1) Investigate how the current flow in the semiconductor material.

- Electrons can be made to jump by various means.

- With potential/voltage:
- Holes (+ve) is attracted to (ve) terminal.
- Free electrons is attracted to (+ve) terminal.
- The movement of electron-hole pair is continuous if the circuit remains
close-circuit.
- The amount of current flow in a semiconductor is dependent on
number of electron-hole pairs in the material.

2) Describe with draw the diagram the operation of doping P type and N type
semiconductor.
- N-type semiconductors
- Four valence electrons are shared in a Covalent Bond.
 - The fifth valence electron is loosely attached to the nucleus of arsenic
atom and can be easily set free.
- The extra electron provided by arsenic atom is called as donor atom.

- With potential across the semiconductor, more free electrons break

away from covalent bond and drifts towards +ve source.
- In N - type material
Electron is majority carrier.
Hole is minority carrier.
- P-type semiconductors
- The gallium atom shares its electrons with three adjacent atoms only.
- The missing electron creates a hole (positive charge) in the covalent
bond.
- Holes are free to drift.
- Holes easily accept electrons -the gallium atom which resulted the hole
is known as acceptor atom.

- With potential across the semiconductor, more electrons are attracted

to +ve source via holes.
- In a P - type material:
* Hole is a majority carrier and.
* Electron is a minority carrier.

3) Illustrate with diagram of junction diode for operational

a) Reverse bias
 - When -ve supply connect at P type electrode.
- Accelerate hole attract to terminal,
- When +ve supply connect at N type electrode.
- Accelerate electron attract to terminal.
- Increase depletion area
- No electron flow ve to +ve, cause no current flow +ve to -ve
b) Forward bias

- When +ve supply connect at P type electrode.

- Accelerate hole repel to junction , attract electron
- When -ve supply connect at N type electrode.
- Accelerate electron repel to junction , attract by hole
- electron flow ve to +ve cause current to flow +ve to -ve

4) Explain in details procedure of testing for diode.

- Remove one leg or both leg from circuit
- Determine the polarity anode or cathode
- Test equipment
- Avometer (Multimeter) (analog or digital) select to ohm
- +ve lead to +ve electrode,
 - -ve lead to ve electrode
- If serviceable, low resistance megaohm forward bias
- If unsevicable, high resistance infinity, open too low resistance kilo
ohm, shorted
- -ve lead to +ve electrode,
- +ve lead to ve electrode
- If serviceable, high resistance infinity,
- Reverse bias if unserviceable, low resistance
- Kilo ohm, shorted high resistance infinity, open
- By using of the two reading, we can notified serviceable or
unserviceable

5) Describe in details NPN and PNP transistor operation with schematic

diagram

- The arrowhead indicates the direction of Conventional current flow

- The base/emitter junction is forward biased
- (Base +ve with respect to emitter for an N-P-N device, and
- Base ve relative to emitter for a P-N-P device).

6) Explain and draw schematic diagram the three configuration for

a) Common collector

- High input impedance

- In phase
- Low voltage gain

b) Common base
 - In phase
- High output impedance
- No current gain
- Good frequency characteristic
c) Common emitter

- Inverted phase
- Bad frequency characteristic
- Large voltage gain
- Large power gain

7) Classify the class of amplication such as

a) Class A
- Amplify the total amplitude and not change the characteristic
- By apply constant bias at base

b) Class B
- Amplify only half cycle of the signal
- By apply ve or +ve bias at base continuously
 c) Class C
- Amplify only a portion of the signal cycle
- By apply ve or +ve bias at base

8) Basically there are four method of IC construction. Explain each of them

A) Monolithic
- The monolithic IC is constructed the same manner as a Bipolar
Transistor,
- Its fabrication begins with a circular semiconductor wafer (usually
silicon).
- This wafer is usually very thin (0.015mm 0.3mm) and either 2.5cm or
5cm in diameter.
- The semiconductor serves as a base (SUBSTRATE) on which the tiny
integrated circuits are formed
- When all of the ICs have been formed, the wafer is sliced into many
sections,
- They are commonly referred to as Chips or Dice.
- Each chip represents one complete integrated circuit and contains all
the components and wiring associated with that circuit.
- IC must be mounted in a suitable package and tested using IC Tester

B) Thin film
- A thin-film circuit is formed on the surface of an insulating substrate.
 - In the thin-film circuit, components such as resistors and capacitors
are formed from extremely thin layers of metals and oxides,
- They place onto a glass or ceramic substrate. Interconnecting wires are
also deposited on the substrate as thin strips of metal.
- Components such as diodes and transistors are formed as separate
semiconductor devices and then permanently attached to the
substrate at the appropriate locations.
- The substrate on which the thin-film circuit is formed is usually less
than 2.5cm 2.
- Tantalum or Nichrome less than 0.00254 cm is deposited as thin films
or strips on the surface of the substrate to forms the resistors.
- This thickness,length and width of each strip determine the value of
each resistor.
- The interconnecting conductors are thin metal strips, Low resistance
metals, such as gold, platinum, or aluminium are generally used as
conductors.
- The substrate is made from rigid insulating material such as Glass or
ceramic materials are often used as substrates

C) Thick film
- Thick-film ICs components are formed on an insulating substrate by
using a Silkscreen process.
- A very fine wire screen is placed over the substrate and a metalized-
ink is forced through the screen using a squeegee.
- Certain portions of the wire screen are open (the remaining portions
are filled with a special emulsion)
- The ink penetrate and coat the specific portions of the substrate.
- A pattern of interconnecting conductors is formed,
- Heated to over 6000C to harden the painted surface and become low
resistance conductors.
- Resistors and capacitors are also silk-screened on top of the substrate
by forcing a paste materials and heated till the circuit is formed.
- Components such as diodes and transistors are formed as separate
semiconductor devices and then permanently attached to the
substrate.

D) Hybrid
- Hybrid ICs are formed by various combinations of monolithic, thin-film
and thick film techniques and certain discrete semiconductor
components in chip form.

9) Most PCBs are designed and manufactured using computer aided design.
Describe how their process and explain about the surface mounted
technology (SMT)
- Circuit diagram data is transferred to a printed circuit layout package.
- A netlist is produced which allows the circuit to be manually or
automatically routed
- Component dimensions are stored in a database.
- These data is combined with the netlist to generate a fully routed PCB
layout.
- Following etching and drilling and application of silk-screen component
legend the boards are coated with a solder resist
 - Tin-lead finish is applied to the exposed copper pads.
- Components are placed (automated) and the board is then passed
through a flow-soldering machine to complete the soldering process.
- Surface Mounted Technology (SMT) is a method for constructing
electronic circuits in which the components (SMC, or Surface Mounted
Components) are mounted directly onto the surface of PCBs.
- Electronic devices are called surface-mount devices or SMDs.
- In the industry it has largely replaced the through-hole technology
construction method of fitting components with wire leads into holes in
the circuit board.
- Components were mechanically designed to have small metal tabs or
end caps that could be directly soldered to the surface of the PCB.
- Components became much smaller and component placement on both
sides of the board became far more common with surface-mounting
than through-hole mounting, allowing much higher circuit densities.
- Surface mounting lends itself well to a high degree of automation,
reducing labour cost and greatly increasing production and quality
rates.

10) Describe the operation of open loop system and close loop system
with complete diagram.
a) Open loop system

- An input is applied and an output obtained. Example an aircraft rudder

controlled by an open loop system.
- Respond aerodynamic.
- The demand, the pilot apply the rudder paddle ,
- The transducer pick up converts it to an electrical signal; i.e. the
demand signal.
- c. This signal is amplified and fed to the motor, which move the load;
i.e. the rudder.
- There is no positional feedback and the pilot does not know if the
rudder has adopted the position requested.

b) Closed loop system

 - Just similar to closed loop system, the demand is made in the same
way as the OLS basic system, positional feedback would be given to
the pilot who would make adjustments accordingly aircraft flying
controls this is not practical
- The output position transducer has been added to the servomotor and
this feeds back any difference between input demand and output to an
error detector.
- Error detector outputs an error signal to the amplifier to make any
positional corrections necessary at the servo motor and thus the load
(or rudder) is positioned as demanded.
- the pilot move the rudder 5, a demand is made at the rudder paddel
- This is converted to a voltage at the transducer, say +5 volts.
- The error detector immediately gives an output signal to +5 volts input
- It is amplified to drive the motor, to move the rudder
- The output position transducer converts the output position to an
electrical signal, which corresponds to the new position of the rudder.
- The feedback is fed back to the error detector until the demanded
position is achieved and the input is negative. There is no error signal
and no output.
- The feedback has reached -5 volts.

11) Define the type of each transducer and explain their operation in
term of converting
a) Analogue to digital
- Analogue signal wave convert to value sampling pulse
- Present output quantization
- Than convert to sample word signal

b) Digital to analogue
- Sample word signal change to value sampling pulse
- Present output quantization
- Than convert to analog wave