In the night sky:

Orion
Glossary

A astronomical unit

An astronomical unit (A.U.) is the average

accretion disc
distance of the Earth from the Sun. Equal to
about 150 million km.
A flow of matter that is confined to a plane and
that is spiralling in towards a central object.
Astronomy

angular size
Astronomy is the scientific study of stars,
space, and the physical universe as a whole.
The angle between two lines drawn from an
observers eye to opposite sides of the object
atom
being observed.

The building block of chemistry comprising a

asteroid
tiny, dense, positively charged atomic nucleus
(which can contain both protons and neutrons)
A body made of mainly rocky materials with surrounding negatively charged electrons
(including metals) in orbit around the Sun, that equal in number to the number of protons in
is typically much less massive than a planet. the nucleus.
Most asteroids are found in the asteroid belt
between Mars and Jupiter. Asteroids (and
comets) are often called minor planets. The
largest known asteroid (Ceres) is classified as
a dwarf planet. B

asteroid belt Big Bang

A region between Mars and Jupiter in which
most asteroids reside in stable orbits. Also
called main belt.
Astrology
The study of the movements and relative
positions of celestial bodies claimed as having
an influence on human affairs and the natural
world. Astrology is not a science.
The event which is believed to mark the origin
of time and space. Consequences of the Big
Bang include the fact that space is expanding,
that the temperature of the Universe is falling
and that elements or isotopes such as helium,
lithium and deuterium have certain abundances
in the Universe.
Big Crunch
An hypothesis that, if there were enough matter The lower part of the Suns atmosphere
in the Universe, the expansion of the Universe situated immediately above the photosphere.
would eventually become a contraction, leading
to a big crunch. This hypothesis is no longer
believed to be valid.
black hole
A region of the Universe in which gravity is so
strong that not even light can escape.
blueshift
The shift in the spectrum of a source of
electromagnetic radiation thats approaching
the observer. Equal to the shift in wavelength
of a particular feature in the spectrum divided
by the original (or rest) wavelength of the same
feature. A blueshift corresponds to a shortening
of the emitted wavelength.
brown dwarf
Brown dwarfs are cool, faint objects, with a
core temperature too low for hydrogen burning
to commence. They are inherently difficult to
observe, but a number have been discovered.
bulge
A structural component of the Milky Way and
other spiral galaxies, consisting of a thick,
dense concentration of stars around the centre
of the disc. Bulges are a common feature of
spiral and lenticular galaxies. In the case of
the Milky Way (and many other galaxies), the
bulge is elongated to form a bar.
carbon burning
The process by which carbon nuclei undergo
nuclear fusion to form a neon nucleus (and a
new helium nculeus) in massive stars.
chromosphere
comet
A relatively small (typically a few kilometres
across) body made of icy materials and rocky
materials. Comets are found mainly in the Oort
cloud, and also in the Kuiper Belt, and some
enter the inner Solar System.
core
The central very hot region of a star (such as
the Sun) where nuclear reactions occur during
the Main Sequence lifetime.
corona
The upper part of the Suns atmosphere. It is
very hot, very tenuous and very extensive.
cosmological constant
A constant (often written as a capital lambda
or ) introduced into the equations of general
relativity by Albert Einstein. It was originally
conceived as a property of space and time
that counteracts the predicted expansion
or contraction of the Universe. It is now
sometimes thought of as a content of the
Universe, rather than a property of space itself.
See also dark energy.
D Doppler effect
dark energy
Energy of currently unknown origin that has
become the dominant influence on cosmic
expansion and is currently causing that
expansion to accelerate. Dark energy is
thought to account for about 70% of all the
energy in the Universe. It is not thought to be
associated with dark matter. It is related to
Einsteins cosmological constant: this constant
can be thought of as an in-built property of
space and time to expand, or as a mysterious
substance within space and time that causes
expansion. If taking this latter view, the
cosmological constant can be thought of as a
particular (constant) type of dark energy.
dark matter
A currently unknown form of matter that neither
absorbs nor emits any detectable radiation,
but can be detected and studied through its
gravitational influence on directly observable
(luminous) matter.
deuterium
Also known as heavy hydrogen. An isotope of
hydrogen, the nucleus of which contains one
proton and one neutron. Compare with tritium.
differentiation
(of a planet). A process in which the
constituents of large Solar System bodies are
sorted into layers of distinct composition, with
the most dense materials concentrated towards
the centre, usually as a result of heating.
disc
A structural component of the Milky Way,
consisting of a disc approximately 100 000
light years in diameter and a few thousand
light years thick that contains approximately
1011 stars, together with gas and dust. Similar
discs are present in other spiral and lenticular
galaxies.
The process by which the wavelength of a
wave is altered when the source of the wave
is moving with respect to the observer. Motion
away from an observer causes the wavelength
to be perceived as longer than that with which
it was emitted; motion towards an observer
causes the wavelength to be perceived as
shorter than that with which it was emitted.
dust
In astrophysical terms dust referes to carbon-
rich molecules and small mineral rich grains
composed of elements such as oxygen, silicon,
iron and magnesium.
dwarf planet
A large rocky or icy body in orbit around the
Sun that does not fulfil the criteria of being
classed as a planet (usually because it has not
swept out a clear path on its orbit).
E
ecliptic
The plane of the Earth's orbit about the Sun.
Also the path of the Sun in the sky (on the
celestial sphere) during the course of a year.
electromagnetic radiation
A type of radiation that includes visible light
and travels through empty space at the speed
of light. All forms of electromagnetic radiation
consist of wave-like patterns of electric and
magnetic disturbances but interact with matter
(i.e. are emitted or absorbed) as a stream of
particles, called photons.
electromagnetic spectrum
The entire range of electromagnetic radiation
from radio waves through microwaves, infrared
radiation, light, ultraviolet radiation, and X-rays
to gamma rays.
electron degeneracy pressure
An effect of quantum physics that provides the
support against gravity in a white dwarf star.
elliptical galaxy
A galaxy that appears as an elliptical
distribution of stars (typically old stars).
emission line
A spectral line produced when atoms of a
particular type emit photons with a specific
energy.
emission spectrum
A spectrum containing emission lines. A pattern
of narrow bright lines at specific wavelengths,
generally superimposed on a dark background.
The wavelengths of the lines are characteristic
of the composition of the excited gas that
produces them.
event horizon
The boundary around a black hole within which
the escape velocity exceeds that of light. Note
that this does not consist of a solid, physical
surface.
exoplanet
A planet orbiting a star other than the Sun.
Shortened version of extrasolar planet.
exponent
The power to which a number or quantity is
raised. For example, 103 is read as 'ten to the
power 3' and means 10 x 10 x 10, where the
exponent (or index) is '3'.
extragalactic
Of or pertaining to the Universe outside our
own galaxy.
extrasolar planet
A planet orbiting a star other than the Sun. Also
abbreviated to exoplanet.
F
flare
A highly energetic form of solar activity,
typically lasting a few hours, caused by the
sudden release of magnetic energy in the
corona.
frequency
(of a wave) The number of complete cycles of
a wave that pass a certain fixed point in a unit
of time. Conventionally measured in the SI unit
of hertz, Hz (or, equivalently, s1). It is equal to
one over the period of the wave, and is related
to the wavelength and the speed of a wave,
, by = f.
G
galaxy
A vast assembly of dark matter and luminous
matter, typically tens of thousands of light
years in diameter and containing billions of
stars, held together by the mutual gravitational
attraction of its constituents. Our own galaxy,
known as the Milky Way or simply the Galaxy,
is a typical spiral galaxy with a mass about a
hundred billion times that of the Sun.
galaxy cluster
A gathering of galaxies in a region of space
typically 12 to 15 million light years across.
Some clusters have many members ('rich'
clusters) but sparse clusters, with fewer than
50 members, are termed 'groups'.
gas giant
A planet considerably larger than the Earth,
composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Also
called giant planet (cf. terrestrial planet).
Giant Molecular Cloud
A dense cloud of cold dust and gas within
which stars form, extending for many billions of
kilometres and typically containing more than a
million solar masses of material.
giant planet
A planet considerably larger than the Earth,
composed largely of hydrogen and helium. Also
called gas giant (cf. terrestrial planet).
globular cluster
Globular clusters are compact, nearly
spherical, groups of many thousands or
millions of stars found within the galactic halo.
The stars in globular clusters are among the
oldest in the Galaxy, and so have very low
amounts of elements other than hydrogen and
helium.
group
A gathering of galaxies with fewer than 50
members, bound together by gravity (cf galaxy
cluster).
H greater a galaxys distance, the greater the
habitable zone
The range of distances from a star within which
an Earth-like planet would be habitable.
Harvard Spectral Classification
A commonly used classification scheme for
stars by which the temperature of a star is
denoted by the assignment of a letter in the
sequence OBAFGKM, running from hottest (O)
to coolest (M)
helium burning
The process by which stars fuse three helium
nuclei into one carbon nucleus via the triple
alpha process.
Hertzsprung-Russell (HR) diagram
A diagnostic diagram whereby the evolutionary
state of a star may be discerned via a
combination of stellar temperature and
luminosity. Named after its originators Ejnar
Hertzsprung and Henry Norris Russell.
hot Jupiter
A giant planet, with a mass close to or greater
than that of Jupiter, and which orbits very close
to its parent star.
Hubble deep field
A project with the Hubble Space Telescope
to obtain a series of very deep exposures to
search for distant galaxies at high redshift.
Hubbles law
The observation that, for distant galaxies, the
redshift of the radiation received from that
galaxy.
hydrogen burning
The process by which stars on the main
sequence release energy via the conversion of
hydrogen into helium in their cores.
hydrogen shell burning
The process by which, in post-Main Sequence
stars, hydrogen is converted into helium in a
thin shell exterior to the core.
hydrostatic equilibrium
In a star, the state at which physical forces
directed inwards are exactly balanced by those
directed outwards.
I of neutrons, they differ in mass number.
icy materials
A term used in Solar System studies for
materials that comprise water and other
substances that are solid only at relatively low
temperatures, although they can be liquid on
the surfaces or in the interiors of planets, or
gaseous in the atmospheres of planets.
inclination
The angle i between the orbital plane of an
astronomical body and a reference plane. For
a solar system body the reference plane is the
ecliptic. (The inclination of the orbit of a binary
star is the angle between the orbital plane and
the plane of the sky, so that a face-on binary
has i = 0 and an edge-on (eclipsing) system
has i close to 90).
inflation
The name given to a theory that describes
the behaviour of the Universe at times
between about 10-35 s and 10-32 s after the big
bang. During this interval it is proposed that
distances within the Universe increased by an
extraordinarily huge factor. Inflation predicts
that we live in a spatially flat universe.
interstellar medium
The very thin gas and tiny specks of dust that
lie between the stars.
iron group
A subset of heavy metallic elements, such as
iron, cobalt and nickel that are the endpoints of
nuclear fusion reactions in massive stars.
isotope
Atoms with the same number of protons in their
nuclei but different numbers of neutrons are
called isotopes. Because they have the same
number of protons, they have the same atomic
number and are atoms of the same chemical
element. But because of the different number
K
Kuiper Belt
The region of the Solar System, beyond the
orbit of Neptune, containing many icy-rocky
bodies, including dwarf planets (such as Pluto)
with relatively low inclination orbits. The Kuiper
Belt is sometimes called the Edgeworth-
Kuiper Belt and is a sub-set of trans-Neptunian
objects.
L
light year
The distance that light (in a vacuum) travels in
one year. Equal to about ten thousand billion
km (1013 km).
Local Group
The grouping of galaxies in the neighbourhood
of our galaxy. It contains about 40 known
galaxies including the Milky Way and all the
other galaxies within about three or four million
light years.
local supercluster
The supercluster of galaxies centred on the
rich Virgo cluster of galaxies and including the
Local Group as an outlying constituent.
luminosity
The amount of power emitted by a luminous
object such as a star or galaxy, in the form of
light or other electromagnetic radiation. It is
related to the observed brightness of an object
by the relationship: luminosity is proportional
to brightness multiplied by distance squared.
Luminosity may be measured in the unit of
watts.
M it will undergo a type II supernova explosion
magnitude scale
An historical, logarithmic scale devised
to represent the observed brightness of
astronomical objects such as stars.
main sequence
The portion of the lifetime of a star during
which it produces energy via the fusion of
hydrogen to helium in its core. A star will
remain on the Main Seqeunce for the majority
of its total lifetime.
meteor
Extra-terrestrial object that is observed by the
electromagnetic radiation it emits as it enters
the Earth's atmosphere. 'Shooting stars' are
visible meteors.
meteorite
An extra-terrestrial rock (generally a fragment
of an asteroid) that has fallen to the Earths
surface.
N
near Earth asteroid
An asteroid that has an orbit that brings it
close to the orbit of the Earth (defined as any
asteroid that comes within 1.3 astronomical
units from the Sun). Abbreviated to NEA.
neon burning
The process by which massive stars fuse a
neon and helium nucleus together to produce a
magnesium nucleus, releaseing energy in the
process.
neutron star
When a high-mass star runs out of nuclear fuel,
and its core will collapse to form a neutron
star. A neutron star has a mass similar to that
of the Sun, but a radius of only about 10 km. A
neutron star is supported against gravity by an
effect of quantum physics known as neutron
degeneracy pressure. See also white dwarf,
black hole.
nuclear fusion
The fusing together of two or more atomic
nuclei to make a larger nucleus. There is a
decrease in the total mass of the nuclei in a
fusion reaction, so this process results in the
release of large amounts of energy, according
to Einsteins equation E = mc2.
nuclear reactions
Processes in which two or more nuclei are
involved, resulting in the creation of different
nuclei from those originally present. See also
nuclear fusion.
nucleosynthesis
The process by which the nuclei of elements
(other than hydrogen) are formed. There are
believed to be three sites (or epochs) where
(or when) nucleosynthesis occurs (or has
occurred). Light nuclei, such as deuterium,
helium and lithium, were formed in the early
Universe when the Universe was between
about 100 s and 1000 s old. Nuclear fusion
inside the cores of stars is responsible for
the formation of more helium nuclei, and also
for the formation of other nuclei up to those
with a mass around that of iron. Supernovae
explosions are responsible for the formation of
more massive nuclei.
O
Oort cloud
A spherical cloud of icy bodies surrounding the
Solar System and extending up to one-third
of the way to the nearest star. It is sometimes
called the pik-Oort cloud.
oxygen burning
The process by which, towards the end of
their lives, massive stars fuse oxygen nuclei
together to form silicon.
P from the accretion of planetary embryos and
photon
A particle of light or other electromagnetic
radiation. Monochromatic light consists of
photons that each have exactly the same
amount of energy, called a quantum of energy.
Photons have no mass or electric charge.
photosphere
The luminous 'surface' of the Sun (or of other
stars). The Suns photosphere is about 500 km
thick.
planet
Large rocky or gaseous bodies in orbit
around a star. According to the International
Astronomical Union, a planet must meet the
following criteria: it is large enough to become
spherical under the influence of its own gravity;
it orbits a star; it has swept out a clear path on
its orbit around the Sun; it is not a satellite of
another body.
planetary embryo
A massive body thought to have formed from
the accretion of planetesimals, and which
themselves combined to form planets, during
the formation of the Solar System. A few
planetary embryos remain in the form of the
largest asteroids and trans-Neptuinan objects.
planetary nebula
The expanding dust and gas thrown out by a
star of similar mass to the Sun as it reaches
the end of its life.
planetesimal
Small bodies (a few km in size), that formed
from aggregation of dust grains in the early
solar nebula and are large enough to attract
each other by gravity.
protoplanet
Bodies formed in the early solar system
planetesimals, that are large enough to have
undergone differentiation.
protostar
A collapsing fragment of a molecular cloud that
eventually becomes a star.
pulsar
A rapidly spinning neutron star. As the neutron
star spins on its axis, beams of radio emission
sweep around the sky like the light from
a lighthouse. On Earth, these beams are
detected as pulses of radio emission.
R
radial velocity
The component of an astronomical object's
relative velocity in the line of sight of an
observer, i.e. in a radial direction towards or
away from the observer.
red giant
A large, cool star that is going through
subsidiary stages of nuclear reactions, having
exhausted its hydrogen fuel supply.
red giant branch
A region on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram in
which red giants (luminous but cool stars in the
later stages of their evolution) are found.
redshift
A shift of a spectral line to redder (longer)
wavelengths. There are two types of redshift
discussed in this course:
(1) Doppler shift resulting from motion of the
emitting object away from the observer. This
is the case for some nearby galaxies, but this
is not the underlying physical cause of most
cosmological redshifting.
(2) Cosmological redshift resulting from
expansion of the Universe (see the Hubble
constant, Big Bang) which stretches the
wavelength of the light, making the light redder.
rocky materials
Materials, such as minerals and metals, that
are present in Solar System bodies that require
high temperatures in order to melt (cf. icy
materials).
S
satellite
An object in orbit around a larger one, e.g. a
moon, or an artificial space probe orbiting a
planet.
silicon burning
The process of silicon burning produces
elements such as sulfur, argon and calcium via
the fusion of silicon nuclei at the end of the life
of a massive star.
size of the observable Universe
That part of the wider Universe that has
been able to send us light signals since the
beginning of the Universe. The Universe as a
whole is larger, perhaps infinitely larger, than
the observable part of it.
solar nebula
The hypothetical cloud of gas and dust within
which the Sun and other constituents of the
Solar System formed.
Solar System
The system comprising the Sun and all the
bodies (planets and their satellites, dwarf
planets, comets and asteroids) that orbit
around it.
spectrum supernova

A display (such as a graph or a photograph) A dramatic stellar explosion, produced when

of the distribution of light or other types of a star several times the mass of the Sun has
radiation versus the wavelength (or frequency exhausted its nuclear fuel.
or energy) of the radiation. It indicates the
intensity of light at each different wavelength.
A spectrum may be a continuous spectrum or
may show emission lines (emission spectrum) T
or absorption lines (absorption spectrum).
terrestrial planet
speed of light
A planet similar in size to the Earth, composed
The speed at which light travels. It is equal to of rocky materials (cf. giant planet).
approximately 300 million metres per second
(3 108 m s1). Often denoted by the letter c as
thermal pulses
in Einstein's famous equation, E = mc2.
Thermal pulses are brief bursts of enhanced
star
energy production in solar mass stars due to
the instabilities inherent in helium shell burning.
A luminous gaseous body that is gravitationally
bound and that is capable, or was capable
triple-alpha process
in the past, of sustaining itself against
gravitational collapse by thermonuclear
reactions. Until the very late stages of their A sequence of nuclear fusion reactions that
evolution, stars are composed mostly of occurs in the cores of high-mass stars. In this
hydrogen and helium, which are the most sequence, three helium nuclei are converted
abundant elements in the Universe. into a carbon nucleus.

star clusters

Star clusters are physically compact groupings

W
of tens to millions of stars which formed
simultaneously in the same region of space. wave

supergiant A periodic (regularly repeating) disturbance that

transports energy from one place to another,
characterised by its wavelength, frequency (or
A star, several times more massive than
period) and amplitude.
the Sun, after it has exhausted its hydrogen
nuclear fuel supply.
wavelength
supermassive black hole
The distance between one part of the wave
profile, (e.g. the peak of the wave) at a
A term used to describe black holes in the
particular instant in time, and the next identical
centres of galaxies, implying that they have
part of the wave profile at the same instant in
very much more mass than would be expected
time. Wavelength is related to frequency f
from a black hole that originated as the
and speed v of a wave by v = f.
remnant of a single star.
white dwarf

A small hot star, left behind when a red giant

throws off its outer layers as a planetary
nebula. A white dwarf has a mass similar to
that of the Sun, but a radius similar to that of
the Earth. A white dwarf is supported against
gravity by an effect of quantum physics known
as electron degeneracy pressure.

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