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FRANCISCO CHAMERA
LUANAR-BUNDA
1
I Suppose f (x) = (3x 1) and consider
2
a = 4.
I We are interested in values of f (x) when
x is close to 4 from both sides but not
necessarily equal to 4.
is f (x) L as x a.
Important property
If f (x) = g (x) when x 6= a, then
lim f (x) = lim g (x),
xa xa
Rationalisepthe numerator.
(t 2 + 9) 3
2 limt0
p t2 p
2
(t + 9) 3 (t 2 + 9) + 3
= limt0 p
t2 (t 2 + 9) + 3
=
2
t + 9 + 3 t + 9 3 t2 + 9 9
2
limt0
t 2( t 2 + 9 + 3)
t2
= limt0 .
t 2( t 2 + 9 + 3)
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
LIMITS - Solution to Example 2 cont...
Theorem
limxa f (x) = L if and only if
limxa+ f (x) = L and limxa f (x) = L.
|x|
1. Show that limxo does not exist.
( x
x 4 if x > 4
2. If f (x) = determine
8 2x if x < 4
whether limx4 f (x) exists.
|x| x
1. limxo + = limxo + = limxo + 1 =
x x
1
|x| x
limxo = limxo =
x x
limxo 1 = 1
|x| |x|
Since limxo + 6= limxo ,
x x
|x|
limxo does not exist.
x
2 Since f (x) = x 4 forx > 4, we have
limx4+ f (x) = limx4+ x 4 =
44=0
Similarly, limx4 f (x) =
limx4 8 2x = 8 2(4) = 0.
Since limx4+ f (x) = limx4 f (x) = 0,
limx4 f (x) = 0.
Theorem
If r > 0 is a rational number, then
1 1
lim r = lim r = 0.
x x x x
1
1. limx = 0.
x2
1
2. limx = 0.
x
2 1
3. limx 3 = 2 limx 3 = 2 0 = 0.
x x
Evaluate
3x 2 x 2
1. limx 2 .
5x + 4x + 1
2. limx(x 2 x).
2x 2 + 1
3. limx .
3x 5
4x 2 + 1
4. limx .
2x + 17
3.
q
2 + x12
= lim
x 3 5
x
2+0
=
3 0
2
= .
3
2. limxa f (x) =
3. limxa+ f (x) =
4. limxa f (x) =
5. limxa+ f (x) =
6. limxa f (x) = .
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
LIMITS - Example 5
2x
1. Find limx3+ .
x 3
Definition
A function f is continuous at a number a if
the following conditions are satisfied:
1. f is defined on an open interval
containing a.
2. limxa f (x) exists.
3. limxa f (x) = f (a).
If f is not continuous at a, then we say it is
discontinuous at a or has a discontinuity at a.
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
LIMITS - Example 6
Definition
A function f is continuous at an interval if it
is continuous at every number in the interval.
If f is defined only on one side of an end
point of the interval, we understand
continuous at the end point to mean
continuous from the right or continuous from
the left.
Theorem
If f and g are continuous functions at a and
c is a constant, then the following functions
are also continuous:
1. cf
2. f + g
3. fg
f
4. provided g (a) 6= 0.
g
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
LIMITS - Continuous functions cont...
Theorem
The following functions are continuous at ev-
ery number in their domain:
1. Polynomials
2. Root functions
3. Rational functions
4. Exponential and logarithmic.
5. Trigonometric and inverse trigonometric
functions.
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
LIMITS - Secant and tangent lines
Definition
The derivative of a function f at a number a,
denoted by f 0(a), is
f (a + h) f (a)
f 0(a) = lim
h0 h
if this limit exists.
1.
f (2 + h) f (2)
f 0(2) = lim
h0 h
2(2 + h)2 2(2)2
= lim
h0 h
8 + 8h + 2h2 8
= lim
h0 h
2
8h + 2h
= lim
h0 h
= lim 8 + 2h = 8.
h0
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
DERIVATIVE - Solution to example 8 cont...
2 f 0(5)
f (5 + h) f (5)
= lim
h0 h
[(5 + h)2 8(5 + h) + 9] [52 8(5) + 9]
= lim
h0 h
2
25 + 10h + h 40 8h + 9 25 + 40 9
= lim
h0 h
2
10h + h 8h
= lim
h0 h
= lim 10 + h 8 = 2.
h0
1. f 0(x)
f (x + h) f (x)
= lim
h0 h
[(x + h)3 (x + h)] [x 3 x]
= lim
h0 h
x + 3x h + 3xh2 + h3 x h x 3 + x
3 2
= lim
h0 h
2 2 3
3x h + 3xh + h h
= lim
h0 h
= lim 3x + 3xh + h2 1 = 3x 2 1.
2
h0
Definition
A function f is differentiable at a if f 0(a) ex-
ists. It is differentiable at an open interval
(a, b) [or (a, ), (, b), (, )] if it is
differentiable at every number in the interval.
x2
I For example, since f (x) = is not
x 3
continuous at 3, f 0(3) does not exist, i.e.,
f (x) is not differentiable at 3.
The converse of the theorem above is false,
that is there are functions that are
continuous but not differentiable.
1. By example 9, f 0(x) = 3x 2 1, so
00 f 0(x + h) f 0(x)
f (x) = lim
h0 h
[3(x + h)2 1] [3x 2 1]
= lim
h0 h
3x + 6xh + 3h2 1 3x 2 + 1
2
= lim
h0 h
= lim (6x + 3h) = 6x.
h0
Theorem
d n
If n is any real number, then (x ) = nx n1.
dx
For example;
d
1. (x 7) = 7x 71 = 7x 6
dx
d 2 2
2. (x 2/3) = x 2/31 = x 1/3
dx 3 3
d
3. (x) = 1
dx
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
DERIVATIVE - Constant multiple Rule
Theorem
If c is a constant and f is a differentiable func-
d d
tion, then [cf (x)] = c [f (x)].
dx dx
For example;
1. If f (x) = 2x 3, then
d d
(f (x)) = 2 (x 3) = 2(3x 31) = 6x 2.
dx dx
2. If f (x) = 17x , then f 0(x) = 34x 3.
2
Theorem
Let f and g be differentiable functions. Then
d d d
[f (x)g (x)] = f (x) [g (x)]+g (x) [f (x)].
dx dx dx
d d
f 0(x) = 8x [3x 2 + x] + (3x 2 + x) [8x]
dx dx
2
= 8x(6x + 1) + (3x + x)(8)
= 48x 2 + 8x + 24x 2 + 8x
= 72x 2 + 16x.
Hence f 0(1) = 72(1)2 + 16(1) = 88.
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
DERIVATIVE - The Quotient Rule
Theorem
If f and g are differentiable functions, then
d d
d f (x)
g (x) [f (x)] f (x) [g (x)]
= dx dx .
dx g (x) [g (x)]2
x
1. Find f 0(x) for f (x) = .
x2 1
x2
2. Differentiate y = with respect to
2x + 1
x.
0 x 4(2x + 7)
3. Find y given that y = .
(x 2 + 2)
[Hint: The Product and Quotient rules.]
1.
d d
(x 2 1) [x] x [x 2 1]
f 0(x) = dx dx
2
(x 1) 2
(x 2 1) x(2x)
=
(x 2 1)2
x 2 1 2x 2
=
(x 2 1)2
(x 2 + 1)
= .
(x 2 1)2
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
DERIVATIVE - Solution to example 12 cont...
2
d 2 d
(2x + 1) [x ] x 2 [2x + 1]
y0 = dx dx
(2x + 1) 2
dy
1. If y = u 3 and u = x 2 + 1, find .
dx
1.
d 5
f 0(x) = 7(x 5 4x + 8)6 [x 4x + 8]
dx
= 7(x 5 4x + 8)6(5x 4 4)
2.
dy d
= 4(x 2 3x + 1)3 [x 2 3x + 1]
dx dx
2 3
= 4(x 3x + 1) (2x 3).
1. If x 2 + y 2 = 25, find y 0.
2. Differentiate with respect to x,
y 4 + 3y 4x 3 = 5x + 1.
3. Find the slope of the tangent line to the
graph of y 4 + 3y 4x 3 = 5x + 1 at the
point (1, 2).
d
1. y 0 = (e 2x ) (2x) = 2e 2x
dx
d 1
2. y 0 = e x [ x] = e x
dx 2 x
3.
d d
y 0 = e 3x [3x] e 3x [3x]
dx dx
3x 3x
= e (3) e (3)
= 3e 3x + 3e 3x = 3(e 3x + e 3x )
4
d
0 1+x 2
y =e [ 1 + x 2]
dx
21 d
= e 1+x (1 + x 2)1/2 [1 + x 2]
2 dx
2 2x
= e 1+x
2 1 + x2
x 2
= e 1+x
1 + x2
1 d
1. y 0 = [2 + sin x] =
(2 + sin x) ln 2 dx
cos x
(2 + sin x) ln 2
0 1 d 3 3x 2
2. y = 3 [x + 1] = 3
x + 1 dx x +1
1 d sin x
3. y 0 = [cos x] = = tan x
cos x dx cos x
Definition
Let s(x) be the position of a particle that is
moving on a straight line. Then
i. The velocity v (t) of the particle is
v (t) = s 0(t).
ii. The speed is the absolute value of
velocity at time t, i.e., |v (t)|.
iii. Acceleration a(t) is given by
a(t) = v 0(t) = s 00(t).
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
DERIVATIVE - Example 19
0 t2
Velocity = v (t) = s (t) = 4t
2
Acceleration = a(t) = v 0(t) = s 00(t) = 4 t.
0 t2
Velocity = v (t) = s (t) = 4t
0
2
00
Acceleration = a(t) = v (t) = s (t) = 4 t.
c. When t = 8,
2 83 128
s(8) = 2(8) = cm.
6 3
d. The maximum velocity occurs when
a(t) = 0, i.e., 4 t = 0 giving t = 4. So
42
v (4) = 4(4) = 8cms 1.
2
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
DERIVATIVE - Increments and Differentials
Suppose y = 3x 2 5,
a. if x is given an increment x, find y .
b. use y to calculate the numerical change
in y if x chenges from 2 to 2.1.
a.
y = f (x + x) f (x)
= [3(x + x)2 5] [3x 2 5]
= 3x 2 + 6x(x) + 3(x)2 5 3x 2 + 5
= 6x(x) + 3(x)2
b. Here x = 2.1 2 = 0.1. Hence
y = 6(2)(0.11) + 3(0.1)2
= 12(0.1) + 3(0.001) = 1.23.
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
DERIVATIVE - Differentials
Definition
Let y = f (x) where f is differentiable, and let
be an increment of x.
i. The differential dx of the independent
variable x is dx = x.
ii. The differential dy of the dependent
variable y is dy = f 0(x)x = f 0(x)dx.
a. If y = 3x 2 5, use dy to approximate
y if x changes from 2 to 2.1.
b. If y = 2x 2 3x + 1, find the positive
change of x for which y = 3. Hence find
the approximate increase in x which will
change y from 3 to 3.015.
c. Use differentials to approximate the
change in sin x if x changes from 60 to
61. [Hint: Convert the angles to radian
measure].
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
DERIVATIVE - Solution to Example 21
dy
= 3x 2 6x 9 = 3(x 3)(x + 1)
dx
dy
a. Note that is positive when (x 3)
dx
and (x + 1) have the same sign, i.e., both
are positive or negative. this happens
when x < 1 or x > 3. So the function
is increasing in these intervals.
dy
= 3x 2 6x 9 = 3(x 3)(x + 1)
dx
dy
b. < 0 when (x + 1) and (x 3) have
dx
different signs. But when (x + 1) is
negative, (x 3) is also negative. So we
look for values of x such that (x 3) is
negative but (x + 1) is positive. this
happens in the interval 1 < x < 3.
Definition
Let c be a number in the domain D of a func-
tion f . Then f (c) is the
i. absolute maximum value of f on D if
f (c) f (x) for all x D.
ii. absolute minimum value of f on D if
f (c) f (x) for all x D.
Definition
The number f (c) is a
i. local maximum value of f if
f (c) f (x) when x is near c.
ii. local minimum value of f if
f (c) f (x) when x is near c.
Theorem
If a function has a local extremum at a number
c in an open interval, then either f 0(c) = 0 or
f 0(c) does not exist.
Definition
A number c in the domain of f is a critical
number of f if either f 0(c) = 0 or f 0(c) does
not exist.
d d
f 0(x) = x 1/3 [8 x] + (8 x) [x 1/3]
dx dx
1 2/3
= x 1/3(1) + (8 x) x
3
3x + (8 x) 4(2 x)
= = .
3x 2/3 3x 2/3
Note that f 0(x) does not exist for x = 0.
Furthermore f 0(x) = 0 when x = 2.
Hence critical numbers are 0 and 2.
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
DERIVATIVE - Solution to Example 25 cont...
Conclusion
i. f does not have extremum at 0 since
f 0(x) is positive on both sides of 0.
ii. f has a local maximum at 2 since f 0(x)
changes from positive to negative. This
local maximum is
1/3
3
f (2) = 2 (8 2) = 6 2 7.6.
Definition
The graph of a function f is
i. concave upward on an interval I if it
lies above all its tangent lines on I .
ii. concave downward on an interval I if it
lies below all its tangent lines on I .
If f (x) = x 3 + x 2 5x 5, determine
intervals on which the graph of f is concave
upward and intervals on which the graph is
concave downward.
f 0(x) = 3x 2 + 2x 5 and
f 00(x) = 6x + 2 = 2(3x + 1).
f 00(x) > 0 if 3x + 1 > 0, i.e., x > 1/3.
Therefore the graph is concave upward on
the interval (1/3, ).
f 00(x) < 0 if 3x + 1 < 0, i.e., x < 1/3.
Therefore the graph is concave downward on
the interval (, 1/3).
1. Differentiating we have
1000
C 0(v ) = 8v 2 .
v
dC
To minimise C we set = 0.
dv
1000
So 8v 2 = 0 giving
v
8v 1000 = 0 v 3 = 125, i.e., v = 5.
3
I We write f : D R2 R to indicate
that f maps points in two dimensions to
real numbers.
I Examples of functions of two variables
include f (x, y ) = xy 2 + y and
g (x, y ) = x 2 e y .
I We write f : D R3 R to indicate
that f maps points in three dimensions to
real numbers.
I Examples of functions of three variables
include f (x, y , z) = x 2y sin z and
g (x, y , z) = 3yz 3 e x .
Definition
Let f (x, y ) be a multivariable function,
i. The partial derivative of f (x, y ) with
respect to x is given by
f f (x + h, y ) f (x, y )
(x, y ) = lim
x h0 h
if this limit exists.
Definition
Let f (x, y ) be a multivariable function,
ii. The partial derivative of f (x, y ) with
respect to y is defined by
f f (x, y + h) f (x, y )
(x, y ) = lim
y h0 h
if this limit exists.
If z = f (x, y ), then
f z
1. is also written as , zx , fx , f1(x, y ),
x x
and Dx [f (x, y )].
f z
2. is also written as , zy , fy , f2(x, y ),
y y
and Dy [f (x, y )].
If f (x, y ) = x 2y 2, find
f
a. (x, y ).
x
f
b. (x, y ).
y
a.
f f (x + h, y ) f (x, y )
(x, y ) = lim
x h0 h
(x + h) y x 2y 2
2 2
= lim
h0 h
x 2y 2 + 2xhy 2 + h2y 2 x 2y 2
= lim
h0 h
2 2 2
2xhy + h y
= lim
h0 h
= lim 2xy + hy 2 = 2xy 2.
2
h0
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
DERIVATIVE - Solution to Example 29 cont...
b.
f f (x, y + h) f (x, y )
(x, y ) = lim
y h0 h
x 2(y + h)2 x 2y 2
= lim
h0 h
x y + 2hx 2y + x 2h2 x 2y 2
2 2
= lim
h0 h
2 2 2
2hx y + x h
= lim
h0 h
= lim 2x 2y + x 2h = 2x 2y .
h0
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
DERIVATIVE - Example 30
If f (x, y ) = x 2y 2, find
f
a. (3, 2).
x
f
b. (3, 2).
y
f
a. By Example 29 (a), (x, y ) = 2xy 2.
x
f
Hence (3, 2) = 2(3)22 = 24.
x
f
b. By Example 29 (b), (x, y ) = 2x 2y .
y
f
Hence (3, 2) = 2(3)22 = 36.
y
f
a. If f (x, y ) = x ln(y cos x), find ,1 .
x 3
b. Find fx and fy given that
f (x, y ) = x 2 + x ln y .
c. Find fx , fy and fz given that
f (x, y , z) = x 2y 4z 3.
a.
f
(x, y )
x
1
= ln(y cos x) + x (y sin x)
y cos x
= ln(y cos x) x tan x.
So
f
( , 1) = ln cos /2 /3( 3)
x 3
= ln 1/2 / 3 = (ln 2 + / 3.
FRANCISCO CHAMERA LUANAR-BUNDA DIFFERENTIATION
DERIVATIVE - Solution to Example 31 cont..
x
b. fx = 2x + ln y and fy = .
y
c.
fx = 2xy 4z 3
fy = 4x 2y 3z 3
fz = 3x 2y 4z 2.
fx = 2x + ln y
x
fy =
y
fxx = 2
x
fyy = 2
y
fxy = 1/y
fyx = 1/y .