist Kirabira (Makerere University), David Kirya (Makerere University), James Miro Maiteki
(National Water & Sewerage Corporation), Fausto Marcigot (Sanergy), Jafari Matovu (Pit Emptier
Association Uganda), Rita Nakazibwe (Makerere University), John Omara (Makerere University), Brian
Sinnet (Eawag), Laura Stupin (Pivot Works), Ashley Muspratt (Pivot Works) and Steven Zziwa (Ugandan
Clays) for their support during this study.

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*Revised Manuscript (With Track Changes)
Click here to view linked References

1 Faecal sludge - a solid industrial fuel?

1 2 3 2
2 Moritz Gold (corresponding author), Daniel Isaac Waya Ddiba , Alsane Seck , Patrick Sekigongo ,
4 5 6 2 1
3 Alassane Diene , Serigne Diaw , Seydou Niang , Charles Niwagaba , Linda Strande

4
1
5 Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology

6 Sandec: Department of Water and Sanitation in Developing Countries

7 Ueberlandstrasse 133, 8600 Duebendorf, Switzerland

8 moritz.gold@eawag.ch, +41 58 765 50 15 Field Code Changed

9
2
10 Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering

11 College of Engineering, Design, Art and Technology

12 Makerere University

13 P.O. Box 7062, Kampala, Uganda

14
3
15 Institute of Environmental Sciences (ISE)

16 Faculty of Sciences and Technics

17 Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar

18 B.P 5005, Dakar-Fann, Senegal

19
4
20 Technical University of Thies

21 B.P 10A, This, Senegal

22
5
23 Omega Technologie

24 167 Mbour 1, This, Senegal

25
6
26 Laboratory of Wastewater Treatment, Fundamental Institute of Black Africa (IFAN)

27 Cheikh Anta Diop University of Dakar

28 B.P 206, Dakar-Fann, Senegal

1
29 Keywords

30 Resource recovery, sanitation, waste-to-energy, co-combustion, heavy metals

31 Abstract

32 In low-income countries, lack of financial resources frequently results in inadequate management of faecal
33 sludge (FS) that accumulates in onsite sanitation technologies such as pit latrines or septic tanks.
34 Revenues from FS treatment endproducts could help offset treatment costs, but currently there is only
35 very limited use as soil conditioner. In urban Sub-Saharan Africa, energy-producing resource recovery
36 options such as use as a solid fuel and biogas have a greater potential to generate revenue. However, in
37 contrast to wastewater sludge, the technical feasibility of using dried FS as solid fuel in industries has not
38 been investigated. In this study, this was evaluated through proximate and ultimate analyses, and by
39 assessing performance in two different industrial pilot-scale kilns in Kampala, Uganda, and Dakar,
40 Senegal. Results of this study demonstrate that knowledge from combustion of wastewater sludge in
41 industries is transferable to FS, and dried FS can be as effective as coffee husks and charcoal in providing
42 energy for industries. In Kampala, maximum temperatures within a kiln fueled by FS were 850 C, which is
43 sufficient for curing of clay bricks. In Dakar, maximum temperatures were 437 C, which is sufficient for
44 waste oil regeneration. Proximate and ultimate analysis demonstrated that dried FS has a comparable ash
45 content to wastewater sludge of 27.5-42.0%, and 36-85% less heavy metals concentration than those
46 reported for wastewater sludge. In Kampala and Dakar, an estimated 20,000 tons of FS (TS/year)
47 accumulate in onsite sanitation technologies. Tapping the industrial fuel market and financial benefits
48 could be realized through optimization of treatment technologies.

2
49 1. Introduction Formatted: Justified, Space After: 0
pt
50 Worldwide, the sanitation needs of 2.7 billion people are met by onsite sanitation technologies such as pit
51 latrines and septic tanks (Cairns-Smith et al., 2014). This results in the accumulation of large quantities of
52 faecal sludge (FS), defined as the raw or partially digested, semisolid or slurry resulting from collection,
53 storage or treatment of combinations of excreta and blackwater, with or without greywater, in onsite
54 sanitation technologies (Strande, 2014). Faecal sludge management (FSM) includes the safe collection,
55 transporttransportation, treatment and enduse or disposal of FS, and in this way onsite sanitation
56 technologies can provide adequate sanitation that is more affordable than centralized sewer-based
57 wastewater treatment systems (Dodane et al., 2012). However, due to a lack of financial resources, in
58 low-income countries, FSM services are still frequently not in place or sustained (Bassan et al., 2014;
59 Murray and Drechsel, 2011). Hence, large amounts of FS are discharged untreated into the urban
60 environment or adjacent water bodies, jeopardizing public and environmental health (Peal et al., 2014).

61 In low-income countries there is a market for FS treatment endproducts, including solid fuels, biogas, soil
62 conditioner, fertilizer or compost, protein and electricity (Diener et al., 2014; Gold et al., 2014; Kegne et al.,
63 2014; Tilley et al., 2014). However, most of these markets remain untapped, with only limited use of
64 treated FS as soil conditioner in horticulture and agriculture. In Sub-Saharan Africa, energy producing
65 options such as solid fuel for combustion or biogas have a higher revenue potential, and could be used by
66 industries that have large and consistent fuel demands such as cement or coal-power plants (Diener et al.,
67 2014). For example, in Kampala, Uganda, treated FS sells for 10 USD/ton as a soil conditioner, whereas
68 coffee husks and sawdust sell for up to 150 USD/ton as a solid fuel (Diener et al., 2014; Musisi, 2002). FS
69 also has the advantage that its vicinity to the urban market reduces transportation costs. Therefore,
70 depending on local market demands, the use of dried FS as a solid industrial fuel has the potential to
71 generate significantly higher revenues than its use as soil conditioner, which could offset FS treatment
72 costs.

73 In Europe, the US, China and Japan, wastewater treatment sludge is used as solid fuel in cement
74 industries and coal power plants (Spinosa, 2011; Werther and Ogada, 1999). For example, in Germany,
75 power plants substitute 3-10% of coal usage with 10,000-100,000 tons of wastewater sludge TS/year
76 (Richers et al., 2002). In Switzerland, one cement company uses around 15,000 tons wastewater sludge
77 TS/year and in 2012, 27% of wastewater sludge produced in Switzerland was used as fuel in cement
78 production (Tezcan, 2013). The calorific value of FS is 12.2-19.1 MJ/kg total solids (TS), which is
79 comparable to wastewater sludge and other biofuels (Muspratt et al., 2014; Seck et al., 2015). However, in
80 contrast to wastewater sludge, experience with combustion of FS as a fuel is very limited (Luts, 2000; Field Code Changed

81 Niwagaba et al., 2005; Werther and Ogada, 1999). Research is lacking in FS characteristics that influence
82 combustion and adverse environmental impacts from emissions, such as ash content and composition,
83 ash fusion temperature, and heavy metal, sulfur and chlorine concentrations (Obernberger et al., 2006; Field Code Changed

84 Trezza and Scian, 2005; WBCSD, 2014). FS is also highly variable, with solid, organic and nutrient
85 concentrations ranging from one to two orders of magnitude greater than wastewater sludge (Niwagaba et
3
 86 al., 2014). This suggest that experience with the combustion of wastewater sludge is not directly
87 transferable to FS.

88 The calorific value of FS is 12.2-19.1 MJ/kg total solids (TS), which is comparable to wastewater sludge
89 and other biofuels (Muspratt et al., 2014; Seck et al., 2015). However, in contrast to wastewater sludge,
90 experience with combustion of FS as a fuel is very limited (Luts, 2000; Niwagaba et al., 2005; Werther and Field Code Changed
91 Ogada, 1999). Research is lacking in FS characteristics that influence combustion and adverse
92 environmental impacts from emissions, such as ash content and composition, ash fusion temperature, and
93 heavy metal, sulfur and chlorine concentrations (Obernberger et al., 2006; Trezza and Scian, 2005; Field Code Changed

94 WBCSD, 2014). FS is also highly variable, with solid, organic and nutrient concentrations ranging from
95 one to two orders of magnitude greater than wastewater sludge (Niwagaba et al., 2014). This suggest that
96 experience with the combustion of wastewater sludge is not directly transferable to FS.

97 The objective of this study was to assess the potential suitability of using dried FS from unplanted drying
98 beds as solid industrial fuel based on the performance in two different pilot-scale industrial kiln
99 applications and fuel characterization.

100 through proximate and ultimate analysis of dried FS from unplanted drying beds and subsequent
101 combustion in two different pilot-scale industrial kiln applications.

102 2. Materials and methods Formatted: Justified

103 Study context

104 This research was conducted over a period of ten months in Dakar and This, Senegal, in Dakar and
105 This, and in Kampala, Uganda. In Dakar, FS was dried at the Cambrne Wastewater and Faecal
106 Sludge Treatment Plant (FSTP) for use in the pilot-scale kiln located at This Polytechnic Institute (Seck
107 et al., 2015). In Kampala, FS was dried at Bugolobi Wastewater Treatment Plant, where the pilot-scale kiln
108 was also located. Dried FS was analyzed for ultimate analysis at Eawag in Duebendorf, Switzerland.

109 Faecal sludge sampling

110 In Dakar, FS samples were collected from: individual vacuum trucks discharging into settling-thickening
111 tanks; a mixing tank; from the surface of drying beds; and dried FS following removal from beds. To obtain
112 representative samples, from the vacuum truck discharge, four one liter grab samples were collected once
113 at the beginning, twice in the middle and once at the end. From the mixing tank a sample was collected
114 following 20 minutes of mechanical mixing. From the drying bed surface, they were divided into four
115 sections, and grab samples were collected from the center of each section. For the dried FS, grab
116 samples were collected from the entire sludge volume removed from beds.

117 In Kampala, FS samples were collected from: vacuum trucks discharging onto drying beds; from the
118 surface of drying beds; and dried FS following removal from beds. Samples from vacuum trucks and the
4
119 dried sludge were collected in the same way as in Dakar. For the drying bed samples, the beds were
120 divided into nine equal sections, and then grab samples were collected from the center of the eight
121 accessible sections. Field duplicates were collected from the surface of drying beds and the dried sludge
122 in order to determine sampling accuracy. One composite sample was prepared from grab samples and all
123 collected samples were kept on ice and transported to the laboratory the same day for analysis.

124 For comparison of FS characteristics, one grab sample of faeces was also collected from a source
125 separation toilet in Nairobi, Kenya.

126 Loading patterns of drying beds

127 FS drying reduces the FS moisture content and may change other FS characteristics relevant for
128 combustion such as the ash content (Seck et al., 2015). Therefore, next to proximate and ultimate
129 analysis and pilot-scale kiln experiments, monitoring of FS fuel production was included in this study.

130 In Dakar, FS was dried in four repetitions. In each repetition, FS from nine to ten vacuum trucks was
131 discharged through a bar screen into the settling-thickening tank for thickening between two and six days.
132 Following thickening, the sludge was pumped into a mixing tank for homogenization and sample collection
133 before loading onto the drying beds. In repetitions one and two, the sludge was dried to 90%TS and
134 removed as sludge cakes that were three to five centimeters thick. In repetitions three and four, the sludge
135 was dried to 60%TS and mechanically processed into FS briquettes and pellets before drying to 90%TS.
136 On average, the hydraulic loading rate was 33 cm, which is in reason with the 30 cm recommended by
137 Heinss et al. (1998). Based on the actual time it took to achieve 90%TS, the solid loading rates were 316,
2
138 205, 214 and 207 kg TS/m *year and sludge was mixed on the drying beds once a day (Seck et al., 2015).

2
139 In Kampala, FS was dried in parallel on four full-scale drying beds with drying areas between 130-195 m .
140 On each drying bed, FS from six to 21 vacuum trucks was discharged through a bar screen. One drying
141 bed was loaded with FS collected from septic tanks, one with FS collected from lined pit latrines, and two
142 with a mix of FS collected from septic tanks and lined pit latrines. FS drying was hindered by poor
143 drainage due to clogged sand filter layers and rainfall within the study period. Therefore, solid loading
144 rates based on the actual drying times are misleading. On average, the hydraulic loading rate was 52 cm.
3 3 3
145 Drying beds were loaded with 62 m septic tank FS, 96 m lined pit latrine FS, and 103 and 77 m mixed
146 FS. Prior to pilot-scale kiln experiments, the 90%TS FS was milled into a fine powder.

147 Design and operation of pilot-scale kilns

148 The pilot-scale kilns are depicted in Figure 1a and 1b. They were designed and operated to replicate brick
149 curing at Ugandan Clays in Kampala, and waste oil regeneration at Socit Sngalaise de Rgnration
150 des Huiles Minrales (SRH) in Dakar.

5
151 In Dakar, the kiln was loaded with five kilograms of dried FS for each repetition, which lasted one hour. In
152 different experiments, combustion of FS cakes, pellets and briquettes were compared to charcoal as a
153 control. Based on preliminary experiments, ventilation of the combustion chamber was set to 7 to 16 m/s.
154 Experiments were started by igniting 150 ml of organic solventacetone. Flow of waste oil from the top
155 collection container through the heating coil into the bottom collection container was controlled with a
156 valve based on the temperature in the combustion chamber. Experiments with FS cakes, pellets and
157 charcoal were done in triplicate and FS briquettes in duplicates.

158 In Kampala, the kiln was loaded with between 340 and 460 unfired clay bricks that were obtained from
159 Uganda Clays. In accordance with the operation at Ugandan Clays, the kiln was pre-heated with firewood
160 for a duration of 2.3 to 5.3 hours to remove any remaining moisture in the bricks. After pre-heating, the kiln
161 was fed with dried FS through holes located at the top of the kill, for a duration of 2.3 to 2.5 hours.
162 Between 70 and 160 kg of dried FS were used for each experiment. Experiments with dried FS were
163 replicated four times, and compared to firing with coffee husks as a control as they are currently used by
164 Ugandan Clays. In these two experiments, the kiln was pre-heated for 4 and 4.5 hours with firewood and
165 fed with 140 and 180 kg of crushed coffee husks for 3 and 3.2 hours respectively.

166 Monitoring of kiln operation

167 In this study, kiln temperatures and quality of the industrial endproducts (i.e. bricks and waste oil) were
168 used as metrics to assess the performance of FS as a solid industrial fuel. Coffee husks in Kampala and
169 charcoal in Dakar were used for comparison as controls. In Dakar, temperatures in the combustion
170 chamber (temperature probe 1 and 2) and the waste oil (temperature probe 3) were recorded every 30
171 seconds as shown in Figure 1. In Kampala, temperatures in the kiln were measured every 30 seconds at
172 three points (temperature probe 1, 2, 3) as shown in Figure 1. In Kampala, temperature measurements
173 were hindered during fuel loading when dust particles came in contact with the thermocouple wire. This
174 resulted in abrupt temperature drops and low temperature during pre-heating and firing (<50 C) being
175 erroneously recorded. Based on consultation with the thermocouple manufacturer, these measurements
176 were not used for analyses. The fired bricks were removed from the kiln following cooling to ambient
177 temperature.

178 Analyses

179 FS was analyzed for TS, total volatile solids (TVS)ash, chemical oxygen demand (COD), calorific value,
180 biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), electric conductivity (EC), salinity, pH, temperature and helminth
181 eggs. Analyses of solids was based on Standard Methods (APHA et al., 2005). TS was measured
182 gravimetrically by drying in an oven at 105 C, and TVS at 550 C. Ash content was determined as the
183 remaining following determination of TVSTotal Volatile Solids (TVS) in a furnace at 550C. BOD was
184 determined by incubating samples at 20 C for five days. COD was determined with Hach kits based on
185 manufacturers directions. In Dakar, a Hach DRB200 heating block and DR4000v spectrophotometer and

6
186 in Kampala a Hach COD Reactor 45600 heating block and a Helios Aquamate NRTL/C
187 spectrophotometer were used. Calorific value was determined according to manufacturers specifications
188 on dry FS samples after TS analysis. In Dakar, a Parr Instrument calorimeter 1341EE and in Kampala a
189 Gallenkamp Auto-Bomb were used. Helminth eggs were enumerated according to Bailenger (1979) in
190 Dakar and Moodley et al. (2008) in Kampala. In Dakar, EC, salinity, pH and temperature were measured
191 according to manufacturers directions with a WTW MultiLine P4 and a Hanna HI 9124.

192 Ultimate analysis was conducted by X-ray fluorescence (XRF) with a Spectro Xepos according to
193 manufacturers directions. For ultimate analysis, FS samples were pulverized with a Retch mixer mill and
194 pressed into 32 mm pellets. Carbon, nitrogen and sulfur were analyzed at Eawag and at Zurich University
195 of Applied Sciences (ZHAW) in Waedenswil, Switzerland. At ZHAW, analyses were done in duplicate.

196 In Kampala, compressive strength of bricks was determined with an Avery Denison Universal
197 Compressive Testing Machine according to Standard Methods (BSI, 1983). Brick color was determined
198 qualitatively by comparison to bricks produced by Ugandan Clay.

199 3. Results and discussion

200 Faecal sludge characteristics

201 The physical and bio-chemical characteristics of FS that was loaded onto drying beds for drying for
202 pilot-scale kiln experiments are presented in Table 1, illustrating the high variability of FS. In both Dakar
203 and Kampala, FS was comprised of over 95% water and had a high ash content (42.4 and 27.5%
204 respectively). Industries commonly require fuels with less than 10% water, therefore, dewatering and
205 drying are most important treatment goals for the production of dried FS fuel (Seck et al., 2015). The
206 values are similar to others reported for Dakar and Kampala, for example 0.5-0.9%TS and 30-45% ash for
207 un-thickened FS and 5.1%TS and 59.4% ash for thickened FS in Dakar, and 2.2%TS and 45.0% ash for
208 septic tank FS and 3.0-4.0%TS and 35-45% ash for pit latrine FS in Kampala (Fichtner Water &
209 Transportation, 2008; Gold et al., Submitted; Seck et al., 2015; Sonko et al., 2014; Vonwiller, 2007).

210 As shown in Table 1, FS in Dakar and Kampala contains significant amounts of helminth eggs which can
211 pose a health risk when handling FS fuel (WHO, 2006). The values are also comparable to those reported
212 by other studies for Dakar of 1,138 eggs/g TS and Kampala of 182-1000 eggs/g TS (Fichtner Water &
213 Transportation, 2008; Seck et al., 2015). This highlights the need to analyze dried FS fuel for viable
214 helminth eggs, and to provide adequate protection for kiln and treatment operators.

215 Faecal sludge drying

216 In Dakar it took 16-22 days to dry FS from 4.9%TS to 90%TS, which is comparable to the 11-24 days
217 observed by Seck et al. (2015). In Kampala, dryness of 90%TS could not be achieved on drying beds, due

7
218 to frequent rainfall, clogging of the filter layer, and higher hydraulic loading rates. FS was removed from
219 beds after 59-96 days with a dryness of 69-80%TS, and dried to 90%TS in covered storage.

220 In Dakar and Kampala, the dried FS collected from drying beds for pilot-scale experiments had helminth
221 egg concentrations of 197 eggs/g TS (SD: 247 eggs/g TS) and 75 (SD: 96 eggs/g TS) respectively,
222 comparable to those observed by Seck et al. (2015) of 69 Ascaris eggs/g TS. These results mean that
223 treatment on drying beds reduce helminth egg concentrations compared to untreated FS but highlights the
224 need to provide adequate protection for kiln and treatment operators. However, a benefit of using dried FS
225 as an industrial fuel, in comparison to enduse of FS as soil conditioner in agriculture, is that pathogen
226 transmission pathways are greatly reduced, and that combustion leads to the complete inactivation of
227 pathogens.

228

229 Pilot-scale kiln experiments

230 In Kampala, pilot-scale kiln experiments were designed to replicate industrial curing of bricks at 800 C for
231 one hour (Gita, personal communication), temperature profiles are shown in Figure 2. Kiln temperatures
232 were highly variable within the kiln (Figure 2a) and between repetitions (Figure 2b). As shown in Figure
233 2a, in general, temperatures and variability were highest in the middle of the kiln within the combustion
234 zone, and lowest at the bottom of the kiln next to the chimney. Average temperatures over all four
235 repetitions were 524 C with maximum temperatures of 850 C. The achieved temperatures were
236 comparable to those obtained during the two repetitions with coffee husks of 421 and 552 C, with
237 maximum temperatures of 850 C.

238 The compressive strength of bricks that were cured with combustion of FS was 8.3 2.4 MPa, and those
239 cured with coffee husks were 5.9 and 8.4 MPa, which was comparable to the compressive strength of
240 commercial products obtained from Ugandan Clays of 6.2 and 7.9 MPa. In addition, except for one
241 repetition, 80% of the bricks had a similar color in comparison to the commercial products.

242 In Dakar, pilot-scale kiln experiments were designed to replicate an industrial waste oil regeneration
243 process. This requires heating the oil to 360 C to remove water vapor and volatile compounds.
244 Temperature profiles of the pilot-scale kiln are shown in Figure 3. As shown in Figure 3a, repetitions with
245 the same fuel type were replicable. However, the position of the thermocouples and the organic
246 solventacetone that was used to start combustion influenced the temperature profile. The application of
247 organic solventacetone led to a spike in the temperature profile within the first five minutes of each
248 experiment. Therefore, these results were excluded from the analysis (see Figure 3). In 50% of the
249 experiments that were conducted with FS, additional organic solventacetone was required during
250 operation for continued combustion. Figure 3b shows the average temperature within the kiln over all
251 repetitions. For each repetition, the average temperature of the two thermocouples was used as a proxy
252 for the average temperature in the kiln. The highest achieved temperatures were obtained with FS cakes
8
253 of 437 C compared to 334 C for FS briquettes, 315 C for FS pellets, 280C for FS briquettes, and
254 262 C for charcoal. As illustrated in Figure 3b, FS briquettes and pellets performed comparable to
255 charcoal with reasonably stable temperatures around 250 C. However, the achieved kiln temperatures
256 were not adequate to remove water and volatile compounds from the waste oil, as the maximum waste oil
257 temperature was 248 C. This could likely be resolved through increase in fuel quantity and optimization of
258 the kiln design. Qualitative observation of odor from FS combustion was negligible in both Kampala and
259 Dakar.

260 The performance of both pilot-scale kilns with FS fuel demonstrate that temperatures suitable for brick
261 curing and waste oil regeneration can be achieved when using dried FS. Further, temperature
262 performance with dried FS fuel was comparable to coffee husks and charcoal, and compressive strength
263 results verified the quality of the cured bricks. These results indicate that dried FS could be used as an
264 industrial fuel at Ugandan Clays, with further optimization at SRH, and dried FS also has the potential to
265 fuel other industrial applications.

266 Faecal sludge fuel characteristics

267 In addition to demonstrating the feasibility of FS as a fuel with pilot-scale kilns, a comprehensive
268 characterization of parameters relevant for combustion was conducted through proximate and ultimate
269 analyses of the dried FS from this study, as presented in Table 2, Table 3 and Table 4. Fixed carbon and
270 oxygen could not be analyzed in this study.

271 The composition of dried FS in this study was comparable to values reported in the literature for
272 wastewater sludge. The average calorific value of FS was 10.9 MJ/kg TS in Kampala and 13.4
273 MJ/kg TS in Dakar compared to 13.1-14.4 MJ/kg TS for wastewater sludge. The ash content was 59%TS
274 in Kampala and 47%TS in Dakar compared to 39.5-57%TS for wastewater sludge. In contrast, faeces and
275 excreta have an ash content of 8 and 21%TS respectively (DWA, 2008; Schouw et al., 2002). High
276 concentrations of ash are not desirable, as it does not have a fuel value. Ash from combustion needs to be
277 disposed of, either in landfills, or some type of resource recovery such as in use building materials (Tyagi
278 and Lo, 2013).

279 Concentrations of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur and chlorine were also comparable to reported
280 values for wastewater sludge, which indicates there are various sources of potential pollutants that need
281 to be controlled during combustion and ash disposal. Potential pollutants formed during combustion of
282 chlorine, nitrogen and sulfur include dioxins, furans, NOx, N2O, SO2, HClL, HF and CxHy which require
283 post-combustion control measures in accordance with legal regulations (Roy et al., 2011; Werther and
284 Ogada, 1999). As shown in Table 2, in comparison to coal and recommended guideline values, dried FS
285 has elevated concentrations of ash, nitrogen, sulfur and chlorine. Temperatures in the pilot-scale
286 experiments were < 600 C above which dioxins and furans are completed destroyed (Werther and
287 Ogada, 1999). This means that dioxins and furans might have been emitted in particular considering that

9
288 catalyst for their formation such as copper and zinc were present in the FS fuel (Werther and Ogada,
289 1999). Therefore, use of a dried FS fuel should kept to However, in large-scale applications which can
290 effectively control emissions. , SOx, NOx and flue ash can be effectively controlled. For example, large-
291 scale industries which already use coal or wastewater sludge and comply with emission regulations are
292 likely to be able to switch to dried FS without impacts. Instead, as wastewater sludge, FS is a renewable
293 biomass and if it was used as a substitute for coal, net CO2 emissions could be reduced (Murray and
294 Price, 2008). (Werther and Ogada, 1999)

295

296 As shown in Table 3, dried FS in this study had comparable concentrations for elements affecting ash
297 production and ash fusion temperatures as those that have been reported for wastewater sludge. In
298 contrast to conventional biomass fuels such as woodchips, fouling and slacking of ash can be more of an
299 operational problem with wastewater sludge due to high ash concentrations and elemental composition
300 (Obernberger et al., 2006). Ash fusion temperatures of 1142-1361 C (sintering temperature), 1194 C
301 (softening temperature), 1284 C (hemisphere temperature) and 1361 C (melting temperature) were
302 reported for FS in Ghana, which was also comparable to wastewater sludge with 1183-1374 C and coal
303 1157-1253 C (unpublished data, Pivot Works; Weidong et al., 2010). In comparison, ash fusion
304 temperatures of wood chips are 1100-1700 C. These results indicate that for industries already using
305 wastewater sludge, the use of FS would not increase fouling or slacking.

306 As shown in Table 4, dried FS analyzed in this study had significantly lower heavy metal concentrations
307 than those reported for wastewater sludge. The concentrations were also comparable to those reported
308 for FS in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, of 751-782 ppm zinc, 113-139 ppm copper and 66-77 lead, and
309 Kumasi, Ghana, of 2.3 ppm arsenic, 0.7 ppm cadmium, 61 ppm copper, 2.4 ppm lead and 34 ppm zinc
310 (Appiah Effah et al., 2015; Bassan et al., 2013). This means that except for chromium, FS in this study
311 had 36-85% lower median heavy metal concentration compared to wastewater sludge (Helena Lopes et
312 al., 2003; Luts, 2000). This is promising, as it facilitates ash disposal and indicates that phosphorus
313 contained in the ash could be recovered for fertilizer production at lower cost compared to wastewater
314 sludge (Franz, 2008).

315 Although the heavy metal concentrations are lower than wastewater sludge, they are still elevated
316 compared to concentrations found in faeces. The excreta sample from Nairobi contained 0.5 ppm
317 cadmium, 18 ppm chromium, 29 ppm copper, 7.5 ppm nickel, 3.8 ppm lead and 241 ppm zinc, which is
318 comparable to other studies in Sweden and Thailand (Schouw et al., 2002; Vinners et al., 2006).
319 Comparison of the FS heavy metals concentrations to faeces indicates that FS gets contaminated with
320 heavy metals. These contaminations are likely due to solid waste disposal and discharge of greywater into
321 onsite sanitation technologies and contamination during FS collection. For example in Dakar, vacuum
322 trucks used for FS collection are frequently also used to provide collection services for harbors, petrol

10
323 stations and industries (Mbgur et al., 2010). By mitigating these heavy metal contaminant sources,
324 disposal and enduse of ash for use in agriculture could be improved.

325 Fuel requirements of three cement companies in Switzerland, Uganda and Senegal are included in Table
326 2 and Table 4 and have a high variability between locations for most parameters. For example, maximum
327 ash concentrations of 60%TS in Switzerland compared to maximum ash concentrations of 12%TS in
328 Uganda. Whether dried FS from Kampala and Dakar meets limits for ash, sulfur and phosphorus depends
329 on the location. In contrast, heavy metal concentrations in the ash were below guiding values for cement
330 production. In general, cement industries only accept fuels with total heavy metal concentrations of
331 As+Ni+Co+Se+Te+Cr+Pb+Sb+Sn+V <10,000-2,500 ppm, and Cd+Hg+TI <100 ppm (Diaw, personal
332 communication; Madlool et al., 2011; WBCSD, 2014). These values were on average 594 ppm and 1 ppm
333 in Kampala, and 549 ppm and 2 ppm in Dakar.

334 Based on these results it appears that the dried FS composition for combustion is comparable to
335 wastewater sludge. This suggest that knowledge from combustion of wastewater sludge, e.g. in coal-fired
336 power plants or cement industries is transferable to FS (Diener et al., 2014; Luts, 2000; Werther and
337 Ogada, 1999; WBCSD, 2014).

338 Implications for faecal sludge management

339 Every step in the FSM service chain has an impact on potential fuel characteristics, from the type of onsite
340 containment, to collection, transportation, and treatment. In order to maximize revenue from combustion of
341 dried FS in industries, FSM needs to be optimized. Use of FS as an industrial fuel has the potential to
342 create a significant, year-round demand for FS treatment endproducts. This is a significant benefit,
343 because increasing the demand for FS treatment endproducts could provide an incentive for reliable
344 operation of FSTPs, thereby reducing the amount of FS dumped in the environment, and increasing
345 overall public and environmental health.

346 Currently, the potential fuel demand of industries outstrips the FS treatment capacity in Dakar and
347 Kampala. An estimated 2,600 tons FS TS/year are delivered for treatment in Dakar and 2,700 ton FS
348 TS/year in Kampala (based on the average TS concentration in Table 1 and a FS treatment capacity of
3
349 400 m /d at Lubigi Wastewater and FSTP) (Seck et al., 2015). In Uganda and Senegal there arehave
350 cement companies with theoperating on the same scale as in Germany and Switzerland (see
351 introduction). Applying the same range of values used in those countries would indicates that the demand
352 of industries for FS fuel currently outstrips the capacity of FSTPs capacity by 4-40 fold in Dakar and
353 Kampala. However, demands of industries could be met by increasing FS collection, transportation and
354 treatment capacities. For example, in Dakar and Kampala it is estimated that 20,000 tons FS TS/year
355 accumulate in onsite sanitation technologies (Diener et al., 2014; Vinners et al., 2006). This indicates
356 how the demand from industry for a fuel could potentially result in an increased treatment of FS, ultimately
357 increasing public and environmental health.

11
358

359 Currently, the potential fuel demand of industries outstrips the FS treatment capacity in Dakar and
360 Kampala. An estimated 2,600 tons FS TS/year are delivered for treatment in Dakar and 2,700 ton FS
361 TS/year in Kampala (based on the average TS concentration in Table 1 and a FS treatment capacity of
3
362 400 m /d at Lubigi Wastewater and FSTP) (Seck et al., 2015). In Germany, power plants substitute 3-10%
363 of coal usage with 10,000-100,000 tons of wastewater sludge TS/year (Richers et al., 2002). Cement
364 industries can substitute up to 5% of clinker production capacity with wastewater sludge (Werther and
365 Ogada, 1999). For example, in Switzerland, a cement company with the same magnitude of cement
366 production as cement companies in Uganda and Senegal, uses around 15,000 tons wastewater sludge
367 TS/year. Applying the same range of values would indicate that the demand of industries for FS fuel
368 currently outstrips FSTPs capacity by 4-40 in Dakar and Kampala. However, demands of industries could
369 be met by increasing FS collection, transport and treatment capacities. For example, in Dakar and
370 Kampala it is estimated that 20,000 tons FS TS/year accumulate in onsite sanitation technologies (Diener
371 et al., 2014; Vinners et al., 2006).

372 Fuel characterization in this study identified that high ash, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus concentrations
373 can be obstacles for uptake of FS by industries. High ash concentrations of FS can be partially explained
374 by mineralization of organic matter during anaerobic digestion in onsite sanitation and FS treatment
375 technologies such as settling-thickening tanks. This is undesired for energy recovery as it decreases TVS
376 and COD, thereby decreasing the calorific value available for combustion (Still and Foxon, 2012;
377 Tchobanoglous et al., 2013; Zanoni and Mueller, 1982). Additionally, inorganic material (i.e. sand, soil)
378 from poorly designed onsite sanitation technologies, disposal of inorganic solid waste and adherence of
379 sand during FS treatment on drying beds all contribute to increased ash content. For example, in this
380 study, dewatering of FS on drying beds increased ash contents by 24.7% in Kampala and 9% in Dakar,
381 which was also observed by Seck et al. (2015). Ash concentrations could be reduced by shorter retention
382 times in onsite sanitation technologies and optimizing FS treatment technologies. For example, grit
383 chambers and coarse and multiple fine screens in series at the inflow of FSTPs could remove some
384 inorganic material and solid waste from FS. Technologies other than sand drying beds could be
385 implemented, such as setting-thickening tanks with use of coagulants, followed by filter press and solar--
386 drying in greenhouses (Gold et al., Submitted). Optimized treatment could also increase fuel production,
387 as frequently solids are lost due to poor solid-liquid separation efficiency of settling-thickening tanks and
388 drying beds (60% and 95% respectively) (Heinss et al., 1998). However, treatments benefits need to be
389 carefully balanced with increased capital, and operation and maintenance costs. Treatment technologies
390 that are not aligned with local operation and maintenance capacities is frequently a reason for the failure
391 of FS treatment (Bassan et al., 2014).

392

393 4. Conclusions
12
394 This research demonstrated that dried FS can be used as an industrial fuel in industries thereby providing
395 revenues to offset treatment costs and provide an incentive to sustain FS treatment. Key findings include:

396 Knowledge from combustion of wastewater sludge appears to be transferable to FS;

397 FS becomes contaminated with heavy metals along the FSM chain, although concentrations are
398 significantly lower than wastewater sludge;
399 Dried FS can be as effective in providing energy for industries as coffee husks and charcoal;
400 FS fuel characteristics require further refinement (e.g. ash content), and quantities need to be
401 increased through optimization of treatment technologies to meet industrial demand;

402 Acknowledgements

403 Funding for this study was provided by the European Union Water Initiative Research Area Network
404 (EUWI ERA-net) SPLASH program, and the Swiss Development Corporation (SDC), and was conducted
405 as part of the FaME (Faecal Management Enterprises) project (www.sandec.ch/fame). The authors would
406 like to thank Simon Amrein (Zurich University of Applied Sciences), Mohammed Babu (National Water &
407 Sewerage Corporation), Gabriel Gerner (Zurich University of Applied Sciences), Francis Gita (Gita Kilns
408 Enterprises/Uganda Clays), Timon Kser (Paul Scherrer Institut), William Kabasa (Makerere University),
409 John Baptist Kirabira (Makerere University), David Kirya (Makerere University), James Miro Maiteki
410 (National Water & Sewerage Corporation), Fausto Marcigot (Sanergy), Jafari Matovu (Pit Emptier
411 Association Uganda), Rita Nakazibwe (Makerere University), John Omara (Makerere University), Brian
412 Sinnet (Eawag), Laura Stupin (Pivot Works), Ashley Muspratt (Pivot Works) and Steven Zziwa (Ugandan
413 Clays) for their support during this study.

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535
536

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*Highlights

Highlights

Solid fuel characteristics of faecal sludge are comparable to wastewater sludge.

Faecal sludge had lower heavy metal concentrations than wastewater sludge.
Pilot-scale combustion of dried faecal sludge was successfully demonstrated.
Optimization of faecal sludge management could increase fuel quantities and quality.
Figure

Figure 1a and 1b: Design of the pilot-scale kilns in Dakar in 1:50 (left) and Kampala in 1:100 (right) including the
position of the temperature probes.
Figure

Figure 2a and 2b: Pilot-scale experiments in Kampala: Temperature at bottom, middle and top of the kiln in Kampala
during one repetition with FS (left). Temperature at the top of the kiln (thermocouple 2) during firing with FS and coffee
husks during two repetitions (right).
Figure

Figure 3a and 3b: Pilot-scale experiments in Dakar: Temperature at two points within the kiln during the two
repetitions with FS briquettes (left). Average kiln temperatures during all repetitions of FS cakes, briquettes and pellets
compared to charcoal.
Table

Table 1: Physical and bio-chemical characteristics of FS loaded onto drying beds in Kampala and Dakar.
Parameter Total solids Total solids Ash COD BOD5 Total helminth eggs
Unit g/L %TS %TS g O2/L g O2/L No./g TS
Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD Mean SD
FS Kampala
Septic tank 8.1 - 0.8 - 29.4 - 8.9 - 8.4 - 700 -
Pit latrine 22.4 - 2.3 - 36.7 - 11.5 - 6.6 - 300 -
Mixed 1 23.1 - 2.3 - 42.4 - 8.1 - 5.5 - 1,400 -
Mixed 2 34.1 - 3.4 - 27.5 - 21.0 - 12.0 - 1,300 -
FS Dakar
Un-thickened 11.2 6.5 1.2 0.6 37.3 3.5 12.4 7.6 3.3 1.8 1,247 948
Thickened 51.4 33.6 4.9 3.1 38.0 4.6 36.0 28.0 9.5 9.7 1,011 867
SD: Standard deviation
Table

Table 2: Calorific value, moisture, ash, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulfur, chlorine and phosphorus concentrations of
dried FS in comparison to wastewater sludge, excreta, coal and guiding values for use of solid fuels in industrial
applications and industries limits.
Faecal sludge Waste-
Industrial
Kampala FS Dakar water Guiding
Parameter Unit Excreta5 Coal1,2 limits
sludge values6, 7 8,9,10, 11
Mean SD Mean SD 1,2,3,4

Calorific MJ/kg
10.9 3.5 13.4 2.0 13.1-14.4 - 31-34.9 - >8-14
value TS
Moisture %TS 8.1 2.9 6.7 0.7 6.6-26 - 1.6-10 - <10
Ash %TS 58.7 11.5 47.0 4.0 39.5-57 21.3 7.5-15 - <60-15
Carbon %TS 27.8 3.1 28.8 3.4 16.9-31.6 - 70-79.1 - -
Hydrogen %TS 4.2 0.5 4.2 0.4 3.3-7.6 - 4-5.0 - -
Nitrogen %TS 3.2 0.4 3.0 0.6 0.4-4.2 11.9 1.2-1.8 <2.5-0.6 -
Sulfur %TS 0.7 0.1 1.7 0.0 0.7-1.6 1.7 0.7-2.1 <0.2-0.1 <2.5-0.5
Chlorine %TS 0.04 0.01 0.14 0.03 0.07-0.4 - 0.06 <0.3-0.03 <0.5-0.2
Phosphorus %TS 1.4 0.4 1.0 0.1 3.1 2.4 0.51 - <1.0
SD: standard deviation
1
Helena Lopes et al. (2003), 2Luts (2000), 3Otero et al. (2007), 4Judex et al. (2012), 5Schouw et al. (2002), 6Obernberger et al.
(2006), 7van Loom and Jaap (2008), 8Diaw (personal communication), 9Holcim (Schweiz) AG (2013), 10Barikurungi (personal
communication), 11Madlool et al. (2011)
Table

Table 3: Concentration of ash forming elements in dried FS from Kampala, compared to typical concentrations in
wastewater sludge, coal, woodchips and guiding values for use of solid fuels in industrial applications.
Faecal sludge Waste-
Guiding
Parameter Unit Kampala Dakar water Coal1,2 Woodchips5
values6
Mean SD Mean SD sludge1,2
Calcium %TS 2.05 0.20 5.78 0.65 5.3-8.5 0.2-0.45 26.0-38.0 15-35
Potassium %TS 0.36 0.01 0.28 0.05 0.5-0.7 0.04-0.4 4.9-6.3 <7.0
Magnesium %TS 1.20 0.36 0.56 0.04 0.35-0.5 0.02-0.3 2.2-3.6 -
Sodium %TS 0.36 0.09 0.53 0.07 0.2-0.4 0.03-0.14 0.3-0.5 -
Phosphorus %TS 1.45 0.43 0.95 0.11 3.11 0.51 0.0097-0.034 -
Silicon %TS 7.91 2.67 6.69 1.87 5.1-9.2 2.4-4.2 0.044-2.9 -
SD: Standard deviation
1 2 3 5 6
Helena Lopes et al. (2003), Luts (2000), Schouw et al. (2002), van Loom and Jaap (2008), Obernberger et al. (2006)
Table

Table 4: Heavy metals concentration of FS from Kampala and Dakar compared to wastewater sludge, excreta and
faeces, coal and guiding values for use of solid fuels in industrial applications and industries limits.
Faecal sludge
Waste-
Excreta Guiding Industrial
Parameter Unit Kampala Dakar water Coal1,2
Faeces3,4 values5 limits6,7
sludge1,2
Mean SD Mean SD
Arsenic ppm 0.6 0.4 2.8 0.5 <0.3-14 - <0.3-4 - -
Cadmium ppm <2.0 0.0 <1.8 0.4 4-10.1 0.3-0.4 <1-0.17 <5 -
Chromium ppm 485 298 401 212 190-530 0.6 12.2-33 - -
Copper ppm 114 12 216 47 5.3-400 22-32 1.8-32 - <3,000-1,000
Mercury ppm <0.9 0.5 <0.8 0.4 2.1-5.4 0.2 0.08-0.2 - <10
Nickel ppm 24 4 30 1 40-45 2.1-4.7 12-19 - -
Lead ppm 28 8 59 14 220-365 0.6-1.4 2.0-19 - -
Zinc ppm 646 56 918 257 1,132-4,900 132-305 22.8-50 <800 -
SD: Standard deviation
1
Helena Lopes et al. (2003), 2Luts (2000), 3Schouw et al. (2002), 4Vinners et al. (2006), 5Obernberger et al. (2006), 6Diaw (personal
communication), 7WBSCD (2015)