Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673
DOI 10.1007/s00126-013-0455-6
ARTICLE
Lithologic controls on mineralization at the Lagunas Norte
high-sulfidation epithermal gold deposit, northern Peru
Luis M. Cerpa & Thomas Bissig & Kurt Kyser &
Craig McEwan & Arturo Macassi & Hugo W. Rios
Received: 26 August 2011 / Accepted: 15 January 2013 / Published online: 5 February 2013
# Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013
Abstract The 13.1-Moz high-sulfidation epithermal gold
deposit of Lagunas Norte, Alto Chicama District, northern
Peru, is hosted in weakly metamorphosed quartzites of the
Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous Chim Formation and
in overlying Miocene volcanic rocks of dacitic to rhyolitic
composition. The Dafne and Josefa diatremes crosscut the
quartzites and are interpreted to be sources of the pyroclastic
volcanic rocks. Hydrothermal activity was centered on the
diatremes and four hydrothermal stages have been defined,
three of which introduced Au Ag mineralization. The first
hydrothermal stage is restricted to the quartzites of the
Chim Formation and is characterized by silice parda, a
tan-colored aggregate of quartz-auriferous pyriterutile
digenite infilling fractures and faults, partially replacing
silty beds and forming cement of small hydraulic breccia
bodies. The 34S values for pyrite (1.72.2) and digenite
Editorial handling: F. Tornos
Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article
(doi:10.1007/s00126-013-0455-6) contains supplementary material,
which is available to authorized users.
L. M. Cerpa (*)
Departamento de Ciencias Geolgicas, Universidad Catlica del
Norte, Av. Angamos 0610, Antofagasta, Chile
e-mail: lcerpa@gmail.com
T. Bissig
Mineral Deposit Research Unit, University of British Columbia,
Vancouver, Canada
K. Kyser
Queens University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
C. McEwan : A. Macassi : H. W. Rios
Minera Barrick Misquichilca, Av. Victor Andrs Belaunde,
Lima, Peru
(2.1 ) indicate a magmatic source for the sulfur. The
second hydrothermal stage resulted in the emplacement of
diatremes and the related volcanic rocks. The Dafne diat-
reme features a relatively impermeable core dominated by
milled slate from the Chicama Formation, whereas the
Josefa diatreme only contains Chim Formation quartzite
clasts. The third hydrothermal stage introduced the bulk of
the mineralization and affected the volcanic rocks, the diat-
remes, and the Chim Formation. In the volcanic rocks,
classic high-sulfidation epithermal alteration zonation
exhibiting vuggy quartz surrounded by a quartzalunite
and a quartzalunitekaolinite zone is observed. Company
data suggest that gold is present in solid solution or micro
inclusions in pyrite. In the quartzite, the alteration is subtle
and is manifested by the presence of pyrophyllite or kaolin-
ite in the silty beds, the former resulting from relatively high
silica activities in the fluid. In the quartzite, gold minerali-
zation is hosted in a fracture network filled with coarse
alunite, auriferous pyrite, and enargite. Alteration and min-
eralization in the breccias were controlled by permeability,
which depends on the type and composition of the matrix,
cement, and clast abundance. Coarse alunite from the main
mineralization stage in textural equilibrium with pyrite and
enargite has 34S values of 24.829.4 and d 18 OSO4 values
of 6.813.9, consistent with H2S as the dominant sulfur
species in the mostly magmatic fluid and constraining the
fluid composition to low pH (02) and logfO2 of 28 to 30.
Alunitepyrite sulfur isotope thermometry records temper-
atures of 190260 C; the highest temperatures
corresponding to samples from near the diatremes. Alunite
of the third hydrothermal stage has been dated by 40Ar/39Ar
at 17.00.22 Ma. The fourth hydrothermal stage introduced
only modest amounts of gold and is characterized by the
presence of massive alunitepyrite in fractures, whereas
654
barite, drusy quartz, and native sulfur were deposited in the
volcanic rocks. The d 18 OSO4 values of stage IV alunite vary
between 11.5 and 11.7 and indicate that the fluid was
magmatic, an interpretation also supported by the isotopic
composition of barite (34S=27.1 to 33.8 and d 18 OSO4 =
8.1 to 12.7). The 34Spyalu isotope thermometry records
temperatures of 210 to 280 C with the highest values
concentrated around the Josefa diatreme. The Lagunas
Norte deposit was oxidized to a depth of about 80 m below
the current surface making exploitation by heap leach meth-
ods viable.
Keywords Diatreme . Breccia . High sulfidation .
Epithermal . Central Andes . Miocene . Landscape evolution
Introduction
Lagunas Norte (756 S, 7815 E) is one of the most recent
discoveries of world class epithermal gold deposits in north-
ern Peru and is, in contrast to other important epithermal
deposits of the region (e.g., Pierina: Rainbow 2009;
Yanacocha: Longo et al. 2010), not only hosted in volcanic
rocks but also in Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous
quartzites. The limited reactivity of the quartzites resulted
in important challenges in mapping of the alteration and
consequently the relatively recent discovery of the deposit
(Araneda et al. 2003), despite the fact that it is well exposed
at surface.
In this article, we present a genetic model of the Lagunas
Norte deposit on the basis of the paragenetic evolution,
mineralization, and alteration and its relationship with the
rocks that host the mineralization. We also present stable
isotope data for pyrite, barite, and three types of alunite,
commonly in textural equilibrium with auriferous pyrite,
which constrain the origin of the mineralizing fluids and
allow documentation of the evolution of the magmatic-
hydrothermal system of Lagunas Norte.
Exploration history and reserves
Prior to the discovery of the Lagunas Norte AuAg deposit,
significant coal mining had been carried out in the Alto
Chicama area since the end of the nineteenth century.
Between 1880 and 1931, Compaia Minera Northern
exploited the Callacuyan coal deposit, located 5 km to the
NW of Lagunas Norte (Escudero 1979). Only small-scale
coal mining for local domestic use took place after 1931, as
larger scale operations were not profitable due to the high
sulfur content of the coal (Manrique 1986).
In 1999, Centromin-Per carried out preliminary studies
to evaluate the metallic mineral potential of the area, which
led to the identification of elevated gold values in stream
Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673
sediment samples (Dunin-Borkowski 2000). Minera Barrick
Misquichilca acquired the property in 2001 and announced
the discovery of the deposit in April 2002 with an initial
resource of 3.5 Moz of Au with an average grade of 1.95 g/t
(Araneda et al. 2003). Gold production commenced in late
2005 and attained annual production of 1.2 Moz at a cash
cost of $125/oz in 2008. The total production and current
reserves is 13.1 Moz Au (Barrick Gold Corp. Annual
Report 2011).
Regional geologic setting
The Mesozoic units of northern Peru (Fig. 1) consist of
sedimentary rocks deposited during the Andean cycle
(Mgard 1987). Starting in the Tithonian, the western
Peruvian continental margin was dominated by the subsid-
ing Chicama basin (Jaillard and Jacay 1989), where locally
as much as 2,500 m shale, intercalated with subordinate thin
sandstone beds (Chicama Formation: Jaillard and Soler
1996) was deposited in a dominantly deep marine sedimen-
tary environment. In the BerriasianValanginian, a gradual
transition from deep marine to shallower siliciclastic sedi-
mentation occurred, resulting in a succession of quartz sand-
stones derived from the Guyana and Brasilia cratons
(Moulin 1989). These sandstones were probably deposited
in a fluvio-deltaic environment and in the study area are
represented by the Chim Formation (Benavides-Cceres
1956; Jaillard and Jacay 1989). The transition from a pelagic
to shallow continental margin environment marks a change
in paleogeography due to a drastic change in subduction
geometry at the northern Peruvian margin at that time
(Jaillard et al. 2000).
The Valanginian was dominated by marine transgressions
and regressions giving rise to the SantaCarhuaz Formation
(Benavides-Cceres 1956) which consists of alternating
sandy and shaly beds. Carbonate and black shales of the
Chulec and Pariatambo Formations, respectively, overlie the
SantaCarhuaz Formation and indicate a progressively
deepening depositional environment. In the Aptian, the
western border of the Chicama basin was the site of intense
volcanic arc activity (Casma Group; Atherton et al. 1985;
Soler 1991). Marine sedimentation and volcanism ended in
the Albian during dextral transpressive deformation in the
arc (Soler and Bonhomme 1990). Volcanic activity was
succeeded by voluminous intrusive activity leading to the
emplacement of the 10055 Ma Coastal Batholith (Cobbing
et al. 1981; Soler 1991).
In the late Cretaceous, the Mariana-type subduction was
replaced by the present-day Andean-type subduction
(Benavides-Cceres 1999). This resulted in a tectonic inver-
sion and intense compressive deformation which gave rise to
the Maraon Fold and Thrust Belt (Benavides-Cceres 1999).
Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673 655

79 78
80 70
0 0
Ecuador C o lo m b ia
N
PERU

B ra s il
T ru jillo
10 10

L im a

C usco

80 70
Yanacocha
7 7

CAJAMARCA

La Virgen
PA C IF IC
O CEAN
Lagunas
Norte
8 Callacuyan 8
TRUJILLO
Quaternary
Miocene Calipuy Gp.
Oligocene-Miocene
volcanic rocks Quiruvilca
Cordillera Blanca Batholith
Coastal Batholith
Late Cretaceous, siliciclastic
and carbonaceous rocks
Lower Cretaceous
Chim Fm.
siliciclastic rocks
Upper Jurassic, shales Chicama Fm.
Lower Jurassic, siliciclastic
rocks and shales
Permo-Triassic limestones

Paleozoic, metamorphic rocks

79 78

Fig. 1 Simplified geological map of northwestern Peru and locations of Lagunas Norte and other deposits of the Miocene metallogenetic belt of
Peru (modified from INGEMMET (1999) and Noble and McKee (1999))

The folded Mesozoic rocks are unconformably overlain by the
Eocene to Miocene Calipuy Group volcanic and volcaniclastic
rocks (Cosso and Jan 1967; Wilson 1975; Rivera et al. 2005;
Montgomery 2012). Volcanism ceased in the middle to late
Miocene along most of northern and central Peru. This cessa-
tion has been attributed to the onset of flat subduction along the
Peruvian margin due to the subduction of the aseismic Nazca
ridge and oceanic Inca plateau (Gutscher et al. 1999; Hampel
2002). The emplacement of many ore deposits in Peru may be
directly related to these changes in subduction geometry
(Rosenbaum et al. 2005; Bissig et al. 2008; Bissig and
Tosdal 2009).
656
Deposit geology
Mesozoic basement
The basement at Lagunas Norte is dominated by Mesozoic
pelitic and siliciclastic rocks belonging to the Chicama and
Chim Formations, respectively (Reyes 1980). These
Mesozoic rocks are thrusted and folded into NW striking
east-verging folds (the Maraon Fold and Thrust Belt:
Benavides-Cceres 1999) and are weakly metamorphosed to
slate and quartzite. Lower Miocene volcanic rocks assigned to
the Calipuy Group were deposited unconformably over the
folded Mesozoic strata. Gold mineralization is hosted by the
siliciclastic Chim Formation and the overlying volcanic stra-
ta. The deposit stratigraphy is described below in detail
(Figs. 2 and 3).
The Jurassic Chicama Formation (Stappenbeck 1929;
Cosso and Jan 1967) crops out to the west and north of the
mining operations (Fig. 2). Its thickness is unknown in the
study area but has been estimated to be up to 1,500 m thick
40 km S of Lagunas Norte (Cosso and Jan 1967; Jaillard and
Jacay 1989). It consists of a succession of dark carbonaceous
shale and siltstone with occasional thin beds of fine-grained
sandstone (see electronic supplementary data). The unit has
been weakly metamorphosed to slate and features an intense
cleavage subparallel to the bedding. The transition to the
overlying Chim Formation (see below) is gradual and char-
acterized by increasing abundance of quartzite intercalations.
The Chicama Formation does not crop out at the deposit, but
its presence below the mineralized zone is evident from clasts
of slate in the Dafne breccia (see below) crosscutting the
Mesozoic strata.
The Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous Chim Formation
(Benavides-Cceres 1956) is the principal ore host (Figs. 2
and 3). It consists of compositionally mature quartz sandstone
(typically 95 % SiO2; see electronic supplementary data) but
contains occasional coal beds, which historically have been
exploited, as well as scarce siltstone and shale intercalations.
The sandstone has undergone weak metamorphism which
resulted in some recrystallization and cementation of quartz
grains to form quartzite. The thickness of the Chim
Formation is estimated to about 450600 m in the Lagunas
Norte area (Benavides-Cceres 1956).
Volcanic rocks of the Calipuy Group
A sequence of volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks assigned to
the Calipuy Group (Cosso and Jan 1967; Rivera et al. 2005;
Montgomery 2012) overlies the Mesozoic strata in an angular
unconformity. At Lagunas Norte, four subunits from oldest to
youngest, the Quesquenda, Dafne, Josefa, and Shulcahuanga
units, can be distinguished. The Josefa and Dafne units are
closely related to magmatic-hydrothermal breccia bodies
Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673
interpreted as diatremes from which the eruptive products
probably originated.
The Quesquenda unit is named after an eruptive center
4 km to the north of the deposit (Rivera et al. 2005) and crops
out in the easternmost portions of the deposit. There it consists
of more than 150 m pyroclastic and volcaniclastic rocks of
andesitic composition with interstratified lithic-rich tuffaceous
deposits containing carbonized wood (see electronic supple-
mentary data). The Quesquenda unit is interpreted a product
of pyroclastic eruptions interbedded with lahar deposits.
The Dafne unit consists of a series of breccias in the
western part of the mineralized area. The breccia body
overall has a subvertical inverted cone shape and in plan
view a NW elongated ellipsoid shape measuring up to
1 km along its long axis. The breccia body cuts the
Mesozoic basement (Chicama and Chim Formations)
and is thought to be a diatreme. Four principal lithofacies
associations have been identified and their characteris-
tics, spatial relationships, and alteration are described
below, following the classification scheme proposed by
Davies et al. (2000, 2008) and Gifkins et al. (2005). The
four breccia lithofacies are the diatreme margin, main
body, crater, and apron lithofacies and are summarized
in Table 1 and illustrated in Figs. 4 and 5.
The diatreme margin lithofacies generally consists of
clast-supported monomict and polymict breccias in a
rock flour or juvenile volcanic matrix. Hydrothermal
cement is ubiquitous (Table 1). The breccias show coarse
stratification parallel to the diatreme margin. No clasts of
breccia within breccia have been observed. Three
domains of monomictic breccias (Table 1) contain, re-
spectively, quartzite, siltstone, or tan-colored hydrother-
mal quartz clasts (locally termed silice parda, see
below). The clasts are angular to subangular and the
breccias have jigsaw-fit to slightly rotated textures. The
polymictic breccias contain subangular-rotated clasts of
quartzite and siltstone. They have a rock flour matrix and
cement of hydrothermal quartz and, at depth, pyrite. The
diatreme margin lithofacies has a gradual transition to the
wall rock with jigsaw-fit textures, angular clasts, and
locally monomictic breccia chimneys (Fig. 5b). Hydrothermal
cement of quartz and pyrite dominates over matrix.
The main body lithofacies association occupies the central
portions of the diatreme and is volumetrically the most im-
portant. It is largely composed of polymictic, matrix-
supported breccias (Fig 5c, d and Table 1) featuring quartzite,
siltstone, slate, and juvenile volcanic clasts (fiamme-like
whispy clast shapes) as well as occasional silice parda hydro-
thermal quartz fragments. The clasts are subangular to sub-
rounded and the breccias have no apparent internal
organization or clast sorting. The matrix generally is rock
flour derived from siltstone and shale and fine-grained
reworked volcanic material.
Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673 657

803000 803500 804000 804500

ALEXA

9122000
9122000

JOSEFA A

9121500
9121500

9121000
9121000

DAFNE
C Shulcahuanga

9120500
9120500

A A
Tectonic Breccias s Cross Section
Shulcahuanga Unit Main Faults
Cenozoic Josefa Unit Pit Limits
Dafne Unit
Grade/Thickness contour
Quesquenda Unit (Au g/t x meters)
> 1000 g/T * m Au
9120000

Chim Fm.
9120000

Mesozoic 250 g/T * m Au

Chicama Fm. L i 125 g/T * m Au

803000 803500 804000 804500

Fig. 2 Geological map of the Lagunas Norte deposit based on Barricks regional and local mapping. The three principal ore zones are labelled

In the upper central part of the diatreme, polymictic presence of large (up to 1.7 m in diameter) rounded to
unstratified and massive breccias are assigned to the crater subrounded quartzite and andesite blocks featuring striae
lithofacies. Their distinguishing characteristic is the on the clast surfaces (Fig. 5e and Table 1). Smaller clasts
658 Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673

and fiamme are widely observed in the most peripheral

Shulcahuanga Unit
polymictic parts of the breccias (Fig. 5g). These polymictic
breccias are recognized up to 1 km north of the diatreme.

CALIPUY GROUP
QPF Unit Clast size in this unit decreases with increasing distance
CENOZOIC

from the diatreme.

Josefa Diatreme The Josefa unit is subdivided into two subunits. The first
unit is a breccia body interpreted as a diatreme and the
Dafne Diatreme
second consists of a volcanic and volcano-sedimentary suc-
Quesquenda Unit cession probably related to the same diatreme, although
other source(s) are possible. The diatreme was emplaced in
Chim Fm. the eastern part of the deposit in the Josefa area (Fig. 2),
MESOZOIC

whereas the eruptive products have also been preserved in

Chicama Fm.
Fig. 3 Generalized stratigraphic column showing the principal litho-
logic units of Lagunas Norte deposit and cross-cutting relationships
include quartzite and siltstone, and the matrix consists of
rock flour and juvenile volcanic material.
The apron lithofacies located in upper peripheral parts of
the diatreme is characterized by an intercalation of polymic-
tic and monomictic clast-supported breccias with rock flour
and volcanic matrix (Fig. 5f and Table 1). This lithofacies
shows coarse bedding (also known as tephra stratification:
Lorenz 2003). Quartzite and siltstone clasts are subrounded
to rounded and locally tabular. Clast imbrication is common
the Alexa area, 1 km north of Josefa, and overlying the
peripheral parts of the Dafne breccia, 0.5 km to the west
(Fig. 2).
The Josefa diatreme is approximately 45 by 30 m in plan
view and was only recognized in the open pit after mining
had started. It has an inverted cone shape (Fig. 6a), but in
contrast to the larger Dafne diatreme, no siltstone, shale, and
carbonaceous material is present. Quartz crystals up to
5 mm in diameter occur in the largely juvenile volcanic
matrix.
The breccias at Josefa have been classified using the
same scheme as for the Dafne diatreme (Table 1). The
breccia margin lithofacies consist of monolithic clast-
supported breccias with angular quartzite clasts and quartz
crystals in a volcanic matrix (Fig. 6b). This breccia also
contains quartzalunite cement. The main body of the

Table 1 Summary of lithofacies and distribution in the Dafne and Josefa diatremes

Characteristics Characteristics Distribution Interpretation

Dafne Josefa

Margin Layered monomictic and
lithofacies polymictic breccias,
subrounded to subangular
clasts, crude stratification
parallel to breccia margin;
matrix and cement support;
advanced argillic alteration
Main Polymictic breccias, matrix
body supported, not stratified, chaotic
lithofacies distribution, subrounded to
rounded clasts; argillic
alteration
Crater Massive body, polymictic, and
lithofacies matrix supported; rounded clast;
chaotic to crude stratification at
border; contains large andesite
blocks with striae on surfaces;
argillic alteration
Apron Gently dipping tephra
lithofacies stratification; stratified,
polymictic, and clast, matrix,
and cement supported, rounded
to subrounded clast; advanced
argillic alteration
Layered polymictic breccias, At the border of both Successive phreatic and
subangular to subrounded diatremes, in contact with phreatomagmatic explosions
clasts, crude stratification the bedrock; contact generate crude stratification;
parallel to breccias margin; steeply dipping towards later overprinted by
cement support; advanced the center of diatremes hydrothermal activity
argillic alteration
Polymictic breccias, matrix and In the central part of both Mainly phreatomagmatic
cement supported not stratified, diatremes explosions which reworked
chaotic distribution, matrix and clasts
subrounded to rounded clasts;
advanced argillic alteration
Massive body, polymictic, In upper central part Succession of violent
matrix, and cement supported; of both diatremes phreatomagmatic explosions,
rounded clast; crude capable of ejecting large
stratification at border; contains bedrock blocks
large quartzite blocks;
advanced argillic alteration
Gently dipping tephra Located in the northwest Succession of phreatic and
stratification; stratified, part of the Dafne phreatomagmatic events
polymictic and clast supported, diatreme; also similar resulting in bedded succession;
rounded to subrounded clast; facies in the southern part each bed representing an
advanced argillic alteration of the Josefa diatreme explosive event and airfall
deposition
Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673
Shulcahuanga dome
Milled and reworked
diatreme facies
crater and main body lithofacies
argilic alteration
Chim Fm. quarzite
Fault
Shulcahuanga
andesite flows
Stratified and silicified diatreme facies
apron lithofacies
Fig. 4 Panoramic view of the Dafne diatreme. Photograph shows the pit exposure in 2007, looking from the northeast
breccia is polymictic and matrix supported. Clasts are sub-
angular to subrounded and juvenile clasts and quartz crys-
tals are present in a tuffaceous matrix (Fig. 6c). As in the
marginal facies, quartzalunite cement is present.
The crater lithofacies in the upper part of the Josefa
diatreme is characterized by large quartzite blocks up to
80 cm in diameter (Fig. 6d) in a tuffaceous matrix with
abundant quartz crystals and juvenile volcanic clasts.
The apron lithofacies is only partly preserved at the
southern margin of the diatreme where it consists of a
series of crudely stratified beds (Fig. 6e). These deposits
are overlain by pyroclastic flow deposits which are
inferred to be related to the eruptive activity at Josefa,
on the basis of lithologic similarities of the juvenile
components in the diatreme. Two principal units have
been recognized: a quartz feldspar phyric unit (QFP
unit) and an overlying dacitic unit; the latter character-
ized by the absence of quartz phenocrysts. These vol-
canic units crop out at Josefa and Alexa as well as at
Dafne where they overlie the apron lithofacies breccias
(Figs. 2 and 3) and are generally affected by advanced
argillic alteration.
The QFP unit is characterized by monomictic breccias
containing quartzite clasts. The clast sizes increase towards
the Josefa diatreme (locally termed paleosurface breccia,
Fig. 7a). Overlying this breccia is a pyroclastic flow deposit
with small (<2 cm) altered pumice fragments and quartz
crystals up to 5 mm (Fig. 7b). This pyroclastic deposit is
overlain by lithic lapilli tuff containing small quartz crystals
and rare accretionary lapilli. The upper part of this tuff unit
shows planar stratification.
659
Fault
Fault
Chim Fm. quarzite
Overlying the QFP unit, the Dacitic units are a series of
pyroclastic and volcaniclastic deposits with pumice and
lithic fragments but no quartz crystals (Fig. 7c). The lower
part of this unit locally shows planar stratification (Fig. 7d)
and small paleochannels filled with lithic clasts up to 2 cm
in size.
Overlying the pumice- and lithic clast-bearing dacitic
deposits there is an ash tuff with only scarce lithic
fragments. Within those strata between Dafne and
Josefa, abundant fossilized leaves and tree trunks that
are still in vertical position have locally been found
(Fig. 7e). The pinnate leaves (Fig. 7f) are of campto-
drome shape, which indicates a humid and tropical flora
(Alvarez-Ramis 1999) comparable to that present now at
lower elevations in eastern Peru. The stratigraphically
highest rock type consists of pyroclastic deposits with
scarce quartz crystals and clasts of pumice and quartz-
ite. The alteration of the dacitic unit is dominated by
advanced argillic assemblages (see below).
Shulcahuanga unit
The Shulcahuanga unit consists of porphyritic andesite lavas
and andesitic to dacitic domes that crop out to the west and
south of the deposit around Cerro Shulcahuanga. Andesitic
lavas assigned to this unit overlie the Dafne unit (Figs. 2 and
3) and have been affected by only weak chlorite-
smectite/illite alteration. No conclusive stratigraphic rela-
tionships with the Josefa unit have been observed, but due
to the weaker alteration, the Shulcahuanga unit is interpreted
to be younger.
660 Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673

Fig. 5 Lithofacies associations

of the Dafne Diatreme complex.
a Cross section (see Fig. 1 for
location of cross section),
looking northwest, through the
Dafne diatreme, showing
lithofacies distribution. b
Monomictic clast-supported
breccia showing pyrite cement
with angular clasts of quartzite
(Q) and siltstone (L). c Shulcahuanga Unit

Polymictic breccia with Tectonic breccias

Volcanic facies
carbonaceous matrix-supported
Apron
juvenile clast (CJ), quartzite (Q),

Lithofacies
Diatreme
Crater
silice parda (SP), and siltstone Main Body

(L) from central diatreme body. d Margin

Polymictic clast-supported Chim Fm.

breccia with clasts of siltstone A Chicama Fm.

(L), juvenile clasts (CJ), and

quartzite (Q). e Polymictic B C CJ
matrix-supported breccia with SP
large andesite boulders (A) up to
1.70 m in diameter; corresponds L
to the crater lithofacies. f Close-
up photograph of a coarsely
stratified polymictic breccia with Q
L
andesite blocks (A); corresponds
to the diatreme apron facies. g
Detail of clast-supported Q
polymictic breccia, showing
siltstone (L), quartzite (Q), and
juvenile clast (CJ) from the distal
apron breccia lithofacies D E
L

CJ

F G
L

CJ

0 1cm

Two lithologies are recognized. Firstly, andesite, locally
known as Andesitas Azules due to the pale bluegreen hue
imposed by clay alteration, is characterized by a fine-
grained aphanitic groundmass with hornblende phenocrysts
and occurs as dykes that crosscut the southern margin of the
Dafne diatreme. The second lithology forms the Shulcahuanga
dome (Figs. 2 and 3) and adjacent lava flows to the east and
exhibits a porphyritic texture with plagioclase, biotite, and
hornblende phenocrysts. These rocks are characterized by
prominent flow banding (Macassi 2005). An age range of
Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673 661

Fig. 6 Field photographs of the

Josefa breccia. a The Josefa A
breccia body in pit exposure 4090
E
(4,060 to 4,090 m.a.s.l. bench). D
Letters B to E refer to close-up 4080

photographs. b Volcanic and rock

4070
flour matrix crackle breccias with B
C
quartzalunite cement, here
lacking juvenile fragments. c
Detail of polymictic breccia with 4060

quartzite and juvenile pumice

fragments. d Phreatomagmatic
breccia with a quartzite block
from the crater lithofacies. e
Close-up of the apron lithofacies
showing coarse bedding (marked
by red dashed lines)

B C

D E

16.8 to 17.3 Ma for the Shulcahuanga unit has been established
on the basis of 40Ar/39Ar data on biotite and hornblende
(Montgomery 2012).
Analytical methods
The alteration paragenesis defined by previous workers
(Guerra 2001; Araneda et al. 2003; Macassi 2005; Ros
2005) has been refined on the basis of field observations
and detailed petrography. Mineral assemblages have been
identified by standard optical microscopy and, where appro-
priate, by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray
diffraction at the Universidad Catlica del Norte. These
analyses have been complemented by infrared spectroscopy
using a Portable Infrared Mineral Analyzer (PIMA) and
using the SPECMIN database (Thompson et al. 1999) and
local databases for interpretation of infrared spectra.
Stable O, S, and H isotopic analyses were carried out at
the Queens University Facility for Isotope Research,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada. The 34S and d 18 OSO4 values
for alunite were determined using a method modified from
Wasserman et al. (1992) and Arehart et al. (1992). Sulfur
was extracted online with continuous flow technology, us-
ing a Finnigan MAT 252 isotope ratio mass spectrometer.
Sulfate oxygen was extracted using the BrF5 technique of
Clayton and Mayeda (1963). Hydrogen isotopic composi-
tions were measured using a Thermal Finnigan TCEA cou-
pled to a Thermo Finnigan Delta+ XP mass spectrometer
and continuous flow technology (ConFlo III) as described in
Rainbow et al. (2005). All values are reported in units of per
mil () relative to Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water for
662 Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673

Fig. 7 Volcanic stratigraphy of

the Josefa volcanic unit. a A B C
Monomictic breccia with
hydrothermal cement (by mine
geologists also referred to as
Paleosurface Breccia)
representing the basal portion. b
Detail of pyroclastic flow with
pumice fragments and tiny
quartz crystals, affected by
advanced argillic alteration. c
Pumice and quartzite clast-
bearing pyroclastic flow deposit
affected by advanced argillic
alteration. d Fine-grained
laminated ash fall deposit of the
upper volcanic member of the
Josefa volcanic unit, affected by
pervasive advanced argillic
alteration. e Remnant of a
D E F
carbonized tree (yellow arrow)
in upright position in the ash
fall deposit of the upper Josefa
volcanic unit. f Detail of
fossilized leaf present in an ash
fall deposit in the upper Josefa
volcanic unit 50cm

O and H and Caon Diablo Troilite for S isotopic composi-
tions. Accuracy was monitored using standards calibrated to
NIST 8556 and 8557 for sulfur and oxygen and NIST 8538
biotite for hydrogen. Analytical precision for both 34S
a n d d 18 OSO4 v a l u e s i s 0 . 3 , f o r D 3 .
Paleotemperature for coexisting alunitepyrite pairs is
calculated using the following fractionation factors: 103
ln apy
H2 S 0:40  106 T
2 (Ohmoto and Rye 1979) and
103 ln aalunSO4
H2 S 6:463  106 T
2 0:56 (Ohmoto and
Lasaga 1982).
One sample has been dated by the 40Ar/39Ar method at
the Pacific Centre for Isotopic and Geochemical Research.
Alunite was handpicked and analyzed as described in Bissig
et al. (2008). The data are included as digital appendix
(ESM).
Hydrothermal evolution and mineralization
The hydrothermal alteration at Lagunas Norte manifests
itself in very distinctive ways, depending on the host
rock compositions and textures. In the upper volcanic-
hosted part of the deposit, the alteration developed a
zonation pattern typical for high-sulfidation systems
(e.g., Simmons et al. 2005) with a nucleus of vuggy
quartz, surrounded by quartzalunite and dickitekaolin-
ite alunite zones which indicate acidic fluids that
became progressively neutralized during reaction with
the host rock. Contrasting the volcanic units, alteration
affecting the quartzite is subtle and difficult to detect
(see electronic supplementary data) but kaolinite and, in
more silty strata, pyrophyllite have been detected by
PIMA.
Four hydrothermal stages have been defined at Lagunas
Norte (Fig. 8) and are described below. Gold was introduced
during stages 1 and 3; the latter being the principal miner-
alization stage. Minor additional gold was also introduced
during stage 4. Supergene oxidation to depths of up to 80 m
below the current surface made the ore amenable to heap
leaching methods.
Stage I: early hydrothermal activity
The first hydrothermal event at Lagunas Norte is character-
ized by fine-grained yellowish to tan-colored aggregates of
quartz, pyrite, and minor rutile, which is referred to as silice
Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673
STAGE I STAGE II
Chim Fm.
Gold
Silice Parda
Pyrite
Dafne and Josefa Diatremes
Digenite
Chalcopyrite
Rutile
Alunite
emplacement
Enargite
Pyrophylite
Stibnite
Arsenopyrite
Diaspore
Barite
Drusy Quartz
Sulfur
Jarosite
Scorodite
Hematite
Goethite
Fig. 8 Paragenetic sequence from Lagunas Norte deposit; thickness of lines shows the relative abundance of minerals
parda by mine geologists, a term also used herein. This
assemblage is restricted to the Chim Formation where it
was generally emplaced along a network of preexisting
fractures and is best developed in silty layers, but also forms
the cement of small fault controlled monomictic breccia
bodies (Fig. 9a, b).
In the area between Josefa and Dafne and in the southern
part of the Josefa zone, silice parda is accompanied by
chalcopyrite and digenite (Fig. 9c, d). Gold is not visible
by SEM or optical microscopy, but company internal min-
eralogical studies show that gold is associated with pyrite,
and we assume that gold is present in solid solution or as
nanoparticles in the pyrite, as in other Andean high-
sulfidation epithermal deposits (e.g., Pascua; Chouinard et
al. 2005a). As indicated by the presence of silice parda
clasts in the Dafne diatreme, the first mineralization stage
preceded the diatreme emplacement. Absolute age con-
straints for silice parda were not determined due to a lack
of dateable minerals in this assemblage. However,
Montgomery (2012) reports an age of paragenetically early
alunite hosted in the Chim Formation of 17.360.14 Ma,
which may be considered a minimum age for this stage.
Stage II: phreatic and phreatomagmatic activity
The breccia lithofacies present in the Dafne and Josefa
diatremes suggest that they formed by phreatic and phrea-
tomagmatic activity which here is defined as the second
hydrothermal stage. This stage was important as ground
preparation for subsequent mineralization by fracturing the
adjacent rock and as host of a portion of the ore.
Mineralization in the diatremes is controlled by the perme-
ability, which in turn is controlled by matrix type and
663
STAGE III STAGE IV STAGE V
ChimFm. /
Chim Fm. Volcanic units Chim Fm. /Volcanic units Volcanic units
Coarse Disseminated Massive
Carbonaceous layers
abundance, type, shape, and size of clasts. A minimum age
for the brecciation events is given by the oldest age of
alunite within the overlying volcanic sequence of 17.05
0.12 Ma (Montgomery 2012).
Stage III: main mineralization stage
Most of the gold was introduced during this stage and is
contained within the pyrite but not visible optically. The
main mineralization and alteration stage is difficult to detect
in the quartzite. However, fracture infill of coarse alunite
(Fig. 10a) associated with pyrite and enargite (Fig. 10b), at
depths below 80 m from the present surface, is observed. In
the quartzite, disseminated kaolinite has been detected by
PIMA. In the more silty beds of the Chim Formation in the
core of Lagunas Norte, pyrophyllite is present, whereas
kaolinite occurs in the periphery of the deposit. In beds
where coal is present, a sulfide assemblage containing py-
rite, stibnite, and arsenopyrite is observed locally.
In both diatremes alteration patterns are lithologically con-
trolled. The margin of the Dafne breccia is intensely silicified
with minor alunite, whereas in the main body, dickitekaolin-
ite alteration affected juvenile fragments, and fracture con-
trolled silicification is present locally. The crater facies shows
a weak dickitekaolinite alteration restricted to matrix and
juvenile fragments. In the apron lithofacies, the matrix com-
position determines the alteration intensity and assemblages.
Where the matrix is predominantly carbonaceous, the juvenile
fragments are preferentially altered to alunitedickitekaolin-
ite, whereas in beds with volcanic matrix, quartzalunite is the
dominant alteration assemblage. The Josefa breccias are per-
vasively altered to quartzalunite and juvenile fragments have
commonly been replaced by pyrite and alunite.
664 Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673

Fig. 9 Photographs showing

the principal characteristics of A B
the first stage of mineralization.
a Monomictic breccias with
tan-colored quartz cement
(silice parda, see text for
details). b Replacement of silty
layers of the Chim Formation
by silice parda. c Polished
section photograph of first stage
of mineralization showing the
granular texture of silice parda
and interspersed small pyrite
crystals (Py). d Detail of
polished section photograph of
pyrite crystals (Py) in digenite
(Di) present in quartzite (Qz)

C D
Qz
Py
Di

Py

0 0,1mm 0 0,01mm

In the volcano-sedimentary levels at Dafne, Josefa, and
Alexa as well as in the Josefa marginal facies and the Dafne
breccia, an alteration zoning pattern typical for high-
sulfidation epithermal deposits is observed. The distribution
of vuggy quartz zones is controlled by small E-oriented
faults and the permeability of volcanic or breccia facies.
Within the volcanic package, vuggy quartz is best developed
in pumice- and crystal-rich pyroclastic flow deposits where
pumice fragments and feldspar phenocrysts were leached
and the volcanic matrix was completely replaced by residual
quartz (Fig. 10c, d). Surrounding the vuggy quartz zone, the
assemblage quartzalunitepyrite altered the rocks. Alunite
has replaced feldspars and pumice clasts (Fig. 10e, f) and the
groundmass has been replaced by fine-grained quartz and
pyrite. Pyrite has generally been oxidized but is preserved
together with alunite in some silicified strata at Alexa
(Fig. 11a), whereas at Josefa, it occurs together with rutile.
The matrix of the breccia at the base of the volcanic pile has
been affected by pervasive quartzalunite kaolinitedick- siltstone beds and overgrown coarse-grained alunite. The
ite alteration. Disseminated alunite from the volcanic Josefa
unit representing this main mineralization stage gives an
40
Ar/39Ar plateau age of 17.00.22 Ma (Fig. 12), which is
consistent with the age range of 16.7 to 17.1 Ma inferred for
the main hydrothermal activity (Montgomery 2012). The
andesitic volcanic rocks surrounding the deposit have been
affected by weak to moderate argillic alteration where illite
partly replaces hornblende and quartzchlorite veinlets have
been observed (Fig. 11b).
Stage IV: late-stage alteration
Late-stage alteration is characterized by massive alunite
forming the cement of local fault breccias and filling thin
fractures in Chim quartzite. This alunite is white to
yellowish in color (Fig. 11c), forming fine-grained and
massive aggregates. Pyrite in textural equilibrium with
this type of alunite is observed (Fig. 11d). Traces of
kaolinite and, at Alexa, diaspore are generally present
as well. The massive alunite has cut pyrophyllite-altered
last manifestation of hydrothermal activity is barite, ru-
tile, and drusy quartz as well as late native sulfur filling
Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673 665

Fig. 10 Photographs showing

characteristics of hydrothermal A B Qz
stage III. a Coarse alunite
crystals in fracture of Chim
quartzite. b Polished section
microphotograph of enargite En
(En) and pyrite (Py) in quartz
(Qz) gangue, indicative of
Py
alunitepyriteenargite related
fluids (Deyell et al. 2005). c
Vuggy quartz texture in
volcanic unit at Alexa. d
Disseminated alunite (Al) 1cm
0 0,25mm
replacing feldspar, Josefa
volcanic unit. e Alunite (Al)
replacing feldspar crystals and C D
pumice fragments in a tuff
deposit from the Josefa volcanic
unit. f Thin-section
microphotograph of tabular
alunite crystals (Al) replacing
plagioclase phenocrysts Al

E F

Al

Al

0 1mm

open spaces in the volcanic rocks. Barite-filled fractures Stable isotopes

occur in the quartzite at Alexa and Josefa. Only modest
gold mineralization is associated with this late-stage al-
teration. The youngest 40Ar/39Ar age on alunite reported
by Montgomery (2012) is 16.450.28 Ma and is herein
interpreted to constrain hydrothermal stage IV.
Stage V: supergene stage
Lagunas Norte has been affected by extensive supergene
oxidation (up to 80 m below the current surface) which has
produced hematite, goethite, and locally jarosite and scor-
odite. Iron oxides occur mainly as cement of tectonic and
hydrothermal breccias as well as on fracture surfaces where
they commonly present iridescent colors. Oxidation was
crucial for liberating the gold which made exploitation of
the deposit economically viable using cyanide leaching
methods.
Stable isotopic compositions were obtained for each para-
genetic stage. 34S values (Fig. 13) were obtained for
sulfides from all paragenetic stages, whereas 34S, D,
and d 18 OSO4 values were obtained for alunite from stages
III and IV (Fig. 14). The 34S values and 34Salupy
precipitation temperatures were calculated for alunite and
pyrite occurring in textural equilibrium at different loca-
tions in the deposit (Table 2 and Fig. 15).
Stage I
Three 34S values for sulfides were obtained. Pyrite has
values of 1.7 and 2.2, and coexisting digenite has a value
of 2.1. A maximum fluid temperature of 360 C is given by
34S thermometry on the digenitepyrite pair (Hubberten
1980).
666 Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673

Fig. 11 Photographs showing

characteristics of hydrothermal A B
stages III and IV. a Monomictic
breccia with dark quartzpyrite
cement. b Detail of weakly
propylitically altered andesite
of Shulcahuanga unit showing
quartz veinlet with Fe oxide
halo. c Massive alunite (Al)
filling open spaces in
monomictic breccia. d Thin-
section microphotograph
showing a monomictic breccia
with quartzite clasts (Qzt) in
fine-grained clastic matrix, with
alunite (Al) cement C D

Al
Al

Py

Qzt

0 1mm

Stage III
Both coarse and disseminated alunite from stage III was
analyzed. Coarse alunite is translucent to pale pink in color,
with a tabular crystal habit. Eight samples were analyzed
and show a range of 34S values between 24.8 and 29.4.
Six of these alunite samples are in textural equilibrium with
pyrite 34S values of 4 to 0.5 and locally with enargite
(34S=1.2). The temperatures calculated for alunite
pyrite pairs for this hydrothermal stage are between 190
and 270 C (Table 2 and Fig. 15); the highest temperatures
have been recorded near the diatremes at 200 m depth
Sample Lc5014: Stage III Alunite
30
below the current surface, while the lowest values come
from samples near the surface. Fluid inclusion microther-
mometry was not possible because of a lack of suitable
material. The D vs. d 18 OSO4 values of the alunite and the
calculated isotopic compositions of their apparent fluids are
consistent with magmatic vapors and a predominantly mag-
matic origin for the fluid (Fig. 14).
Disseminated alunite from stage III is usually white, but
locally pale pink. Eight samples were analyzed and gave 34S
values between 21.7 and 28 and a range of d 18 OSO4 values
from 6.8 to 13.9. These values are typical for alunite
precipitated from a dominantly magmatic fluid (Fig. 14; Rye
et al. 1992; Rye 2005). However, one of the samples located
near the eastern margin of the deposit has values of d 18 OSO4 =
6.8 and D=40.2, which suggest influence of a mete-
oric fluid component. This sample has a 34S value of 27.2.

Plateau age = 17.00+/- 0.22 Ma Stage IV

20
Age (Ma)

The massive alunite of this stage is white and has an earthy

texture. Seven samples were analyzed and have 34S values
between 19.1 and 29.2 (Fig. 14) and d 18 OSO4 values
10
between 11.5 and 11.6 (Fig. 14). Pyrite is commonly
MSWD = 1.4, probability=0.23 present in textural equilibrium with stage IV alunite and
Includes 91.2% of the 39Ar
has 3 4 S values between 1.4 and 1.4 (n = 5).
0 Temperatures calculated from the 34Salupy pair (Table 2)
0 20 40 60 80 100 range between 210 and 280 C, with higher temperatures
Cummulative 39Ar percent near the diatremes and lower temperatures near the surface
Fig. 12 40Ar/39Ar age spectrum for alunite sample of stage III from (Fig. 15). For this stage, barite has 34S values from 27.1 to
Lagunas Norte. Errors are given at the 2 level 33.8 and d 18 OSO4 values from 8.1 to 12.7.
Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673 667

STAGE I STAGE III STAGE IV

I Pyrite III Pyrite IV Pyrite
I Digenite III Enargite IV Alunite (massive)

10
III Alunite (coarse) IV Barite
Frequency

III Alunite (disseminated) IV Sulfur (native)

IV
III IV IV
III IV IV IV
III IV III III IV
5
III III IV IV III IV IV
III III IV III IV III III III IV IV IV
IV III IV III III IV III IV III IV III IV IV IV
III III III IV III III III I III IV IV III III III IV III IV IV
III I I III IV III III I I IV III III III III III III III III III III IV III IV
0

-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
34
S ()
Fig. 13 Histogram of 34S values of sulfides and sulfates in the Lagunas Norte deposit. Alunite samples are colored according to paragenetic stages

Supergene stage
Two samples of supergene goethite were analyzed; they
have D values of 187 and 183 and 18O compositions
of 5.9 and 5.4. These values likely reflect the isotopic
composition of local meteoric water in equilibrium with
goethite well after hydrothermal processes ended.
Discussion
Most high-sulfidation epithermal deposits are related to
magmatic-hydrothermal activity affecting volcanic or igne-
ous rocks (e.g., Cooke and Simmons 2000), but Lagunas
Norte differs because part of the mineralization is hosted in
unreactive quartzites. Four different hydrothermal stages
have been defined.
The first stage is restricted to the Mesozoic rocks and is
characterized by silice parda (quartz pyrite rutile),
which was precipitated in fractures and preexisting faults
and also replaced siltstone beds of the Chim Formation.
Silice parda locally cemented monomictic breccias, which
suggests that the magmatic-hydrothermal fluids of this stage
had enough pressure to hydraulically fracture the quartzite.
Locally and 40 m below the surface, pyrite, chalcopyrite,
and digenite form the sulfide assemblage. The presence of
digenite suggests a high sulfidation state for the fluid
(Einaudi et al. 2003; Rye 2005). Sulfur isotopic composi-
tions (34S 1.7 to 2.2 and 2.1 for pyrite and digenite,
respectively) are consistent with a magmatic source of sul-
fur. The fluid temperature of 360 C estimated on the basis
of sulfur isotope fractionation between sulfide (pyrite
digenite pair) species likely overestimates the true paleo-
temperature which is unreasonably high for epithermal

Fig. 14 D and d18 OSO4 diagram 0

showing data for stage III and IV VV
alunite. The fluid data were
calculated according to Stoffregen
-20
et al. (1994) at 200280 C (based
on temperature range obtained
L
MW

from 34Salupy). The lines and

fields are: MWL = meteoric water -40
FMW
INE

line (Craig 1961), kaolinite line

D Alunite fluids
L

(200to 280C)
(Savin and Epstein 1970), FMW =
TE

felsic magmatic water (Taylor

()
INI

-60
OL

1988), VV = volcanic vapor, i.e.,

KA

range of fumarole water

(Giggenbach 1992) -80 Fluids
Coarse Alunite
STAGE III
Disseminated Alunite
STAGE IV Massive Alunite
-100
-15 -5 5 15 25
18
OSO 4
()
668 Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673

Table 2 Summary of isotopic

data for coexisting alunitepyrite Sample name Type Alunite 34S Pyrite 34S 34Salupy T (C)
pairs. T is calculated using the
following fractionation factors: 1 LD6-006 Coarse 28.93 0.76 28.17 195
03 ln apy
H2 S 0:40  106 T
2 LD6-196 Coarse 25.7 0.52 26.22 213
(Ohmoto and Rye 1979); 103 ln
aalunSO4
H2 S 6:463  106 LD6-104 Coarse 24.82 2.61 22.21 256
T
2 0:56 (Ohmoto and LD6-070 Coarse 27.39 0.33 27.06 205
Lasaga 1982) LD6-176 Coarse 25.65 0.59 26.24 213
LD7-178 Coarse 23.39 4.43 27.82 198
LD6-111 Disseminated 25.25 0.73 25.98 215
LC5-014 Disseminated 26.82 2.01 24.81 227
LD7-002 Disseminated 22.7 4.34 27.04 205
LD6-177 Massive 25.48 1.39 26.87 207
LD6-101 Massive 23.88 1.43 22.45 253
LD6-112 Massive 24.64 1.77 26.41 211
LD6-068 Massive 19.13 1.37 20.5 278
LD7-168 Massive 27.19 2.02 25.17 223

systems and inconsistent with the sulfide and alteration
paragenesis and the near-surface geomorphologic setting
of the deposit where mineralization directly underlies the
2526 Ma subplanar Pampa la Julia erosional surface
(Montgomery 2012). This indicates that the calculated fluid
temperature probably has no geological meaning and that
the two sulfide species are not in isotopic equilibrium.
The second hydrothermal stage reflects the emplacement
of diatreme breccias. Diatremes have widely been docu-
mented in epithermal deposits (e.g., Sillitoe 1985; Kelian,
Davies et al. 2008; Pascua; Chouinard et al. 2005b). At
Lagunas Norte, the emplacement of the diatremes was in-
strumental for ground preparation for the mineralization
introduced during stage III. The Dafne diatreme intersects
shale of the Chicama Formation as well as quartzite of the
Chim Formation. The involvement of shale resulted in
some milled breccia lithofacies being relatively imperme-
able to later fluid circulation which is reflected by the
limited alteration of the central parts of the diatreme.
Similar relatively impermeable breccias have been docu-
mented from Kelian, Indonesia (Davies et al. 2008). The
Josefa Diatreme, in contrast, only cuts quartzite which
resulted in a more permeable breccia body that was
cemented throughout by quartzalunite. The smaller diame-
ter of the clasts in the center of both diatremes together with
the rounding of clasts and crude stratification near the margin
of the breccias suggest multiple explosive brecciation events
(Lorenz and Kurszlaukis 2007; Walters 2006), but the absence
of breccia-in-breccia clasts indicates that the breccias have not
been consolidated or cemented hydrothermally between the
individual explosions and that brecciation probably occurred
over a short time interval. The violent emplacement of the
diatremes not only generated permeability along their borders,
but probably also improved the secondary permeability in the
surrounding host rocks by means of fracturing.
The main stage hydrothermal alteration and mineraliza-
tion (stage III) affected the volcanic rocks as well as the
underlying Mesozoic basement. The alteration mineralogy
and sulfide assemblages are generally as expected for high-
sulfidation epithermal deposits (e.g., Simmons et al. 2005).
The distribution of gold and the alteration zonation are
mainly controlled by the permeability of the host rock.
However, a number of deviations from the norm exist and
can be related to host rock characteristics. For example,
locally in silty beds where organic carbon is present, the
assemblage pyritearsenopyrite and stibnite is present. This
sulfide assemblage would be expected in a low-sulfidation
environment (e.g., Cooke and Simmons 2000; Einaudi et al.
2003), but at Lagunas Norte, it can readily be explained by
the locally strong reducing conditions.
The d 18 OSO4 values for disseminated alunite from the
volcanic levels reflect a large component of magmatic fluid
which is common for Andean high-sulfidation systems (Rye
2005; Deyell et al. 2005; Rainbow et al. 2005). However, near
the periphery of the deposit, the hydrothermal fluid had a
meteoric component. The coarse alunite samples from depths
of more than 80 m below the current surface have 34S of 24.8
to 29.4, values consistent with a H2S-dominated fluid,
which again is typical for Andean high-sulfidation systems
(Baumgartner et al. 2009; Rainbow 2009; Rye 1993, 2005).
The observed sulfide and alteration assemblage indicates
Fig. 15 a Distribution map of principal alteration zones and fluid
temperatures obtained using the 34Salupy thermometer at Lagunas
Norte. Red numbers correspond to stage III and blue numbers to stage
IV. Note that the highest temperatures were obtained near the Dafne
and Josefa diatremes. b Schematic cross section (see A for section line)
showing the lithology and calculated fluid temperatures from samples
projected onto the section plane. Red letters correspond to temperatures
from stage III and blue letters to stage IV
Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673 669

803000 804000
A Vuggy quartz
SampleLocation
Quartz+Alunite (Projected)
A A
Alunite+Dickite+Kaolinite Cross Section
Fm. Chim (dk+kao+po) Pit Limit

WeaklyAltered (argillic-propylitic) Fault

9122000
9122000

ALEXA

JOSEFA

9121000
9121000

DAFNE

803000 804000

A A B
Sample Location
4200 Projected Sample
Location
Open Pit limit

4100 Oxide/Sulfides limit

Main Faults

Silice parda
4000
Shulcahuanga Unit
Josefa Unit
3900
256 Dafne Unit
Quesquenda Unit

Santa-Carhuaz Fm.

Chim Fm.
Temp. Al. (IV) 253
? Chicama Fm.
670 Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673

relatively acidic and moderately oxidizing conditions at 230 C
(pH=02 and logfO2 =28 to 30: Fig. 16).
The last hydrothermal event (stage IV) is characterized
by massive alunitepyrite in fractures in the quartzites,
whereas in the volcanic rocks, late barite and quartz as
well as late native sulfur precipitated in open spaces.
Isotopic data indicate that hydrothermal stages III and
IV had overall similar characteristics and a magmatic
origin for the fluids.
The apparent fluid temperatures calculated for stages
III and IV from the sulfur isotopic composition of
alunitepyrite pairs range from 190 to 280 C and are
highest near the diatremes (Fig. 15) and lowest near the
present surface some distance away from the diatremes.
Based on the calculated fluid temperatures, hydrother-
mal activity was probably focused around the Dafne
diatreme for stage III, whereas stage IV was centered
at Josefa. This is also consistent with the observation
that volcanic deposits likely originating from the Josefa
diatreme post-date those sourced from Dafne. Coarse
alunitepyrite pairs (34Salupy) consistently have higher
fluid temperatures than disseminated alunitepyrite
pairs. This is in agreement with the interpretation that
coarse-bladed alunite habits may indicate fluid boiling,
whereas fine-grained disseminated alunite was precipi-
tated from cooler, non-boiling fluids, although no sup-
porting fluid inclusion evidence is available.
-24
HSO
- Al Kao
4
-26
-28
2-
-30 SO4
-32
-34 En
O2
Boiling could have been enhanced by water-table lowering
due to erosion near the hydrothermal system. The deposit
directly underlies the 2526-Ma subplanar Pampa la Julia
erosional surface (Montgomery 2012), but the deposit lies
immediately southeast of the Rio Chicama valley pediment
which likely incised concurrently with mineralization
(Montgomery 2012) and erosion may have enhanced mineral-
izing processes at the steep back scarp of the valley, much like
suggested for the El Indio belt in Chile (Bissig et al. 2002).
The calculated fluid temperatures for stage III are in appar-
ent disagreement with the presence of pyrophyllite in silty
beds of the Chim Formation, since pyrophyllite normally
forms above 300 C (Hemley et al. 1980). However, in a fluid
with high silica activity, which is a reasonable assumption for
Lagunas Norte given the abundance of quartzite, pyrophyllite
may be metastable to significantly lower temperatures
(Hemley et al. 1980; Mojares et al. 2001), such as those of
280 C from 34Salupy thermometry.
The isotopic compositions of goethite, particularly the
strongly negative D, are indicative of high elevations of
3,0004,000 m (Poage and Chamberlain 2001). Similar
isotopic signatures for goethite have also been documented
by Montgomery (2012) who suggested that the goethite
formed in response to rapid late Miocene uplift. The paleo-
botanic evidence, on the other hand, suggests significantly
lower elevations or warmer climate at the time of volcanism
and hypogene mineralization than at present, indicating
surface uplift of 2,0003,000 m after 17 Ma (cf., Garzione
et al. 2008; Montgomery 2012).
T=230 oC
The hydrothermal activity at Lagunas Norte pre-dates the
S=0.01 m intermediate sulfidation polymetallic vein system of
K=0.01 m
Quiruvilca, 10 km to the west, for which an age of 15.2 to
15.7 has been determined by 40Ar/39Ar on muscovite/illite
from the selvage of a base metal quartzcarbonate vein
(Montgomery 2012). However, all other important high-
Hem sulfidation epithermal deposits in northern Peru, including
Pierina (14 Ma; Rainbow 2009) and Yanacocha (138 Ma;

Tn Longo et al. 2010) were emplaced significantly later than

-36
Lagunas Norte and also post-date Quiruvilca. Further south,
Log

-38 Py in Central Peru, the majority of magmatic-hydrothermal

-40
deposits have been emplaced during the middle to late
Mag
Miocene (e.g., Bissig et al. 2008; Baumgartner et al. 2009;
-42 Kouzmanov et al. 2008). The flattening of the subduction
-44 Po angle between about 14 and 10 Ma that generally coincided
H S0 HS
- with the onset of Nazca ridge subduction (Hampel 2002) is
-46 2
thought to have played a role in generating favorable con-
-2 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 ditions for mineralization in central and northern Peru
pH (Rosenbaum et al. 2005; Bissig et al. 2008; Bissig and
Tosdal 2009). The slightly older age of Lagunas Norte
Fig. 16 Log fO2pH diagram at 230 C and saturated vapor pressure, cannot confidently be assigned to initiation of ridge sub-
showing the stability fields of alunite (Al, gray box), kaolinite (Kao),
enargite (En), tennantite (Tn), hematite (Hem), magnetite (Mag), pyrrho-
duction, but the leading edge of the Nazca ridge may have
tite (Po), pyrite (Py), and sulfur species from Lagunas Norte deposit. The collided with the trench at that time (cf., Rosenbaum et al.
probable fluid composition for stage III is indicated by the gray box 2005).
Miner Deposita (2013) 48:653673
Conclusions
The Lagunas Norte deposit is a high-sulfidation epithermal
system that is hosted in both normally unreactive rocks (quartz-
ite of the Chim Formation) and dacitic to rhyolitic volcanic
rocks (Miocene). It is at 17 Ma likely the oldest high-sulfidation
deposits in the middle Miocene metallogenic belt of Peru. The
magmatic and hydrothermal evolution was controlled by at
least two diatremes (Dafne and Josefa), which cut the basement
composed of quartzite of the Chim Formation and in the case
of Dafne also slate of the Chicama Formation.
At Lagunas Norte, four hydrothermal stages are recog-
nized, and most of the gold and silver were introduced
during stages I and III. Stage I is restricted to quartzite,
where the gold is associated to pyritedigenite chalcopy-
rite in a quartz rutile (silice parda) gangue assemblage
mainly in fractures and faults, as well as replacing some
siltstone levels. Isotopic data are consistent with a magmatic
origin of the sulfur. The second stage is the emplacement of
the Dafne and Josefa diatremes, in addition to the volcanic
rocks and their products. This phreatic and phreatomagmatic
activity was instrumental for enhancing fracture-controlled
permeability of the otherwise impermeable quartzitic host
rock.
Stage III contains the bulk of the alteration and mineral-
ization. In rocks of the Chim Formation, coarse alunite
enargitepyrite precipitated in fractures, but alteration is
restricted to traces of kaolinite and pyrophyllite in some
beds within the quartzite. Locally, where coal is present,
stibnite and arsenopyrite are observed. In contrast, the brec-
cias and Miocene volcano-sedimentary units overlying the
Cretaceous rocks have been affected by alteration assemb-
lages typically described for high-sulfidation epithermal
systems. The alteration and mineralization is largely con-
trolled by permeability. The central portion of the Dafne
diatreme is relatively impermeable due to the matrix being
largely composed of milled slate of the Chicama Formation,
whereas quartzite clasts are dominant at Josefa which
resulted in better permeability for the fluids.
Isotopic compositions of alunitepyriteenargite and al-
unitepyrite from stages III and IV, respectively, indicate
that these alteration minerals, and by inference the gold,
precipitated from fluids that were acidic, H2S dominant,
and largely magmatic in origin. Fluid temperatures based
on 34Salupy thermometry range between 190 and 280 C,
with the highest values near the diatremes which are inter-
preted to be the focus of hydrothermal activity.
Acknowledgments This research is part of the PhD research of Luis
Cerpa. Funds for this study were provided by Minera Barrick
Misquichilca S.A., with additional support of the Hugh E. McKinstry
Students Research Fund from the Society of Economic Geologists.
This research would not have been possible without the experience and
knowledge of Lagunas Norte staff, particularly Nick Teasdale, Jose
671
Nizama, and several geologists from Servicios Tcnicos of Lagunas
NorteBarrick. Sulfur and oxygen analysis was carried out in collab-
oration with Kerry Klassen and QFIR Lab in Queens University,
which is supported by NSERC Discovery, CFI, and OIT grants to
Kurt Kyser. Teresa Velardes continuous assistance in spectrometric
data is very much appreciated. Vctor Carlotto, Luis Miguel Muoz,
GR-13 team, and my co-workers of Regional Geology from Geological
Survey of Per (INGEMMET) have greatly helped with this project,
and their continuing enthusiasm and support are appreciated.
Discussions with Allan Montgomery, Amelia Rainbow, Huayong
Chen, and Fernando Tornos have greatly helped with this project and
reviewers Regina Baumgartner, Noel White, and David Cooke as well
as Editor Bernd Lehmann are thanked for their constructive reviews.
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