Committee Report:

Design and
installation
of PE pipe
PE piping made in accordance

A
with AWWA C906-90 is a sturdy,
tough, and durable material ideal
for direct burial, no-dig,
and marine installations. WWA C906-90, Standard for Poly-
ethylene (PE) Pressure Pipe and Fittings, 4 In. (100
mm) Through 63 In. (1,600 mm), for Water Distrib-
AWWA Polyolefin Pressure Pipe ution, was published with an effective date of Mar. 1,
1992. An update to this document is being prepared.
and Fittings Committee AWWA C906-90 was developed by the AWWA
Standards Committee on
Polyolefin Pressure Pipe
The AWWA Polyolefin Pressure Pipe and Fittings Committee is and Fittings. The Poly-
developing a manual that will focus solely on the design and olefin Pipe Committee
installation of polyethylene piping made in accordance with and the Standards Com-
AWWA C906-90. Because development will take at least another mittee on Polyvinyl
year, the committee has produced this report to provide guidance Chloride (PVC) Pipe and
on properly designing and installing PE materials in the meantime. Fittings were formed in
This report discusses the composition and properties of PE piping, fall 1988 from their pre-
including its density, toughness, and ductility; outlines major decessor, the Thermo-
applications for the material; presents essential design criteria; and plastics Pressure Pipe
offers guidelines on joining, installing, and pressure-testing PE Committee.
pipe. A section on marine installations covers selecting an
appropriate site and assembling, launching, and submerging pipe. For executive summary,
see page 166.

Copyright (C) 1999 American Water Works Association

92 VOLUME 91, ISSUE 2 JOURNAL AWWA

The Polyolefin Pipe Committee is developing a
comprehensive manual on design and installation of PE
piping. This document will apply to both the larger-
diameter PE piping covered by C906-90 and the
smaller sizes covered by AWWA C901-96, Standard
for Polyethylene Pressure Pipe and Tubing, fi In. (13
mm) Through 3 In. (76 mm), for Water Service.
Whereas the foreword of AWWA C901-96 included
some basic design and installation recommendations,
C906-90 was issued without any such information in
keeping with Standards Council
B
policy that design and installation
information should be compre-
hensive and preferably offered in utt-fused PE pipe may be bent
a separate document. Because it
may take at least another year to in the field to adapt to gradual
complete the AWWA manual, the
Polyolefin Pipe Committee has changes in grade and direction.
issued this interim report to pro-
vide basic guidance on the design and installation of PE medium density and is somewhat stiffer. Type III is a
piping made in accordance with AWWA C906-90.
When available, the manual will supplant both this
report and the design and installation guidance in the
foreword in AWWA C901-96.
Composition and properties of PE piping
Molecular structure. In its virgin form, PE is a
translucent and tough substance with a waxy texture.
Copyright (C) 1999 American Water Works Association
FEBRUARY 1999
PE pipes flexibility, light weight,
and ability to be butt-fused
into continuous long lengths
allow for relatively simple
and economical installation.
It can vary from a soft to a hard
material. Its ultimate properties
are determined by its molecular
structure. PE consists of long mol-
ecular chains formed by the
polymerization of ethylene gas.
Occasionally, smaller chains
branch out from the main chain.
The length, type, position, and
frequency of these branches, as
well as the length of the primary
chain, can be controlled by co-
polymerizing ethylene with small
amounts of other olefins, such as
hexene, pentene, or butylene,
and by using special catalysts and
polymerization conditions. The
nature of this branching and other
parameters such as molecular
weight and molecular weight dis-
tribution greatly influence how
closely the molecular chains can
pack next to each other and form
well-ordered crystal-like regions.
PE is a semicrystalline material;
its crystal-like regions lie in a sea of more randomly
aligned material. The higher the crystallinity, the greater
the hardness, stiffness, tensile strength, and density.
Materials with less crystallinity are softer and have
lower strength and stiffness. However, as crystallinity,
i.e. density, decreases, toughness tends to increase.
Density and stiffness. The American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) broadly classifies PE
materials by their density. Type I is a low-density
material and is the most flexible. Type II material is of
high-density form with greater stiffness. To achieve the
best combination of strength, flexibility, and toughness,
most pipe is made of materials between the high end
of medium density and the low end of high density.
Because of JOURNAL AWWA guidelines on manuscript length, the full
Committee Report on the design and installation of polyethylene pipe
could not be published. To obtain a free copy of the full report, call the
AWWA Bookstore at (800) 926-7337.
COMMITTEE REPORT 93
 yy
;;
yyy
;;;
yy
;;
yy
;;
PE 2406* designates a type-II

yy
;;
FIGURE 1 Pipe-installation terminology
(medium-density), grade-4 PE, with a

;;;;
;;;
yyy
maximum RHDS of 625 psi (4,309 kPa)
for water at 73oF (23oC).
Final PE 3406* designates a type-III

yyyyyy
;;;;;;
;;;;;;
yyyyyy
;;;;;;
yyyyyy
;;;;;;
yyyyyy
;;;;;;
yyyyyy
backfill
(high-density), grade-4 PE, with a max-

;;;;
imum RHDS of 625 psi (4,309 kPa) for
Trench wall
water at 73oF (23oC).

y;y;y;y;y;y;y;y;y;y;
(native)
PE 3408 designates a type-III

;;;;
(high-density), grade-4 PE, with a max-
imum RHDS of 800 psi (5,516 kPa), for

;
y
Pipe embedment
zone water at 73oF (23oC).

;
y ;
y ;
y
Built-in protection. PE piping mate-

;;;; y;y;y;y;y;y;y;y;y;y;y;
rials contain small quantities of heat sta-
Initial backfill bilizers and antioxidants for protection
Haunch zone during processing and while in service.
The materials covered by AWWA C906-

y; y; y;
Springline
Sloped wall
90 also include a minimum of 2 percent
(as required) Bedding of finely divided and well-dispersed car-
Trench bottom (native) bon black, or other suitable stabilizer,
or foundation (as required)
to protect against ultraviolet rays during
extended storage or service outdoors.
Resistance to failure. PEs tough-
ness is exhibited by a high resistance to
failure by impact, even at temperatures
Toughness and resistance to cracking. PE pip- below freezing. PE pipe also resists shatter-type or
ing materials are also subclassified by grade according rapid crack-propagation failure. In materials that are
to their toughness and resistance to cracking under a not as tough, such failure can be initiated by stress
special environmental stress-cracking test. All PE pipe on small flaws resulting from manufacturing or from
materials covered by AWWA C906-90 must meet subsequent handling and operation, including
grade 4, which requires the highest resistance to envi- improper tapping for a live service connection. Because
ronmental stress cracking. of its high ductility, PE can undergo significant defor-
Hydrostatic design stress. PE materials used in mation without being damaged. PE pipe will not crack
pressure pipe applications are also classified by their under the expansive forces of freezing water.
maximum recommended hydrostatic design stress High ductility. Studies show, and field experience
(RHDS) for water at 73oF (23oC), which must be confirms, that surface damage caused by normal han-
established from long-term pressure tests. The RHDS dling does not compromise the ductility of PE. Test-
classification is denoted by two digits that code the ing has shown that a scratch on the outside surface of
maximum design stress in hundreds of pounds per PE pipe to a depth of 10 percent of the pipe wall
square inch. These three classification parameters thickness will not cause a noticeable drop in the pipes
have been combined into the following material des- burst strength.
ignation codes used by AWWA C906-90: A procedure that is being increasingly used to
rehabilitate old pipelines also takes advantage of PEs
high ductility. To make it easier to insert the PE pipe
TABLE 1 Multipliers for calculating minimum
into the pipe being rehabilitated, the diameter of the
permanent bending radius* PE pipe is temporarily reduced by squeezing the pipe
between mechanical rollers or by pulling it through
Installation Temperature a reduction die. After the pipe is in place, the PEs
strain memory is released, and the PE liner pipe grows
Pipe Dimension At or Above
Ratio 73oF (23oC) At 32oF (0oC) into a snug fit inside the rehabilitated pipe. This pro-
cedure is now being commercially applied to restore
7.3 through 17 20 50 water and sewer mains.
21 and 26 30 75
32.5 40 100
Major applications take advantage
*The minimum permanent bending radius (in inches) is equal to the
nominal pipe diameter (in inches) times the appropriate multiplier. This of PEs low stiffness, high ductility
table applies to plain pipe and to pipe near, but not including, butt-fused
connections. Consult the pipe manufacturer for the more restrictive
PEs lower stiffness allows smaller-diameter pipe
bending limits that apply to pipe sections that include butt-fusion joints or generally up to 3 in. (75 mm) but in some cases up to
that are adjacent to socket, electrofusion, and mechanical connectors.
The minimum bending radius for temperatures between 73oF (23oC) and
6 in. (150 mm)to be offered in coils. The longer coils
32oF (0oC) can be estimated by linear interpolation. Contact the pipe
supplier for the bending radius for temperatures below 32oF (0oC).
*The 06 codes the RHDS in units of hundreds of pounds per square inch.
The 08 codes the RHDS in hundreds of pounds per square inch.

Copyright (C) 1999 American Water Works Association

94 VOLUME 91, ISSUE 2 JOURNAL AWWA
decrease the number of
required connections and
make installation easier.
PEs lower stiffness can
also simplify installation
of straight lengths of pipe.
Pipe can be assembled into
long lengths above ground
and lowered into the
trench. Bends in a pipeline
are also easier to make,
often reducing the need
for change-of-direction fit-
tings. Because of its
greater flexibility, PE pipe
can also be installed using
no-dig operations. It can
be inserted into old cor-
roded pipelines as de-
scribed earlier or pulled
through pipe tunnels
directionally drilled under
rivers and roads.
The combination of
lower stiffness with duc-
tility and good thermal
fusibility are key reasons
to use PE pipe in lake and
river crossings. A long
length of PE pipe can be
strung on the waters sur-
face by butt-fusing stan-
dard lengths and then
sinking the preweighted
pipe into place by gradually filling it with water. This
same procedure is used to install outfalls.
General installation guidelines
Buried pipe installation. As a general rule, the
trench width at the top of the pipe should allow pipe for backfill within 12 in. (300 mm) of the pipe when
placement and proper compaction of the haunch and
imum cover and burial
Checklist for Properly depth. Pipe intended for
potable water service
should be buried at least
Installing Pipe 12 in. (300 mm) below
the maximum depth ex-
pected for frost penetra-
The following are some important points to con- tion. A minimum cover of
sider when installing pipe. 2 ft (0.6 m) is satisfactory
for pipe that will not be
Provide a stable foundation and uniform bed-
subjected to overhead
ding support.
traffic. Where overhead
Avoid hard points of contact, such as rocks, traffic is expected, a min-
boulders, and parkway ties, with the pipe. imum cover of 3 ft (0.9
Use suitable embedment materials, and m) is generally considered
make sure that they are adequately placed and satisfactory.
compacted. The trench bottom
should be free from debris
Ensure that pipelines placed in common and provide a firm, stable,
trenches receive adequate passive soil support. and uniform bedding.
Do not bend pipe beyond recommended limits. Rock and any other un-
Provide adequate support wherever pipe and yielding material must be
fittings may be subject to shear or bending loads removed to avoid con-
caused by differential soil settlement (such as centrated point loading.
during transition from soil to a solid structure). Any resulting undercut
must be filled back to
Design and operate the system to prevent grade and compacted be-
development of excessive external loads that could fore the pipe is placed to
collapse pipe of lower stiffness. For example, con- ensure that firm, stable
sider the effect of the sudden stopping of pumps material uniformly and
and leaving pipe empty when subject to a high continuously supports the
pipe over its entire length.
Soil types GW, GP, SW,
and SP (or any dual-sym-
bol soil classification beginning with one of these sym-
bols) as referenced in Test Method for Classification of
Soils for Engineering Purposes (ASTM D2487) may be
used for bedding, haunch, and initial backfill materi-
als.* Some GM, GC, SM, and SC soils may be used
approved by an engineer. The maximum particle size
for any of these materials that
will be in contact with PE pipe

P olyethylene fittings used within

a pressurized system must be
sufficiently isolated from significant
should not exceed fl in. (19
mm), unless otherwise speci-
fied by an engineer.
Haunch and initial backfill
materials (Figure 1) should be
placed in successive uniform
layers to ensure full and con-
bending or shear stresses. tinuous contact with the pipe.
Each layer should be com-
initial backfill material. Only minimum trench widths pacted according to requirements established by an
are needed when the pipe is heat-fused outside the engineer. Compaction to at least 85 percent of max-
trench and then lowered into it. imum density value, determined according to Test
Trench depth is determined by soil conditions, pipe Methods for Laboratory Compaction Characteristics
size, and the minimum amount of cover required. Suf- of Soil Using Standard Effort (ASTM D698), is
ficient cover must be provided to ensure that stresses
from surface loads do not exceed acceptable design
*ASTM D2487 soil group symbols are also defined in ASTM D2321,
values. The appropriate local, state, and national codes Standard Practice for Underground Installation of Thermoplastic Pipe for
should be consulted for applicable regulations for min- Sewers and Other Gravity Applications.

Copyright (C) 1999 American Water Works Association

FEBRUARY 1999 COMMITTEE REPORT 95
 mum moisture content. Back-
FIGURE 2 Thrust blocks and bearing surfaces
fill material containing a sig-
nificant proportion of fine-
grained materials (soil types
T-shaped
Y-shaped GM, GC, SM, and SC) should
be compacted with a mechan-
ical tamping device.
When specified by the pur-
chaser, water flooding may be
used to compact cohesionless
backfill materials. The pipe
must not be allowed to float.
Additional backfill material
Top view Top view
may be added once the water-
flooded backfill is firm enough
to walk on.
Large rocks, clods, or debris
that might damage the pipe or
Elbow
Valve preclude compliance with com-
paction requirements should be
removed from the final back-
fill. Rolling equipment or heavy
tampers should be used only to
consolidate the final backfill.
Top view Side view
ASTM D2774 (Standard Prac-
tice for Underground Installa-
FIGURE 3 Schemes for anchoring, water-stopping, and supporting pipe passing tion of Thermoplastic Pressure
through a wall Piping) and D2321 (Standard

;;

;; ;;
;;;
Practice for Underground In-
Rubber padding, Rubber padding, stallation of Thermoplastic Pipe

;;; ;;
approximately A approximately B for Sewers and Other Gravity-
1/8 in. (3.2 mm) 1/8 in. (3.2 mm)
thick 4 in. Fused or thick 4 in. Fused or Flow Applications) discuss com-

;;; ;;
(100 mm) wide mechanical (100 mm) wide mechanical paction materials and recom-
connection connection
mended compaction practices

;;; ;;
in more detail.
The recommendations pre-

;;; ;;
viously outlined also apply
Polyethylene
water-stop and
Polyethylene when multiple pipes are in-
saddles, or other Well-compacted
pipe anchor collar Well-compacted stalled in the same trench. Pipes

;;
anchoring protrusions, backfill
attached by butt or backfill
other heat fusion
fused around pipe must be spaced so that the
haunching and initial backfill

;;;;;;
C around each pipe can be fully
Loose-fit steel U-clamps

;;;;;;
with rubber padding to and adequately compacted.
mold pipe Expansioncontraction

;;;;;;
considerations. Unrestrained
PE pipe has a comparatively
Rigid integral part

;;;;;;
of structure high coefficient of linear expan-
sion, about 1.0 X 104 in./in./oF

;;;;;;
(1.8 X 104 mm/mm/oC), or
about 13 times that of steel
Well-compacted backfill Pocket for
or undisturbed ground bolt accessibilty pipe. The pipe temperature
should be allowed to approach
In C, the support is designed to protect the fitting from earth settlement loads.
the ground temperature before
each individual run of pipe is
terminally connected.
required to develop uniform lateral passive soil forces. In flanged PE connections, the opposing faces of
Placement and compaction should be monitored in the flange assemblies must mate up securely at ap-
the field to ensure satisfactory installation. Vibratory proximately the ground temperature. The bolts should
methods are preferred when compacting cohesionless, not be used to cinch up the mating faces to over-
free-draining sands or gravels. The most desirable come any apparent gap or misalignment. The fric-
results are obtained when these soils are at their opti- tion between the pipe and its embedment will anchor

Copyright (C) 1999 American Water Works Association

96 VOLUME 91, ISSUE 2 JOURNAL AWWA

any additional expansion or contraction of the piping
material from temperature variations after the pipe
has been placed in service. Whenever possible, pipe
should be snaked back and forth within the trench to
provide additional stability against anticipated fluc-
tuations in temperature.
Field bending. Butt-fused PE pipe may be bent in
the field to adapt to gradual changes in grade and
direction. The minimum radius that can be applied to
prevent excessive stress at the butt joint and to avoid
too much ovalization and possible kinking varies with
the pipe. If the pipe supplier does not provide specific
information on bending, the minimum bending radius
for lengths of PE pipe containing butt-fused joints
can be estimated (Table 1). More severe changes in
direction should be made using suitable fittings.
Fittings. PE fittings, either molded or fabricated,
can be butt-fused or flanged into the system when the
required bend radius cannot be achieved by bend-
ing the pipe. Appropriate fittings are also available
to make transition connections to other piping mate-
rials and to connect piping to rigid structures.
Directional fittings are less flexible than pipe and
can be damaged or broken if bent or subjected to repet-
itive flexing stress during installation. Directional fittings
should be located at the end of surface-assembled pip-
ing runs. Damaging stresses can be reduced or avoided
by assembling flanged joints in the trench. Butt-fusing
directional fitting outlets in the trench can result in
damage or breakage because it is difficult to remove the
fusion machine after the joint is completed.
PE fittings used within a pressurized system must be
sufficiently isolated from significant bending or shear
stresses, which may result from field bending of straight-
length pipe or from differential soil settlement. Bend-
ing stresses can be avoided by initiating field bends of
the magnitude described in Table 1 at not less than
three full pipe diameters from the fitting location. Good
Copyright (C) 1999 American Water Works Association
FEBRUARY 1999
PE pipes flexibility and high
strain tolerance enable
submerged pipe to adapt to
unconsolidated river and sea
bottoms and excavated
water trenches and to shift
under external forces caused
by waves and currents.
soil compaction around el-
bows or tees is usually suf-
ficient to control differen-
tial soil settlement. If the
designer determines that
the nature and compaction
of the embedment mater-
ial are not sufficient to
achieve stabilization, this
can be accomplished by
setting a concrete support
in undisturbed soil (Figure
2). Heavy valves should be
set on a concrete pad.
To prevent excessive bending at shear stresses,
movement or bending should be minimized at the
point that pipe or fittings penetrate or are connected
to rigid structures. This can be accomplished by plac-
ing either well-compacted fill or a field-fabricated sup-
port under the pipe or fitting subjected to external
load. Some suggested methods are shown in Figure 3,
which also illustrates techniques for anchoring the
pipe and water-stopping the penetration. In these
arrangements, the flange stub end, or other kind of
connection, is placed inside the building wall or cham-
ber to isolate it from stress and bending forces. For
economic and construction reasons, the options shown
in parts A and B of Figure 3 are preferred when proper
placement and compaction of soil can support pipe.
The designer should also consider enhancing the
foundation and construction of thrust blocking at points
such as sharp changes in direction and side outlets and
valves. At these points, either the weight of the fitting
or reaction to pipe thrust forces may induce significant
additional load. It may be necessary to pour concrete-
bearing surfaces into undisturbed soil to stabilize valves
or connections to a rigid structure (Figures 2 and 3).
If a fabricated fitting is used, the designer should
consult the manufacturer regarding possible perfor-
mance limitations to external loadings that may
require additional external support. Fabricated PE fit-
tings that have mechanical properties that have been
enhanced by a factory-installed fiberglass overwrap
are available for such uses. The fitting could also be
constructed from thicker-walled PE material. The
designer should consult the pipe supplier for recom-
mended handling procedures as well as special instal-
lation requirements for fabricated PE fittings. See the
sidebar on page 95 for more installation information.
Pressure testing for integrity and leakage.
Personnel working near the lines being tested should
be protected from hazards in case the piping system
COMMITTEE REPORT 97
 The total test time should
TABLE 2 Allowance* for expansion under test pressure for ambient
never exceed 8 hours at 1.5
conditions
times the pressure rating. If
Allowance for Expansion the test is not completed be-
(gal [L] per 100 ft [30.48 m] of pipe) cause of leakage, equipment
Nominal 1-Hour 2-Hour 3-Hour
failure, or other reason, the
Pipe Size Test Test Test test section should be permit-
in. (mm) gal (L) gal (L) gal (L) ted to relax for 8 hours before
4 (100) 0.13 (0.49) 0.25 (0.95) 0.40 (1.51)
the next testing sequence.
6 (150) 0.30 (1.14) 0.60 (2.27) 0.90 (3.41) Disinfection. When dis-
8 (200) 0.50 (1.89) 1.0 (3.78) 1.5 (5.68) infection is required, the PE
10 (250) 0.75 (2.84) 1.3 (4.92) 2.1 (7.95)
12 (300) 1.1 (4.16) 2.3 (8.71) 3.4 (12.87) piping system and appurte-
14 (350) 1.4 (5.30) 2.8 (10.60) 4.2 (15.90) nances should be flushed, dis-
16 (400) 1.7 (6.44) 3.3 (12.49) 5.0 (18.93) infected, and then flushed
18 (450) 2.2 (8.33) 4.3 (16.28) 6.5 (24.61)
20 (500) 2.8 (10.60) 5.5 (20.82) 8.0 (30.28) again before being placed in
22 (550) 3.5 (13.25) 7.0 (26.50) 10.5 (39.75) service. The guidelines for
24 (600) 4.5 (17.03) 8.9 (33.69) 13.3 (50.35)
28 (650) 5.5 (20.82) 11.1 (42.02) 16.8 (63.59)
this procedure are set forth
32 (800) 7.0 (26.50) 14.3 (54.13) 21.5 (81.39) in AWWA C651-92, Standard
36 (900) 9.0 (34.07) 18.0 (68.14) 27.0 (102.21) for Disinfecting Water Mains.
42 (1,050) 12.0 (45.42) 22.5 (85.17) 35.0 (132.49)
48 (1,200) 15.0 (56.78) 27.0 (102.21) 43.0 (162.77) Prolonged exposure to disin-
54 (1,350) 18.0 (68.14) 30.0 (113.56) 50.0 (189.27) fection chemicals can dam-
63 (1,600) 27.0 (102.21) 54.0 (204.41) 81.0 (306.61) age the pipe and must be
*These allowances only apply to the test phase and not the initial expansion phase. In addition, they assume that avoided. The disinfectant
the pipe is being tested for a system design pressure at the lowest elevation in the system that is equal to the
pipes pressure class (PC). In other words, these allowances apply to a test pressure that is 1.5 times the pipes
should be flushed with fresh
PC. If the pipe is being tested to a lower system design pressure, the allowances should be reduced by the ratio water as soon as the pipe dis-
of the system design pressure to the pipes PC.
When testing at temperatures below ambient (approximately 75oF), less pipe expansion takes place, resulting in infection period is over.
lower requirements for makeup water. For a test temperature of about 68oF (20oC), the values in this table should
be multiplied by a reduction factor of 0.75. For 50oF (10oC), this factor is 0.50.
Marine installations
PE pipe has been installed
in marine applications, in-
ruptures. Compressed air should never be used to cluding river, lake, and saltwater crossings; fresh-
pressure-test a PE pipeline. and saltwater intakes; and effluent outfalls. The pipes
Installed pipeline should be adequately anchored flexibility, light weight, and ability to be butt-fused
with a covering of at least 6 in. (150 mm) of initial into continuous long lengths result in relatively sim-
backfill. The joints and fittings, and particularly ple and economical installation. Even during heavy
flanged connections, may be left uncovered so they sea conditions, long ocean outfalls and transmission
can be visually inspected for leaks. The pipeline pipelines can be submerged in a short time. Its flex-
should be slowly filled with water, and all trapped air ibility and high strain tolerance enable submerged
should be bled off. It should then undergo a hydro- pipe to adapt to unconsolidated river and sea bot-
static pressure test using pressure at the lowest ele- toms and excavated water trenches and to shift under
vation in the system that is 1.5 times the systems external forces caused by waves and currents.
design pressure. A marine pipeline may face considerable risk both
An alternative test consists of (1) an initial expan- during installation and while in service. This discussion
sion phase and (2) the test phase. When PE pipe is first on the design and installation of PE piping for outfalls
pressurized, an initial gradual diametric expansion and other marine purposes is limited to issues that are
occurs. It results in a drop in test pressure that must particular to PE. Design procedures and installation
be compensated by the addition of makeup water. In practices common to all submerged pipeline materials,
the first phase of this test, sufficient makeup water is including PE, are beyond the scope of this report.
added to the system four times at approximately 1- The six steps of marine installation. Nearly all
hour intervals to return to the test pressure. marine installations comprise the following steps.
Approximately 4 hours after the pipe under test is Selection of an appropriate site. The site for stag-
initially pressurized, the actual test phase, which ing, joining, and launching the pipeline should prefer-
should not exceed 3 hours, begins. At the end of the ably be on land adjacent to the body of water in
test phase, a measured amount of makeup water not which the pipeline is to be installed. It also should
to exceed the allowances in Table 2 is added to return be accessible to vehicles delivering materials on land.
to the test pressure. Another way to test for leakage If this is not practical, the pipe may be joined at a
involves maintaining the test pressure (described ear- more accessible location and then floated to the instal-
lier) over a 4-hour period and then dropping it by 10 lation site. The joining site should be relatively flat so
psi (69 kPa). If the pressure remains steady (i.e., within that the pipe can be properly aligned during butt-
5 percent of the target value) for an hour, there is no fusion joining. The ground over which the pipe must
leakage in the system. be moved to the water should be free from rocks and

Copyright (C) 1999 American Water Works Association

98 VOLUME 91, ISSUE 2 JOURNAL AWWA
debris that might damage (roughly equivalent to a
the pipe or interfere with TABLE 3 Ballast spacing (L) range weight of 2035 percent
its proper launching. Nominal Pipe Diameter Approximate Span L
of pipe displacement) is
Assembly of the indi- in. (mm) ft (m) sufficient. Normal sea
vidual lengths of pipe into conditions, even close to
Up to 12 (300) 510 (1.53.0)
a continuous string. In- Above 12, up to 24 (>12600) 7.515 (2.34.6) the shore, will seldom
dividual pipe lengths are Above 24, up to 63 (>6001,575) 1020 (3.06.1) require more weight than
butt-fused into lengths that that required for sub-
are convenient to handle merging the pipeline
and launch. Trained per- when it is 100 percent full
sonnel should fuse the pipes using appropriate equip- of air. When greater weight is required, additional
ment and according to the pipe manufacturers fusion weights can be mounted after submersion. When it is
parameters for the particular pipe material and joining not practical to add weights after submersion, the pipes
conditions (outdoor temperature and wind). If the pipe buoyancy may be temporarily increased by the use of
is being launched as it is joined, an adequate holding empty tanks or drums or large blocks of rigid plastic
area should be available until submersion. If shorter foam. These may then be released after submersion
lengths of material are being used to construct the to temporarily increase the pipes buoyancy.
pipeline, they can be preflanged on the ground for final The weight per unit length of pipe required to off-
connection on the water. PEs specific gravity of slightly set the buoyancy caused by a pipeline partially filled
below 1.0 allows PE pipe to float. However, it is still with air may be calculated using the following equation:
necessary to provide a bulkhead on each end of the
pipeline to prevent water from entering, thus retain- WB B
ing maximum buoyancy to support the ballast weights
until the sinking operation begins. The bulkhead, or

L  
 (VE W WP VI (1 R) L)   D (1)
B w
blind flange, should have sufficient tapped holes for the
installation of valves and outlets to control internal pres- in which WB is the ballast weight (lb [kg]); wP is the
sure and the rate of air release during submersion. pipe weight (lb/ft [kg/m]); VE is the external volume
Launching of the joined pipeline. The pipeline can of the pipe (cu ft/ft [m3/m]); VI is the internal volume
be launched before or after the ballast weights are of the pipe (cu ft/ft [m3/m]); B is the density of the bal-
placed. The decision whether to weight the pipe on last (lb/cu ft [kg/m3]); W is the density of water (lb/cu
land or in the water should consider practicality and ft [kg/m3]); L is the density of the liquid inside the pipe
economic factors. As noted earlier, the surface over (lb/cu ft [kg/m3]); R is the fraction of internal volume
which the pipe is moved should be free from rocks or occupied by air; L is the span, center to center, between
debris. The pipe can be moved on temporary wooden the ballast weights (ft [m]); and D is the sea drag and
dunnage or rollers. The best way to launch the pipe- lift forces, when present (lb/ft [kg/m]).
line is to lift and pull it before it enters the water. In selecting a design value for R, the designer should
Some pushing on the land end also helps the process. consider the extent to which air accumulation from
The pipe should be lifted by using belly-band slings, pumps or dissolved air may empty the line. The actions
inverted Y ropes, or spreader beams with rope slings, of the waves, currents, and tides, which can produce
or by other means that avoid point loading. The flange drag and lift forces that might need to be additionally
assemblies should never be used to pull the pipe, and compensated, should also be considered. For installa-
suitable marine equipment should be used to control tions with minimum chance of air pocketing, rela-
the pipeline during and after placement into the water. tively calm lake or sea floors, and pipe installed in
If pipe is being launched into a body of water sub- trenches, the assumption of about 15 percent air has
ject to tides, currents, or high waves, it may be nec- been shown to work satisfactorily. If pipe is subject to
essary to control it with temporary guide cables, sea drag and lift forces, procedures are available1,2 to
anchors, or pilings. Such a restraining system can estimate the additional weight needed to secure the
also be used to store the pipe before submersion. If a pipe and keep dislocations within acceptable limits.
pipe with ballast weights already attached is being In determining the ballast weight (WB) from Eq 1,
launched, a ramp or rail skidway should be used to the common practice is to keep the ballast spacing (L)
help the ballast weights move easily into the water within the range set forth in Table 3. These midspans
without catching on the ground. are significantly shorter than those that would result
Weighting the pipeline to sink it and hold it sub- solely based on considerations of reasonable limits of
merged. This step can be conducted during launching. midspan deflections (to minimize air pockets) and per-
PE pipeline that is floating and ready to be submerged missible bending strain (usually held to under 3 per-
should not be weighted more than necessary to over- cent). These shorter spans better distribute anchoring
come the lift when the pipe is 100 percent full of air. loads on the sea bottom, which often has only mod-
This weight limit is equal to about two thirds of the pipe erate load-bearing capacity. They also minimize pipe
displacement. For most cases in which the pipe is dislocation and smooth out the submersion process.
trenched or installed in relatively calm water, a weight Furthermore, these spacings result in ballasts that are
to offset from 15 to 20 percent air in the pipeline more manageable both in size and in weight.

Copyright (C) 1999 American Water Works Association

FEBRUARY 1999 COMMITTEE REPORT 99
 Ballasts are typically constructed of reinforced
concrete. They can be made in different shapes; how-
ever, a symmetrical designround, square, or hexag-
onalis preferred to avoid twisting during submer-
sion. Flat-bottomed weights that sit on the bottom
of a river or ocean help prevent the submerged
pipeline from moving torsionally when subjected to
currents, tides, and waves. Lifting lugs should be built
into the ballasts to make handling easier.
The inside diameter of the ballasts should be
slightly larger than the outside diameter of the pipe to
accommodate an interlining to cushion the soft plas-
tic from the sharp ballasts. Suggested materials for
the interlining include several wraps of approximately
1/8-in.- (3.2-mm-) thick rubber sheet, approximately -
in.- (6.4-mm-) thick neoprene sponge sheet, and car-
pet underpadding. The ballasts should be sufficiently
tightened into final position according to pipe manu-
facturers recommendations so that they will not move
even if the pipe stands vertically during submersion.
The tightening hardware should be corrosion-resis-
tant. Stainless-steel strapping or corrosion-resistant
bolting is most commonly used. The latter is preferable
for pipes more than 8 in. (200 mm) in diameter
because it allows for posttightening to offset the effect
of pipe stress relaxation before submersion.
Submersion of the pipeline. A pipeline ready for
submersion is positioned over its final resting location.
The air-filled pipeline is filled with water so that it
sinks to the bottom starting from the shore and pro-
gressing outward. When the sinking begins, water
should be prevented from running the full length of
the pipeline. This can be achieved by lifting and hold-
ing the pipeline a short distance from the shore to
create a water pocket at the shore end. Once the
sunken pocket is established and the inboard section
has been submerged, the lifted section of pipe is slowly
returned to the water. Additional water is then added
to displace air and submerge the entire pipeline.
The pipe should be filled at a rate and under con-
ditions that allow the following objectives to be met:
(1) no entrapment of air, which may cause a hump
in the line; (2) the line sinks at a rate that allows it to
settle to the bottom profile without bridging; (3) the
radius in the pipeline created by the moving pocket
is not so tight as to risk pipe buckling or kinking;*
and (4) the internal pressure must be sufficient, par-
ticularly in the air-filled portion of pipe above the
moving sunken pocket, to prevent the pipe from col-
lapsing from high net external water pressure. Gen-
erally, these objectives can be achieved by submerg-
ing the pipeline at a controlled rate of 1,0001,500 fph
(305457 m/h). Sometimes, greater control is desir-
able. For example, in deeper submersions, which
may result in tighter pipe bending and higher net
external pressure that can increase the risk of buck-
ling, water may be introduced into the pipeline
against some air pressure that is measured by a pres-
sure gauge and controlled by valves installed at the
blind flange bulkhead. The positive air pressure
helps reduce both the degree of pipe bending and
Copyright (C) 1999 American Water Works Association
100 VOLUME 91, ISSUE 2
the net external hydrostatic pressure. This helps pre-
vent the chance of both buckling and hydraulic col-
lapse, which are of great concern when thinner-
walled pipelines are installed. Curvature of the
submerging pipe can also be reduced and controlled
by pulling or towing the pipeline at the sea surface,
thus keeping slight tension on the pipeline.
Providing protection at the transition zone. At the
land-to-water transition, the pipe should be covered
with adequate riprap to protect it from waves, boats,
and anchors. The pipe should be installed so that it is
gradually curved to the level of the trench bottom
on land.
Summary
Because of its sturdiness, toughness, versatility,
and resistance to failure and damage, PE piping mate-
rial is ideal for use in water distribution systems. It is
flexible enough to be pulled through old pipe that
needs to be rehabilitated yet strong enough to with-
stand currents and waves when used underwater in
oceans, lakes, and rivers. However, PEs performance
depends on how well it is designed and installed.
To meet the need for guidelines on designing and
installing PE pipe made in accordance with AWWA
C906-90 and AWWA C901-96, the AWWA Committee
on Polyolefin Pressure Pipe and Fittings is currently
developing a manual on the topic. Until that manual is
finished, this Committee Report can help engineers,
designers, and installers properly use PE piping and
thereby get the most reliable service from it.
References
1. JANSON, L.E. The Utilization of Plastic Pipe for Sub-
marine OutfallsState of the Art. Water Sci & Tech-
nol., 18:11:171 (Nov. 1986).
2. JANSON, L.E. Plastic Pipes for Water Supply and
Sewage Disposal. Neste Chemicals, Stockholm,
Sweden (1989).
About the authors: This article is the work of the AWWA
Polyolefin Pressure Pipe and Fittings Committee. It was pre-
pared by K.M. Bell, E.L. Bixby, J.P. Castronovo, J.O. Catlin,
R.E. Chambers, K.C. Choquette, J.D. Cox, D.E. Crum (for-
mer chair), J.L. Daghe, J.L. Diebel, B.R. Elms, W.T. Flynn,
W.F. Guillaume, L.A. Kinney Jr., J.F. Kubala, John Lee
(chair), P.H. Luckett, W.J. McGlinchy, E.W. Misichko, S.A.
Mruk, J.B. Nusbaum, J.R. Paschal, S.E. Pregun, C.W. Rett,
P.J. Schreiber, Jim Wailes, R.F. Wood, and M.S. Wright.
*A guideline to avoid the risk of buckling under short-term pipe bend-
ing is to limit the bending radius to not less than three quarters of the val-
ues in Table 1.
Hydraulic collapse pressure values are given in Table 5 of the full
committee report. An important factor in the design phase is the selection
of a pipe dimension ratio that provides sufficient buckling resistance dur-
ing the submerging process.
Because of safety considerations, air pressure should not exceed one
third of the pipe pressure class.
JOURNAL AWWA