Introduction of Drives Slide PDF

First Course on Electric Drives
Electric Drives: An Integrated Approach Chapter 1

Ned Mohan
Introduction to Electric
Oscar A. Schott Professor of Power Electronics and Systems
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Minnesota
Drive Systems
Minneapolis, MN 55455
USA
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 1 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 2

Print Audio TOC
History Trend : Adjustable Speed Drives

(ASDs)
Constant frequency AC - essentially constant pump speed
Inefficient - Heat generated in pump and throttling valve Outlet
Not amenable to automation

Adjustable
Speed Drive
(ASD)
Inlet
Constant
frequency Adjustable frequency Adjustable Pump
AC electric converter speed
Throttling
Valve
Outlet
Driven at appropriate speed
MOTOR
Inlet High Efficiency
Constant Pump
frequency
AC
Essentially
Constant Speed

Audio TOC Audio TOC
What is an Electric-Motor Drive?
Electric
Drive
World Market and Scope
Power
Processing Motor Load
fixed Unit (PPU)
form
adjustable speed /
Electric Source position
form
(utility)
Sensors
Controller measured Power

speed/ position Signal
input command
(speed / position)
Role of Electric Drive: Efficient conversion of power

from electrical to mechanical
Role of PPU: Delivers appropriate form of frequency to healthy growth rate A very wide range of
motor (as required by the load) ~ 25% per year speed and power

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Typical Applications
Factors for Growth
Process Industry - agitators, pumps, fans, compressors
Machining - planers, winches, calendars, chippers, drill presses,
Technical Advances in sanders, extruders, grinders, mills, presses
Heating and Air Conditioning - blowers, compressors
Linear ICs and Digital Signal Processors
Paper and Steel Industry - hoists, rollers
Power devices Transportation - elevators, trains, automobiles
Textile - looms
Packaging - shears
Market Needs
Food - conveyors, fans
$20 Billion market in 1997 Oil, Gas , Mining - compressors, pumps, cranes, shovels
Residential - heat pumps, freezers, washing machines
25% Growth rate

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Application for Energy Conservation Energy Conservation in Pumps
Heat Pumps and air-conditioners - cycled operation
throttling
valve Pressure (H)
outlet
ideal loss actual Q2 ( H2 + H , Q2 )
A ( H1 , Q1 )
H
Compressor motor H 2 + H H2
Output Q2 Pump curve at
pump inlet D C B full speed
full speed
( H2 , Q2 )
Throttled
t System Pump curve at
no throttling outlet Curve reduced speed
valve Q2 Pressure across
ON OFF throttling valve, H
Adjustable Unthrottled
H2 System
Speed Drive
30% improvement in efficiency by running (ASD) Curve
Q2
inlet
compressor at appropriately reduced speed reduced 0 Q2 Q1
pump Flow Rate (Q)
speed
using an ASD Throttling introduces extra pressure drop, H

ASD reduces pump speed to match load requirement
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Energy Conservation in Blower Harnessing Wind Energy

Systems
Constant
Variable frequency
Frequency AC
Variable Variable Power
Outlet damper speed AC Processing
100 wind
Variable generator Unit
80 speed Utility
Inlet vane
60
Power Consumption Wind turbine
(% of full flow rate)
40
Electric drive
20
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30
% Flow Rate
Relative power consumption using three methods

to reduce blower flow rate

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Hybrid Electric Vehicles Multi-disciplinary Nature of Electric
Drives
Machine
Utility Theory Power
Interaction Electronics
IC Continuously
Variable Electric
Engine Transmission Control
Sensors Drives Theory
Electric
Motor Mechanical Real-time
system
modelling DSP control

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Evolution of Power Processing Unit Summary

What is an electric drive? Draw the block diagram and
explain the roles of its various components.
200
120
100 150
What has been the traditional approach to controlling flow
Relative unit
80
60
Size (volum e) 100
Com ponents
rate in the process industry?
%
Functions
Weight
40
20
50
What are the major disadvantages which can be overcome
0
0
by using adjustable speed drives?
1968
1983
1988
1993
1998
1968 1988 1998

Year Year What are the factors responsible for the growth of the
4kW Danfoss VLTR power processing unit adjustable-speed drive market?
How does an air conditioner work?
(Consult a handbook such as [10].)
How does a heat pump work?
How do ASDs save energy in air conditioning and heat
pump systems?
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary
What is the role of ASDs in industrial systems?
There are proposals to store energy in flywheels for load
leveling in utility systems. During the off-peak period
Chapter 2
for energy demand at night, these flywheels are charged
to high speeds. At peak periods during the day, this energy
is supplied back to the utility. How would ASDs play a role Understanding Mechanical
in this scheme?
What is the role of electric drives in electric transportation
System Requirements
systems of various types?
List a few specific examples from the applications mentioned
in section 1-4 that you are personally familiar with.
What are the different disciplines that make up the study
and design of electric-drive systems?
Audio TOC Print Audio TOC
Motivation Systems With Linear Motion

fe fL
How can the ASD accelerate and decelerate the load to M fM M
give desired speed profile
x
dx du f fL
u= ; a= = e u=
dx
; a=
du f
= M
dt dt M dt dt M
ASD Load
Figure on left includes load force, f L , that must be overcome
L
Figure on right shows only the force, f M , available to accelerate
the mass, M
L ( rad / sec )
desired speed profile Accelaration Power Input Kinetic energy
100 fe f L f M 1
a= = Pe (t ) = f e u = f M u + f L u WM = Mu 2
M M 2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 t ( sec )

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Rotating Systems
Torque in an electric drive
f f

90 o Tem TL Load
Motor
M
r
torque
Mg
Tem electromagnetic torque produced by motor
Tem is opposed by load torque, TL
Torque = force radius The difference, Tem TL = TJ , will accelerate the system
[ Nm ] [N ] [m] d Tem TL TJ
= =
dt J J
Example: what torque is needed to hold M motionless
where J is the moment of inertia

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Calculation of Moment of Inertia Accelaration, Speed and Position, Power

J and Energy
of a Uniform Cylinder dr d A
A
rd
df m 1
dM Tem + TJ m
r Tem TL Load J eq
Motor
r1 d TL

d m 1 T
acceleration , = = (Tem TL ) = J
d
d f = dM v
dM = rd
N dr
N dNA
arc height length
dt ( J m+ J L ) J eq
dt
d d speed , m (t ) = m (0 ) + 0t ( ) d
dT = r dM = ( r 3 dr d d A )
2
dt dt t
r1 2 A
position , (t ) = (0 ) + 0 ( ) d
d d
T = ( r 3 dr d d A ) = ( A r14 )
dt 2
dt
0 0 0 Power Pem = Tem m ; PL = TL m
J
1 1
J solid = A r14 = M r12
2 2 Kinetic Energy W = J 2
2
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Frictional Torque Example: Aerodynamic
Tf
coloumb
friction drag
Drag power at different speeds
T f = B f L = 0.046 Cw Av 2 ; (Cw : drag coefficient)

stiction
viscous friction p = f L u

0

stiction power speed 3

coloumb Power (W)
friction Speed
(km/h)
Stiction: static component C w = 0.3 C w = 0.5
Coulomb friction: dynamic component 50 0.86 kW 1.44 kW

(constant magnitude) 100 6.9 kW 11.5 kW
Viscous friction: speed dependent 150 23.3 kW 38.8 kW
In general, friction is non-linear

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Torsional Resonances
m L
Mechanical - Electrical Analogy
TL Load
Motor Tem
Tshaft
JL
Jm Torque Current
d m
At motor end Tshaft = Tem J m

dt Angular Velocity Voltage
d L Angular Displacement Flux Linkage
At load end Tshaft = TL + J L
dt Moment of Inertia Capacitance
Tshaft
( m L ) = Spring Constant 1/Inductance
K
m and L :angular rotation at the two ends of the shaft Damping Coefficient 1/Resistance
Coupling Ratio Transformer ratio
If K , m = L

( J M and J L can be treated as one inertial mass )

Finite K may lead to resonances
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Coupling Mechanisms
Electrical Analogy of Motor & Load
Required when
m L a (rotary) motor is driving a load which requires linear
TL Load
Motor Tem (translational) motion
JL motors prefer higher rotational speed than that required
Jm
by the load
1/ K L m
M
TJ TL
the axis of rotation needs to be changed
Tem TJM Tshaft TJL TL Tem
JM JL
J eq = J M + J L Types
Conveyor belts (belt and pulley)
Finite shaft stiffness Infinite shaft stiffness Rack and pinion or a lead-screw type of arrangement
Gear mechanisms
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Conversion between Linear and Rotary Gears

Systems T1 r1
Tem
fL Motor
M u J m = motor inertia
JM
M
M = mass of load TL
r T2
r2
m r = pulley radius Load
L
Tem JL
Motor du
f = M + fL Basic relationships: radius, speed, torque
Jm dt Equal speeds at gear surfaces r1 M = r2 L
u = r m
d m Power transferred across gears M T1 = L T2 ,
T = r f = r2M + rf L r1 T d M M d L
dt = L = 1
M
& Tem J M

= TL + J L
r2 T2 dt dt
d m d
L
Tem = Jm + r2 M + r fL T1 T2
dt
dt
Geared up: speed increased, torque decreased L > M ; T2 < T1 ; r2 < r1
required to accelerate due to load Geared down: speed decreased, torque increased
motor L < M ; T2 > T1 ; r2 > r1
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Gears (contd) Types of Loads
Equivalent Inertia
Centrifugal loads
d m L
2
Tem = Jm + JL L + TL
m dt m

Fan
J eq
2 2
r
J eq = J m + J L L = Jm + J L 1
m r2
Optimum gear ratio (to minimize Tem ) Constant Torque loads
2
r r1 Jm
Jm = 1 J L r =
r2 opt. 2 opt. JL
Hoist
d m r d L
and (Tem )opt. = 2 J m = 2J m 2
dt r1 opt. dt

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Types of Loads Four-Quadrant Operation

Squared power loads
m
(2) (1)
m = + m = +
Compressor
Tem = Tem = +
Tem
m p= p=+
Tem
Load
Motor m = m =
Constant power loads
Power Tem = Tem = +
p=+ p=
(3) (4)
Winder

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Dynamic Operation Summary
What are the MKS units for force, torque, linear velocity,
How the operating point changes with time
angular velocity, speed, and power?
Important for High Performance Drives What is the relationship between force, torque, and power?
Show that torque is the fundamental variable in controlling
Speed change: rapid and without any oscillations
speed and position.
Requires good controller design What is the kinetic energy stored in a moving mass and a
rotating inertia?

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary
What is the mechanism for torsional resonances?

Chapter 3
What are the various types of coupling mechanisms?
What is the optimum gear ratio to minimize the torque
Review of
required from the drive to accelerate a load? Basic Electric Circuits
What are the torque-speed and the power-speed profiles
for various types of loads?

Conventions Phasor Domain Representation for
Sinusoidal Steady State AC
MKS (SI) Units
Imaginary
positive
lower case v and i for instantaneous quantities angles
upper case V and I for average and rms v

i
V = V 0 Real
voltage and current subscripts t =0 t

vab b
a +
I = I
+ i +
va vb

v(t ) = V cos( t ) V = V 0
i (t ) = I cos( t ) I = I
voltage polarities and current directions
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Time-Domain Analysis Phasor Domain Analysis

I
i( t ) Im jX L
j L = j X L jX c
+
V =V 0
+ L R
Z
v( t )
1
=V cos( t ) j = j XC R Re
R C 0
C
Z = R + j X L j X C = Z
1
2 1
2
1
L C
Z = R + L ; = tan
di (t ) 1 C R
Ri (t ) + L + i (t ) dt = V cos( t )
dt C
V V V
i (t ) = cos( t ) I= =
Z Z Z

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Instantaneous Power Real Power, Reactive Power and
i (t )
Power factor
+
v(t ) =V cos( t + v ) Complex Power I
Subcircuit 1 v(t ) Subcircuit 2 +
S = V I (S is a complex number)
i (t ) = I cos( t + i ) = V I ( v i ) = V I Subcircuit 1 V Subcircuit 2
p (t ) = v(t ) i (t )
S = P + jQ = S
p (t ) average / S = P + jQ
power average
v(t ) p (t ) power Real Power (average power)
V = V v
P = V I cos [W ] Im
0 t 0 t
Reactive Power v i Re
v(t )
i (t ) i (t )
Q = V I sin [VAR ] I = I i
Apparent Power
v and i in phase (v = i ) v and i out of phase (v i ) Im
power flows in one direction power flow reverses periodically S = P 2 + Q 2 = VI [VA] S Q
maximum average power average power lower than P P = v i

Power Factor = = = cos
for given V and I maximum possible S VI P Re

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Inductive Load Three Phase Circuits

(Transmission and Distribution)
The impedance is Z = Z ,where
is positive One-line diagram of power systems
The current lags the voltage by the impedance angle
Step up

Corresponds to a lagging power factor of operation Transformer
In the power triangle, the same angle relates P,Q and

An inductive load draws positive reactive power (VARs)

Most loads are inductive, particularly motors and transformers S
Generator
Transmission 13.8 kV
line
Feeder
Load

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Three Phase Circuits Per phase Analysis of Balanced Three
Wye-connection Ia a
phase Circuits
Van V Ia
= s
Van = Vs 0 o V an
+
ZL
Ia =
ZL ZL
a
+
V 2 V an
Vbn = Vs 120 o V cn n V bn N
Ib =
Vbn
= s In
ZL
ZL ZL 3 V cn n V bn
+ + N
c + +
Vcn = Vs 240 o Ic
Ib b
Ic =
Vcn V
= s
4
Ic
c Ib b
ZL ZL 3
Van + Vbn + Vcn = 0 I n = ( I a + I a + I c ) = 0 in ( t ) = [ia ( t ) + ib ( t ) + ic ( t )] = 0
van (t ) vbn (t ) vcn (t ) a bc
V cn positive
van ( t ) + vbn ( t ) + vcn ( t ) = 0 sequence
120 Ia
V cn
0 Ic
a a
t 120 V an + V an
120
V an
V bn Ib
Ia
n
2 2 (Hypothetical) N V bn
3 3
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Line-to-Line Voltages Delta Connection

Phase Currents in Delta Load
Vc
Ia a Vb Ia a
+ Vca Vab
+ + I ca
I a = I ab I ca +
V an Va 30 o V an Z
V ab
Ib = I bc I ab Z
Va
n V bn ZL n V bn
V cn
+ +
N Vb
+
I c = I ca I bc V cn
+ Ibc Z I ab
+
c
Vb Ib c b
Ib b
Ic
Ic Ic
Vbc
Vab =Va Vb = 3Vs 30 o 1 I ca
I = Il 30 o
Vbc =Vb Vc = 3Vs 90 o 3 I ab
VLL = 3V ph 30 o 30 o " I ca "
Vca =Vc Va = 3Vs 210 o Ib
Ibc Ia

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Y Transformation Summary
Allows per phase analysis Why is it important to always indicate the directions of
Ia
Ia a
equivalent
a
currents and the polarities of voltages?
to external
circuit Z What are the meanings of i, I, I, and I ?
Z
I ca
I ab In a sinusoidal waveform voltage, what is the
Z Z
c Ibc b c
b
relationship between the peak and the rms values?
How are currents, voltages, resistors, capacitors, and
inductors represented in the phasor domain? Express
Delta connected load Wye connected load
and draw the following as phasors, assuming both v
These circuits are indistinguishable to the external circuit, and i to be positive:
when Z
Z = v(t ) = V cos( t + v ) and, i (t ) = I cos( t + i )
3
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary
How is the current flowing through impedance Z
related to the voltage across it, in magnitude and phase?
What are real and reactive powers? What are the Chapter 4
expressions for these in terms of rms values of voltage
and current and the phase difference between the two?
What is complex power S? How are real and reactive Basic Understanding of
powers related to it? What are the expressions for S, P, Power Processing in
and Q, in terms of the current and voltage phasors?
What is the power triangle? What is the polarity of the
Electric Drives
reactive power drawn by an inductive/capacitive circuit?
What are balanced three-phase systems? How can their
analyses be simplified? What is the relation between
line-to-line and phase voltages in terms of magnitude
and phase? What are wye and delta connections?
Power Processing Unit (PPU) Switch-Mode Converters for
Efficient conversion of power from line frequency AC to
dc- and ac-motor drives
appropriate form required by the motor
Sub-blocks of PPUs ia
ia A
A
utility
+ +
+ B
Vd M Vd M Vd M
B
Rectifier switch - mode C
converter
controller
Rectifier: Line frequency AC to DC For DC Drives For AC Drives

Switch-Mode Converter: DC to form required by motor
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Analysis of Switch-Mode Converters Pulse Width Modulation ( PWM )

Pole as a Building Block
pole-A if vc, A ( t ) > vtri ( t ) q A ( t ) = 1 switch "up" v AN ( t ) = Vd
if vc, A ( t ) < vtri ( t ) q A ( t ) = 0 switch "down" v AN ( t ) = 0

+ i A (t )
Vd voltage A
Vtri
vtri (t )
port +
current vc, A (t )

v AN (t ) port 0 t

N
v AN (t ) = q A (t )Vd
q A (t )
1
vc, A (t ) q A (t )
0 t
vtri (t ) d ATs
PWM-IC Vd
Vd uncontrolled v AN (t )
0
v AN
t
vc, A : control voltage depicting desired output voltage Ts = 1 / f s
Switch modulated to produce desired average voltage v AN
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Average Representation of a Pole
Average Representation of a Pole Input and Output Currents
Output Voltage
Assuming ripple in i A (t ) to be negligible, i.e. i A (t ) = iA (t )
Average output voltage over one switching cycle
1 average values of input and currents can be related as,
v AN = v AN ( t ) dt = d AVd Vtri vtri (t )
Ts Ts vc, A (t ) idA (t ) = d A (t ) iA (t )
0 t control function
q (t )
1 1 vc, A idA (t ) pole-A
Duty ratio dA = +
2 2 Vtri t
0
i A (t )
1
Vd V /2 q A (t ) + i A (t ) ideal output current
v AN = + d vc, A voltage A 0
iA t
2
N Vtri 0 t Vd
N d ATs + idA (t )
dc offset k port
pole Vd v AN (t ) current idA t
port dTs
v AN (t )
V /2 0
v AN
t 0
ideal and average input current
Pole gain k pole = d
N
Ts = 1 / f s
Vtri Ts = 1 / f s i A (t ) i A
vc, A (t ) q A (t )
Pulsating v AN (t ), relatively smooth i A (t ) vtri (t ) t
PWM-IC 0 actual output current
(ripple often ignored)
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Average Representation of a Pole as Pole as a Two Quadrant Converter

An Ideal Transformer idA (t )

idA (t )
iA (t ) v AN always positive +
voltage
i A (t ) La Ra
Vd
+ + + A
v AN (t ) = d A (t )Vd iA can reverse port
current

+
Vd v AN port Ea
1 d A (t )
i A > 0 if v AN > Ea N

idA (t ) = d A (t ) iA (t ) v AN (t )
power Vd Ea q A (t )

Buck Mode IA Ra
vc, A (t ) 1 +

2Vtri
i A < 0 if v AN < Ea + +
+ 1/ 2 Vd 1 dA +
VAN = d AVd Ea
power Ea Vd
Transformer turns-ratio is adjustable via Pulse Width Modulation
This Transformer can pass AC and DC currents but only unipolar Boost Mode
vc, A (t ) 1 +
voltages
2Vtri +
1/ 2
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Calculation of Ripple Current Implementation of Bi-Positional Switches
Ra i A (t ) La IA iripple La
Ra Buck Boost
+ + + + +
iC
v AN (t ) Ea = V AN Ea + vripple (t )

+
iA ON
vripple (t ) Vd approx switching
Vd V AN
trajectory

0 t
i A (t ) = I A + iripple (t ) dTs
V AN
Ts 0 Von OFF VCE
v AN (t ) = V AN + vripple (t ) iripple (t ) q+ switching power loss
vc, A A q A for a very short time
0 t vtri q A (t )
V Ea
I A = AN i A (t )
Ra
IA
Switching frequency 6kHz to 50kHz
iripple (t ) = sawtooth with zero DC Switching power loss: kept low by fast switching devices
average 0
t
Conduction loss: kept low by having switches fully ON or
volt seconds (V VAN ) dTs V (1 d )Ts
i A = = d , or AN fully OFF
La La La
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Switch-Mode Converters for Analysis of DC-Motor Drives Based

DC-Motor Drives on Average Quantities
id
DC motor
idA io
idA idB v (t )
iA io
+ idB + d (t ) = d A (t ) d B (t ) = c
+ + + 1 d A (t ) vo (t ) Vtri id
+ vo ea (1 d + 1)
Vd Vd v AN (t ) DC motor
iB +
d B (t ) io (t )
1 V
q A (t ) vBN (t ) vo (t ) = v AN (t ) vBN (t ) = d vc (t ) + +
Vtri
Vd 1 d (t )
vc (t )
qB (t ) 1 (Vd vo + Vd ) vo (t )
2Vtri +

vc (t ) + 1/ 2 V
vtri (t )
k PWM = d
1
1 +

vc, B (t ) 2Vtri +
Vtri
1/ 2 vc (t ) 1
1 v (t ) V V vo (t ) = k PWM vc (t ) Vtri
d A (t ) = + c v AN (t ) = d + d vc (t )
2 2Vtri 2 2Vtri
1 v (t )
Combined transformer
d B (t ) = c V V
2 2Vtri vBN (t ) = d d vc (t ) Four quadrant capability
2 2Vtri
Output voltage can be positive or negative Transformer can pass AC or DC currents and voltages
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Three Phase Inverter AC-Motor Drives Transformer Equivalent of a
A
iA Three Phase Converter iA (t ) e A (t )
+ iB idA (t ) idB (t ) idC (t ) A iB (t ) eB (t )
Vd B n Voltages with respect to B n
iC to N + C iC (t ) eC (t )
C + + +
q A (t ) V V V Vd 1 d A (t ) 1 d B (t ) 1 dC (t )
v AN (t ) = d + d c sin(1t )
2 2 Vtri v A (t ) vB (t ) vC (t )
vc, A (t )
#
Vc N
PWM v (t ) qB (t ) Voltages with respect to
c, B
f1 IC
load-neutral n 1 +
qC (t )
vc, A (t )
d A (t ) = 0.5 + Vc sin(1t ) V 2Vtri
vc,C (t )
v An (t ) = d Vc sin(1t ) +
2Vtri 2Vtri
vtri
N
k pole 1 +
vc, A (t ) = Vc sin( 1t ) vc, B (t )
d B (t ) = 0.5 + Vc sin(1t 1200 ) = k pole Vc sin(1t )
2Vtri +
vc,B (t ) = Vc sin( 1t 1200 ) 2Vtri 1 +

vc,C (t )
# 2Vtri
vc,C (t ) = Vc sin( 1t 2400 ) dC (t ) = 0.5 + Vc sin(1t 2400 ) + 1/ 2
2Vtri DC offset voltages disappear when voltages are with respect to load neutral
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Power Devices Controlled Switches

MOSFET D iD D
G
VDS
Voltage rating up to 9kV G
+
VGS S
S
Current rating ~ kA
iD
VGS = 7V
Switching items ~ 0.1 s 6V
on state 5V
Insulated gate for low 4V
On-State voltage drop 1V to 3V
gate requirements
VDS
Cost Built-in diode
rds increases exponentially with voltage rating
Good for low voltage, high frequency
Audio TOC Audio TOC
IGBT - Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor Smart Power Modules
C
iC Gate Driver ICs
+
Power Modules with Gate drivers
G VCE VGE
+
VGE
VCE
E
Insulated Gate for low drive requirements

Moderately high switching frequency
Lower conduction losses than MOSFETs in high voltage
devices
Higher voltage (up to 3.3 kV) and current rating
(up to 1200A)
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary Summary
What is the function of PPUs? How is the pole output voltage made linearly proportional
What are the sub-blocks of PPUs? to the input control signal?
What are the roles of the rectifier and the filter-capacitor What is the physical significance of the duty-ratio, for
sub-blocks? example d A (t ) ?
Qualitatively, how does a switch-mode amplifier differ How is pulse-width-modulation (PWM) achieved and what
from a linear amplifier? is its function?
Why does operating transistors as switches result in much Instantaneous quantities on the two sides of the converter
smaller losses compared to operating them in their linear pole, for example pole-A, are related by the switching signal
region? q A (t ) . What relates the average quantities on the two sides?
How is a bi-positional switch realized in a converter pole? What is the equivalent model of a switch-mode pole in
What is the gain of each converter pole? terms of its average quantities?
How does a switch-mode converter pole approach the output How is a switch-mode dc-dc converter which can achieve an
of a linear amplifier? output voltage of either polarity and an output current flowing
What is the meaning of v AN (t ) ? in either direction realized?
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary Summary
What is the frequency content of the output voltage
How are three-phase, sinusoidal ac output voltages
waveform in dc-dc converters? synthesized from a dc voltage input?
In a dc-drive converter, how is it possible to keep the ripple
What are the voltage and current ratings and the switching
in the output current small, despite the output voltage speeds of various power semiconductor devices?
pulsating between 0 and Vd , or 0 and Vd , during each
switching cycle?
What is the frequency content of the input dc current?
Where does the pulsating ripple component of the dc-side
current flow through?
How is bi-directional power flow achieved through a
converter pole?
What makes the average of the dc-side current in a
converter pole related to the average of the output current
by its duty-ratio?
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Magnetic Field
Magnetic field, H, produced by current carrying conductor
Chapter 5
Magnetic Circuits
Amperes Law dl
H i3
i1
v H dA = i i2
closed path

Print Audio TOC Audio TOC
H in a Toroid Flux Density B
Units:Weber / meter 2 [Wb / m 2 ] or Tesla [T ]
7 henries
In air B = o H , o = 4 10 m
i
Ferro-magnetic materials
rm Bm Bm
Bsat o
m
ID ID o
OD OD Hm Hm
1 ID + OD
Mean radius, rm =
2 2
lm = 2 rm Linear approximation Bm = m H m
Ni Ni
Ampere's Law H m = = Bsat ~ 1.6 - 1.8 Tesla
2 rm lm
In saturation m approaches o
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Flux, Flux Linkage, and MMF Magnetic Structures with Air

Gaps
Flux fm [Wb]
[assuming uniform flux density]
Am Hm Am + H g A g = N i
Bm = m H m , Bg = o H g
m = Bm Am m = g =
i
m Bm Bg Ag
Ni Am + Ag = N i
Bm = m H m and H m = m o N
Am
Ni Ni F = Am Bm = Ag Bg
m = Am m = =
A m Am m
A Bm = Bg =
m m Am Ag To account for fringing Ag = ( w + A g )(d + A g )
Am Am Ag
Reluctance m = m ( + )= N i
m Am Am m Ag o = m + g

m g
Flux Linkage m = Nm
F
m =
MMF F = Ni

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Inductance Faradays Law - Induced Voltage
m Am
i N (t )
d d
N i
lm
Hm
( m )
Bm
( Am )
m
(N ) m Induced voltage e=
dt
=N
dt i (t )

Lm =
N2

Current direction is into positive polarity +
lm e(t ) N
m = Lm i
m
m Am
voltage flux direction
N N2 N2
Lm = m = m Am N = =
i lm lm Lenzs law: Polarity of induced voltage
A
m m When current and flux directions are consistent (a current
For linear magnetic conditions inductance depends only on magnetic circuit as indicated would create a flux as indicated), then the
1 1 voltage should be labeled positive where the current enters
Energy stored in magnetic circuits W = Li 2 = Bm2 Amlm
2 2 m N the coil.
volume
W 1
Energy density w= = Bm2
volume 2 m

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Coil in Sinusoidal Steady-State Leakage and Magnetizing Inductances

Induced voltage under sinusoidal steady-
(t ) m i (t ) e (t )
state e(t ) (t ), i (t )
i
i +
+ l
Ll +
i (t ) +
Given e +
e l e(t ) em (t ) Lm
( t ) = sin t +
e(t ) N
t

d
e (t ) = N = N cos t
dt
Relating e(t ), (t ), and i (t ) = m + A = N = N
N m + N A
N
m A m
N m A Ll i (t )
L= = = + Lself = Lm + LA R
i i i i i + + el (t ) +
v(t ) e(t ) em (t )
N
i (t ) = (t ) = Lself i = Lm i + LA i
L di (t )
e(t ) = L
d(t) dt di di di
& e(t) = N e = Lm + LA = em + LA
dt N dt N dt dt
em eA
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Transformers - Development
Transformers Single coil +
m
Assuming zero resistance and zero e1

N1
leakage inductance
Tightly coupled coils (low leakage inductance)
d
e1 = N1 m
Essential for power transmission and distribution determined completely
dt by applied
Helpful in understanding induction machines voltage:
m
+ im
1
depends on m = e1 d e1 Lm
N1
im Lm
m
Two coils +
d m d m e1
e2 (t ) = N 2 & e1 (t ) = N1
N1
dt dt
N2
e1 (t ) N1
=
e2 (t ) N2 +
e2


Audio TOC Audio TOC
Transformer with Secondary

Transformer Model Loaded
m
i (t )
+ 1
e1
m determined by e1 alone
N1
+ im +
N2
i2 (t )
e1 Lm e2 hence i2 in secondary induces
+

N1 N 2
i2 ' in the primary such that e2

Ideal N1 i2 = N 2 i2
Transformer
i1 (t ) i2 '(t ) i2 (t )
i2 N 2
= + +
Dot polarity i2 N1
im
e1
Magnetizing inductance i1 (t ) = i2 '(t ) + im (t )
Lm e2

relflected magnetizing N1 N 2
load current
current Ideal
Transformer

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Real Transformers Determining Transformer Model
Parameters
i1 (t ) R1 Ll1 i2 '(t ) Ll2 R2 i2 (t )
1 i (t ) R1 Ll1 i2 '(t ) R2 Ll2 i2 (t )
Add leakages + + + +
+ + im + +
im
Core loss v1 e1 Rhe Lm e2 v2
v1 e1 Rhe Lm e2 v2
- hysteresis

- eddy currents N1 N 2 Real
N1 N 2

Winding resistances Real

Transformer

Ideal
Transformer Ideal
Transformer
Transformer
Laminations to reduce eddy current loss Open circuit test

Core loss, Rhe
i
m Magnetizing inductance, Lm
circulating
circulating
currents
Short circuit test
currents
Winding resistance, R1 , R2
m
Leakage inductance, Ll1 , Ll 2
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Open Circuit Test Short Circuit Test

One winding shortened
Secondary unloaded (open circuit) small voltage applied to other winding
Rated voltage applied to primary Measure VSC , and I SC , and PSC
Measure To find R1 and R2 R2
I1 R1 jX l1 jX l 2 I SC
1 PSC
To find Rhe R2 = 2 + + +
I oc 2 I SC
V2
E1 E2 VSC
2
Rhe = oc N
Poc + R1 = R2 1 N1 N2
Voc jX m Rhe N2
To find Lm I SC
To find Ll1 and Ll 2 +
Voc VSC N
2 2
Rhe jX m = 2R2 + j2 X l 2 =
jX l1 2 + jX l 2
N1
N
R1 2 + R2 VSC
I oc I SC N1

2 N1 N2
N
X l1 = X l 2 1
N2
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Permanent Magnets Summary
What is the role of magnetic circuits? Why are magnetic
Typically used in smaller motors materials with very high permeabilities desirable? What
is the permeability of air? What is the typical range of
Applicable power range increasing due to new materials the relative permeabilities of ferromagnetic materials like
In simplest analysis, treated simply as a source of magnetic iron?
flux Bm ( T )
Why can "leakage" be ignored in electric circuits but not
1.4
in magnetic circuits?
1.2
1.0
What is Ampere's Law and what quantity is usually
-F
e -B
Co 0.8 calculated by using it?
Nd Sm
0.6 What is the definition of the mmf F?
Alnico
Ferrite
0.4
What is meant by "magnetic saturation"?
|
1000
|
800 500
| |
200 What is the relationship between and B?
How can magnetic reluctance be calculated? What
H m ( kA / m )
Figure 5-20 Characteristics of various permanent magnet materials.

field quantity is calculated by dividing the mmf F by
the reluctance ?
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary Summary
In magnetic circuits with an air gap, what usually dominates
the total reluctance in the flux path: the air gap or the rest What is leakage inductance? How can the voltage drop
of the magnetic structure? across it be represented separate from the emf induced by
What is the meaning of the flux linkage of a coil? the main flux in the magnetic core?
Which law allows us to calculate the induced emf? In linear magnetic structures, how is energy storage defined?
What is the relationship between the induced voltage and the In magnetic structures with air gaps, where is energy mainly
flux linkage? stored?
How is the polarity of the induced emf established? What is the meaning of "mutual inductance"?
Assuming sinusoidal variations with time at a frequency f, What is the role of transformers? How is an ideal
how are the rms value of the induced emf, the peak of the transformer defined? What parasitic elements must be
flux linking a coil, and the frequency of variation f related? included in the model of an ideal transformer for it to
How does the inductance L of a coil relate Faraday's Law represent a real transformer?
to Ampere's Law? What are the advantages of using permanent magnets?
In a linear magnetic structure, define the inductance of a
coil in terms of its geometry.
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Electric Drive
Chapter 6
Basic Principles of Electrical Electrical Mechanical
Electromechanical Energy System Machine System
Conversion Motoring mode

Generating mode
Pelec
Pelec
Pmech
Pmech
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Basic Structure
Production of Magnetic Field
Construction
Stator
Air gap Radial field (H,F,B) in the air gap is (t )
=

Rotor
H positive if away from the center magnetic
axis
Using Amperes law, field r lg
is (t )
Multi-pole structure produced by the stator is, Ns
N sis
S Hs =
2Ag
N
mmf acting on air gap Bs (t )
N S N N S S N s is o
+
Ni stator surface 2l g
N Fs = H s A g = ss
2
S
& Flux density in air gap rotor surface
0
N i
2
ss o
2l g
Bs = o H s

2

2 pole 4 pole salient pole 2
Sufficient to consider a 2-pole machine

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Electromagnetic
Basic Principles of Operation Force
external B field
B
Force on a current carrying conductor subjected to an
externally-established magnetic field fem
l fem fem
i
f em = B A i
emf induced in a conductor moving in a magnetic field

resultant
subtract add
fem = B A i Force Direction -

e= BAu N
N N
Higher concentration to
[ Nm ] [Wb / m 2 ] [ m ] [ A]
lower concentration
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Induced EMF Application of Basic Principles

Force on positive charges +
Assumptions
fq +
fq = q ( u B ) B (into paper) Uniform Bs , radial in direction
In this example a net positive charge Rotor current of constant magnitude m
u + stator
accumulates at the top and a net but polarity changes with position ir er Tem magnetic
axis
negative charge accumulates at the counter-clockwise torque is positive
bottom fq Electrical
Force acting on the conductor system
f em = Bs ( N r I ) l
Magnitude of induced emf
ir
e = B l u fq + and torque on coil I
N
N N Tem = 2 f em r = 2Bs ( N r I ) lr
0 180 o 360 o
[V ] [Wb / m 2 ][ m][ m / s ] B (into paper)
I
er
Polarity of induced emf is given by f q torque remains constant as rotor turns E

and is independent of current flowing u emf induced in coil 0
E
Tem
through the conductor er = 2econd = 2N r Bslr m r
0

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Energy conversion Power losses and Energy efficiency
ir
I

I
0 180 o 360 o
Motor losses
Motoring er E Conduction losses, PR Electric Drive
+ m
stator Iron losses, Phe
Mode ir er

Tem magnetic
axis
0
Friction and windage losses, Pfw
E
Electrical Tem Switching losses, Psw P Electrical
system Pin
Stray losses, Ps P Po
Machine
0

Ploss = PR + Phe + Psw + Pfw + Ps U
ir
I
Po Po
mach = =
Pin Po + Ploss
0 180 o 360 o
I
Regenerative er E
PPU losses PPU Motor
+ stator
braking ir er

m Tem magnetic 0 Conduction losses losses losses
axis
Mode E
Switching losses
Electrical Tem
system 0 drive = PPU motor (80 90%)
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Motor Ratings Summary

Safe Operating Area What is the role of electric machines? What do the
Speed
motoring-mode and the generating-mode of operations
Continuous mean?
Safe Operating What are the definitions of stator and rotor?
Area
Re duced torque
Why do we use high permeability ferromagnetic materials
100%
due to lack of for stators and rotors in electric machines? Why are these
cooling
constructed by stacking laminations together, rather than
Torque
0 100% as a solid structure?
What is the approximate air gap length in machines with
Rated speed, torque and power Prated = rated Trated less than 10 kW ratings?
Motor temperature rise due to losses What are multi-pole machines? Why can such machines
Expanded safe operating area during transients and be analyzed by considering only one pair of poles?
for intermittent operation
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary Summary
Assuming the permeability of iron to be infinite, where is
the mmf produced by machine coils "consumed"? What How do electrical machines convert energy from one
law is used to calculate the field quantities, such as flux form to another?
density, for a given current through a coil? Why is it What are various loss mechanisms in electric machines?
important to have a small air gap length? How is electrical efficiency defined and what are typical
What are the two basic principles of operation for electric values of efficiencies for the machines, the power-processing
machines? units, and the overall drives?
What is the expression for force acting on a What is the end-result of power losses in electric machines?
current-carrying conductor in an externally established What is meant by the various ratings on the name-plates
B-field? What is its direction? of machines?
What is slot shielding and why can we choose to ignore it?
How do we express the induced emf in a conductor
"cutting" an externally established B-field? How do we
determine the polarity of the induced emf?
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Electric Drive
Chapter 6
Basic Principles of Electrical Electrical Mechanical
Electromechanical Energy System Machine System
Conversion Motoring mode

Generating mode
Pelec
Pelec
Pmech
Pmech
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Basic Structure
Production of Magnetic Field
Construction
Stator
Air gap Radial field (H,F,B) in the air gap is (t )
=

Rotor
H positive if away from the center magnetic
axis
Using Amperes law, field r lg
is (t )
Multi-pole structure produced by the stator is, Ns
N sis
S Hs =
2Ag
N
mmf acting on air gap Bs (t )
N S N N S S N s is o
+
Ni stator surface 2l g
N Fs = H s A g = ss
2
S
& Flux density in air gap rotor surface
0
N i
2
ss o
2l g
Bs = o H s

2

2 pole 4 pole salient pole 2
Sufficient to consider a 2-pole machine

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Electromagnetic
Basic Principles of Operation Force
external B field
B
Force on a current carrying conductor subjected to an
externally-established magnetic field fem
l fem fem
i
f em = B A i
emf induced in a conductor moving in a magnetic field

resultant
subtract add
fem = B A i Force Direction -

e= BAu N
N N
Higher concentration to
[ Nm ] [Wb / m 2 ] [ m ] [ A]
lower concentration
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Induced EMF Application of Basic Principles
Force on positive charges +
Assumptions
fq +
fq = q ( u B ) B (into paper) Uniform Bs , radial in direction
In this example a net positive charge Rotor current of constant magnitude m
u + stator
accumulates at the top and a net but polarity changes with position ir er Tem magnetic
axis
negative charge accumulates at the counter-clockwise torque is positive
bottom fq Electrical
Force acting on the conductor system
f em = Bs ( N r I ) l
Magnitude of induced emf
ir
e = B l u fq + and torque on coil I
N
N N Tem = 2 f em r = 2Bs ( N r I ) lr
0 180 o 360 o
[V ] [Wb / m 2 ][ m][ m / s ] B (into paper)
I
er
Polarity of induced emf is given by f q torque remains constant as rotor turns E

and is independent of current flowing u emf induced in coil 0
E
Tem
through the conductor er = 2econd = 2N r Bslr m r
0

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Energy conversion Power losses and Energy efficiency

ir
I

I
0 180 o 360 o
Motor losses
Motoring er E Conduction losses, PR Electric Drive
+ m
stator Iron losses, Phe
Mode ir er

Tem magnetic
axis
0
Friction and windage losses, Pfw
E
Electrical Tem Switching losses, Psw P Electrical
system Pin
Stray losses, Ps P Po
Machine
0

Ploss = PR + Phe + Psw + Pfw + Ps U
ir
I
Po Po
mach = =
0 o o Pin Po + Ploss
180 360
I
Regenerative er E
PPU losses PPU Motor
+ stator
braking ir er

m Tem magnetic 0 Conduction losses losses losses
axis
Mode E
Switching losses
Electrical Tem
system 0 drive = PPU motor (80 90%)
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Motor Ratings Summary
Safe Operating Area What is the role of electric machines? What do the
Speed
motoring-mode and the generating-mode of operations
Continuous mean?
Safe Operating What are the definitions of stator and rotor?
Area
Re duced torque
Why do we use high permeability ferromagnetic materials
100%
due to lack of for stators and rotors in electric machines? Why are these
cooling
constructed by stacking laminations together, rather than
Torque
0 100% as a solid structure?
What is the approximate air gap length in machines with
Rated speed, torque and power Prated = rated Trated less than 10 kW ratings?
Motor temperature rise due to losses What are multi-pole machines? Why can such machines
Expanded safe operating area during transients and be analyzed by considering only one pair of poles?
for intermittent operation
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary Summary
Assuming the permeability of iron to be infinite, where is
the mmf produced by machine coils "consumed"? What How do electrical machines convert energy from one
law is used to calculate the field quantities, such as flux form to another?
density, for a given current through a coil? Why is it What are various loss mechanisms in electric machines?
important to have a small air gap length? How is electrical efficiency defined and what are typical
What are the two basic principles of operation for electric values of efficiencies for the machines, the power-processing
machines? units, and the overall drives?
What is the expression for force acting on a What is the end-result of power losses in electric machines?
current-carrying conductor in an externally established What is meant by the various ratings on the name-plates
B-field? What is its direction? of machines?
What is slot shielding and why can we choose to ignore it?
How do we express the induced emf in a conductor
"cutting" an externally established B-field? How do we
determine the polarity of the induced emf?
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Introduction
Cost
PPU PPU
Chapter 7
PPU PPU
motor motor motor motor
DC Motor Drives
1998 Future Future
Demise prematurely predicted,
DC DRIVES
still used
1998in speed
AC DRIVES
control
Merits
Ease of control
Cheaper Power Processing Unit
Drawbacks
mechanical commutator and brushes require maintenance
Classification of DC drives Structure of DC motors

stator
Permanent
magnets
magnets
Electrical Power DC Mechanical

Processing system rotor
source unit machine
winding
Permanent Wound
magnet rotor
Switch-mode Line-commutated
converter thyristor converter
f produced by f produced by
permanent magnets stator winding current
Stator
Establishes field flux, f
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Structure of DC motors Operating Principles of a DC Motor
Field flux density in the airgap
Rotor
Armature winding back end
Commutator and brushes
1b
N S
=0
N 1 1' S f
Bf
m s1 b2
s2
b1 0
ia
=0
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Operating principles - Commutator Four Coil Example

Action ea ea ea
+ + + Ia Ia
ia ia ia
N 4 1 +
e +I Ia
e 2 2
a
+ 2 2 + + 4 1 +
1' + +2 e 4b 1b
e
1
a +
+ 3 4
+ 2e 2e
S1 S2 S2
S2 S1 + 4 1 _ ia ea _
ea_ ia ea 4 1
m b ia d
N 1 1' S N S N 1' 1 S 3 _ 2 + 3 2 +
=0 1
_ + +
+ =0 + =0 4 2
c 3 2e _ 2e
_
e 3b Ia Ia 2b e _ 3 _
m S1 m + 2 2 + 2
e 3 2 e
Tem
1 +
Tem S
e1,1 ' , i1to1 ' at = 0 o
0 1
0V
1
N
0V 0V
1 1b 1
Tem = 2 B f A ia r 0o 90 o
ea (t )
180 o 270 o 360 o +
2 4 a d
2
+
Ia
2 +
Ia
2
4 +
d e e ea
+ 4
+ 2
a +
+ 2b
Ea 3 ea 3 4b ia e_a 2e ia 2e
( average) ia 1 + + _ _
ea = 2 B f A (r m )
1 _ 2
0
e e 4 _
0o 90 o 180 o ea (t ) 270 o 360 o b c c
b 2
Tem (t ) 2 4
_
4 3 3b 3
0V 0V
Tem
( average) S 3
0V
3
0 CCW rotation by 45
0 o 90 o 180 o 270 o 360 o
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Four Coil Example (contd) Summary of Operating Principles
N e +I
1 2 +
Ia e
Ia
2
Ia
2
a d
+
2
+ d +3 e 1b
2
+
2
2b
+
e
+
2e
1
+
2 +
ia divides equally between two parallel circuits
+ 4 1 ea 2e
2
Torque produced on each conductor has the same direction
+_ 1 _ ia _
a ea c 1 2
a ea c ia
m
ia 4 _ 3 + 4 3 +
+
+
Direction of ia determines direction of torque
_
1 3 2 2e 2e
_
b
4
e 4b 3b e _
Ia
b Ia _ 4 3 _
+ 2 +

2
e
S 4 3 e
CCW rotation by 90 o Induced voltage in each circuit is equal to the sum of

ea voltages induced in each coil.
4e
Polarity of induced emf depends only on the direction of
Torque and emf pulsations 2e Ea
0
( average) rotation.
can be reduced by increasing 0o 45o 90 o 135o 180 o 225o 270 o 315o 360 o

i n
Net Torque, Tem = na B f a lr = a lrB f ia = kT ia
the number of conductors Tem 2 2
4Tcond
na na
& ea = B f l ( m r ) = lrB f m = k E m
2Tcond Tem
( average)
2 2
0 In M.K.S. Units k E = kT
0o 45o 90 o 135o 180 o 225o 270 o 315o 360 o
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Armature reaction DC Machine Equivalent Circuit

T
ia ia = em constant at its rated value
kT f
+ m Va1 > Va2 > Va3 > Va4
N N +
S S Ra
m, rated Va1 = rated
Tem Va2
N S La
stator flux resultant flux va m
va
Va3
+
rotor flux ea = k E m Tem , m Va4
Compensating Commutating _ _
Assuming magnetic structure does winding winding _
JM
TL
JL
not saturate: Exciting
Commutating
pole
rated Tem
winding
Increased torque in some conductors Basic equations Steady State
is compensated by decreased torque ea = k E m Tem (= TL )
Ia =
in other conductors di kT
va = ea + Ra ia + La a
dt Va I a Ra
Same reasoning holds for induced emf Tem = kT ia m =
kE
Compensating winding to reduce the d m
=
1
(Tem TL )
dt J eq
effect of armature reaction
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Operating Modes
a ia =
Four Quadrant Operation
ia
+ ia = +
Ra
m
+

Regenerative
Braking m
f + va La
Tem + Tem f
va +
+
ea = k E m
m Regenerative Braking in Motoring in Forward direction
Regenerative + m _
Forward direction a
Motoring
braking + TL
in forward Tem f
direction
in forward JM JL
ea = +
f ea = +
direction
a
ia = Tem ia = +
a
Regenerative Braking: Feeding energy back while braking m Tem , m
Tem
current and torque direction reversed Regenerative Braking in
Motoring in Reverse direction
same polarity of induced emf Reverse direction
a
f
Operation in reverse direction: polarity of applied voltage ea =
f
Tem a ea =
reversed ia = ia = +
m
Tem , m
Motoring ia < 0
Regenerative braking ia > 0
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Flux weakening in wound field

machines Power Processing Unit for DC Drives
to Allow Overspeed Operation m
m, rated Draw power from utility - power quality problems
2
Va = rated
I a = rated
Ideally power flow should be reversible
f = varied
1
Provide nearly dc voltage and current to the dc motor
Va = rated
I a = rated
f = rated
Tem
0 1 Tem, rated dc-dc converter
Below rated speed, kT maximum to ensure maximum +

T+
A
TB+
ia
+
vd va
torque/Ampere thereby minimizing resistive losses line voltage

T A TB

Above rated speed, B f reduced to keep Va at its rated value.

ac to dc filter
B f reduced by reducing I f rectifier capacitor
vcontrol
kT and k E changed; kT = kt B f ; k E = ke B f ; kt = ke vtri
PWM-IC
Since I a is limited to its rated value maximum, Tem reduces
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Electronically Commutated Motor Drives Rotating Field & Stationary Conductors
(Trapezoidal waveform brush-less dc) coil
S u u

Inside out machines
a' +
ib +
0
u

m B
Electronically commutated c S
b
ecoil
a axis
S B
m
armature ic magnetic
axis of
N ecoil
+ N B
At any instant, only two sets of ea
phase a 0 u B
+
windings carry currents. As the b'
N
c'
rotor turns, different pairs of + a Flux linkage of a single turn coil

windings are chosen. ia
coil = ( rl ) B f ( /( / 2) ) ( / 2 / 2)
ia permanent
f d d d rlB m
magnets
emf induced ecoil = dt = d dt = / 2 = 2 B f lr m

+
total induced emf = 2N s B f lr m
b econd
Vd
+ ea
utility
a (when all turns are under common pole)
c
Polarity determined by assuming field to be stationary and
logic
shaft position signals
and the conductor moving in opposite direction
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Induced emf Torque Production

ea
fem Tem, a
a' ib
+

c S = 0o 60o 120o 180o 240o 300o 360o S 0
b = 0o
m
ic Tem, a
+ eb N Tem,b
ea
0
b' c' fem
N
+ a Tem,c
ec
ia Force on conductors f = Bli 0

torque on rotor CCW c c a a b b c c a

( a) (b) (b) (c) (c) ( a) ( a) (b) (b)
In flat regions all turns are under same pole Excite two phases simultaneously0 ia

In sloped regions some turns are under N pole while others Total Tem = 2 (2N s B f lr ) I = kT I 0
ib

are under S pole 0

ic

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Equivalent circuit Summary
a
ia What is the breakdown of costs in dc-motor drives relative
a
Vd
+
b + i
to ac-motor drives?
b
Vd
a + What are the two broad categories of dc motors?
Eback emf
b c
What are the two categories of power-processing units?
What is the major drawback of dc motors?
Phase-to-phase back induced emf What are the roles of commutator and brushes?
eback emf = 2e ph = 2 (2N s B f lr ) m = k E m k E = kT What is the relationship between the voltage-constant and
the torque-constant of a dc motor? What are their units?
Hysteresis current control Show the dc-motor equivalent circuit. What does the
IH
i armature current depend on? What does the induced
I desired Position 1: Pole a high, Pole b low back-emf depend on?
IL Position 2: Pole a low, Pole b high
1 2 After 60 o rotor rotation, a new pair What are the various modes of dc-motor operation? Explain
t of poles (a,c) are used these modes in terms of the directions of torque, speed, and
0
power flow.
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary Summary
How does a dc-motor torque-speed characteristic behave
when a dc motor is applied with a constant dc voltage under How can we justify applying the equation in a situation
an open-loop mode of operation? where the conductor is stationary but the flux-density
What additional capability can be achieved by flux distribution is moving?
weakening in wound-field dc machines? How is the current controlled in a switch-mode inverter
What are various types of field windings? supplying ECM?
Show the safe operating area of a dc motor and discuss its What is the reason for torque ripple in ECM drives?
various limits.
Assuming a switch-mode power-processing unit, show the
applied voltage waveform and the induced emf for all four
modes (quadrants) of operation.
What is the structure of trapezoidal-waveform electronically-
commutated motors?
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Feedback Control Objectives
Chapter 8
error error P Electric output
desired Mech
(reference) + amplifier P Machine Load
signal - U

Electrical

System Mechanical
System
measured output signal
Designing Feedback Feedback control
Controllers for Motor Drives

makes system insensitive to disturbances and
parameter variation
Controller Plant
Control Objectives X * (s) E ( s) X ( s)
+
Gc ( s ) G p ( s)
Zero steady-state error
Good dynamic response

- fast
- small overshoot
Definitions Example
100
Open loop 50
GOL ( s ) = KOL / s ; KOL = 2 10 3

GOL
GOL ( s ) = Gc ( s )G p ( s ) 0
Closed loop -50

-50
fc , c
GCL ( s ) = GOL ( s ) /(1 + GOL ( s ))

-100
GOL ( s )
GOL
Crossover frequency -150
180 o
phase
margin
(dB ) x* (t )
c = 2 10 3
fc ,c -200
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2 0 log
0.632
x(t )
frequency
Gain Margin GCL ( s )
(dB )
log
Phase Margin GCL ( j )
0
20 dB / decade
> 45o for no oscillations 0 dB closed loop step response

3dB
60o preferable BW
Closed loop bandwidth fc

desired high for fast response
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Cascaded Control Steps in Designing the Controller
Assume system is linear about the steady state
speed* torque* torque speed
operating point design controller using Linear Control Theory
position* Position Speed Torque Electrical
System
Mech 1 position
Simulate design under large signal conditions
+ controller + controller + controller System s
and tweak controller as necessary
torque(current)
speed
position
System representation for small signal analysis
Assume
Torque loop : fastest Steady state system operating point = 0
Speed loop : slower Highest bandwidth at least an order of magnitude lower
Position loop : slowest than switching frequency neglect switching
frequency components
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Averaged Representation of the PPU Modeling of DC Machines and

Mechanical Load Combinations
id (t ) T
id ia = em
kT
idA idB d ia (t )
iA
+
ia (t ) va (t ) = ea (t ) + Ra ia (t ) + La + Ra
+ + +
Vd
+ dt
Vd A B va +
iB
ea

1 d (t )
va ( t ) ea
ea (t ) = k E m (t ) va +
La
Tem
i A = ia ea = k E m m
_
N iB = ia Va ( s ) = Ea ( s ) + ( Ra + s La ) I a ( s ) TL
vcontrol ( t )
1
vcontrol ( t ) qA (t ) V
tri
d (t ) = d A (t ) d B (t )
JM
JL
qB ( t ) V ( s ) Ea ( s )
I a ( s) = a ; Ea ( s ) = k E m ( s )
( Ra + s La )
va (t ) = k PWM vc (t ) Va ( s )
TL ( s )
Vc ( s ) k
PWM Tem ( s ) = kT I a ( s ) Va ( s ) 1 I a (s)
kT +

1 m ( s )
Va ( s ) = k PWM Vc ( s ) +

Ra + sLa
Tem ( s )
sJ eq
Tem ( s )
m ( s) =
sJ eq kE
Audio TOC Audio TOC
PI Controller Controller Design
vc, p ( s )
kp
G (s)
p
Procedure
*
X (s) vc,i ( s ) + X ( s)
ki
+ E ( s) s +
vcontrol ( s )
Design torque loop (fastest) first

Gc ( s ) Design speed loop assuming torque loop to be ideal

Design position loop (slowest) assuming speed loop to
vc ( s ) k k s be ideal
= k p + i = i 1+
E ( s) s s ki / k p
Proportional-Integral (PI) Controller

In the torque and speed loops, proportional control
without integral control input leads to steady-state error
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Design of the Torque (Current) Loop Design of the Torque (Current) Loop
Simplifying assumptions TL
Selecting Parameters
I a* ( s ) V ( s) 1 / Ra I a (s) Tem 1 m I a* ( s ) kiI s Va ( s ) 1 / Ra I a (s)
k PWM a + + 1+
+ +
PI kT k PWM
1 + s e sJ s kiI / k pI 1 + s e

kE
I a (s) I a (s)
Select zero of PI to cancel motor pole ; k pI

* Va ( s )

= e
Interleaved I a (s) PI k PWM +
1 / Ra I a (s)
kT
Tem 1 m
kiI
+
loops redrawn 1 + s e sJ k I ,OL k k

GI ,OL = ; ki,OL = iI PWM
as nested loops k E kT s Ra
I a (s) sJ Choose to achieve desired cross-over frequency
kiI k I ,OL = CI

Assuming J I a* ( s ) kiI s Va ( s ) 1 / Ra I a (s) 60 0
+ 1+ k PWM
Magnitude (dB)
Magnitude (dB)
40
high enough, inner s kiI / k pI 1 + s e 20

-10
0
-20
loop can -20

-40
0 1 2 3 4 5
-30
0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
be ignored I a (s)
-89
Frequency (Hz)
0
Frequency (Hz)
kiI s
-89.5
Phase (deg)
Phase (deg)
1 / Ra -90 -50
GI ,OL ( s ) = 1 + k
PWM

-90.5
s kiI / k p 1 + s e

PPU
-91 -100

0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
motor
PI controller open loop closed loop
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Design of the Speed Loop Design of the Position Loop
* *
m ( s) k p
m ( s) m ( s) 1 m ( s)
* I a* ( s ) m ( s) 1
m ( s) I a (s) Tem ( s ) 1 + s
PI 1 kT
+ Js

m ( s)
Assume current loop to be ideal represent by unity Assume speed loop to be ideal
Choose crossover frequency an order of magnitude lower Proportional gain ( k) alone is adequate due to presence of
C P
than pure integrator
CI k
Choose a reasonable phase margin G ,OL = P k P = CP
PM , s
50 0
open loop closed loop
Magnitude (dB)
Magnitude (dB)
-20
0
20 -40
150
Magnitude (dB)
0
Magnitude (dB)
100 -50 -60

-1 0 1 2 3 4 -1 0 1 2 3 4
-20 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 10
50 Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
-89 0
-40
0
-89.5
Phase (deg)
Phase (deg)
-60
-50 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5 10 10 10 10 10 10 10 -50
10 10 10 10 10 10 10 -90
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz) 0
-50 -90.5
Phase (deg)
-91 -100
Phase (deg)
-100 -1 0 1 2 3 4 10
-1 0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
-50 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
-150
-200
-1 0 1 2 3 4 5
-100
10
-1 0
10
1
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
open loop closed loop
10 10 10 10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)
Frequency (Hz)
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Further Issues Summary

Feed-forward: To improve dynamic response
Process computer
position* speed*ff torque*ff What are the various blocks of a motor drive?

Position
+
Speed
+
Torque Electrical Mech 1 position What is a cascaded control and what are its advantages?
+ controller + controller controller System System s

torque*
Draw the average models of a PWM controller and a
torque(current)
speed*
speed dc-dc converter.
position
+Vtri
Draw the dc-motor equivalent circuit and its representation
+Vd
in Laplace domain. Is this representation linear?
Effect of limits I a* ( s )
+
kiI
1+
s
k PWM
1 / Ra
1 + s e
I a (s)
What is the transfer function of a proportional-integral (PI)
s kiI / k pI
- nonlinearity Vtri
Vd controller?
cp
Draw the block diagram of the torque loop.
kp
max What is the rationale for neglecting the feedback from speed
Anti-windup integration input
+ co '
co
in the torque loop?
- suspend integration ki ci min
Draw the simplified block diagram of the torque loop.
when output saturates Describe the procedure for designing the PI controller in the
0 max | co ' |
torque loop.
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary Summary
How would we have designed the PI controller of the torque How would we have designed the position controller if the
loop if the effect of the speed were not ignored? closed speed loop were not approximated by unity?
What allows us to approximate the closed torque loop by Draw the block diagram with feed-forward. What are its
unity in the speed loop? advantages?
What is the procedure for designing the PI controller in the Why are limiters used and what are their effects?
speed loop? What is the integrator windup and how can it be avoided?
How would we have designed the PI controller in the speed
loop if the closed torque-loop were not approximated by unity?
Draw the position-loop block diagram.
Why do we only need a P controller in the position loop?
What allows us to approximate the closed speed loop by
unity in the position loop?
Describe the design procedure for determining the controller
in the position loop
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Introduction
Primary AC motor drives
Chapter 9 Induction motors
Permanent Magnet Brushless (Synchronous Motors)
Introduction to AC Both have similar stators but different rotor construction
Machines b axis
Stator windings produce ib
sinusoidal field distribution 2 / 3

2 / 3
a axis
2 / 3 ia
ic
c axis
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 171 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003

Sinusoidally-distributed Stator Air-gap Field Distribution
Windings d

H a ( ) = H a ( + )
H a ( ) l g H a ( + ) l g = 2H a ( )l g
d
(negative sign because line of integration points
inwards at + ) =
Ha =0
3' 4' 5' 2H a ( ) l g = 0 ns ( + ) ia d =
ia =0 N
2 H a ( ) A g = s ia 0 sin( + ) d = N s ia cos ( )
2' 6'
magnetic axis
1' 7' of phase a 2 +
7 1 ia N
H a ( ) = s ia cos ( ) Fa , H a , Ba ( )
at time 't'
6
5 3
2
2A g
4 stator surface
Ns
H a ( ) = ia cos ( )
[ no. of conductors / rad ] 0 < <

Conductor density ns ( ) = ns sin( ) 2A g

rotor surface
2 0 3
2
N
2 2
Ba ( ) = o H a ( ) = o s ia cos ( ) Fa , H a , Ba ( )
Total N s = 0 ns ( ) d = 0 ns sin( ) d = 2ns 2A g t1 t3
t2 t4
Ns
ns ( ) =
Ns
sin( ) 0 < < Fa ( ) = A g H a ( ) = ia cos ( )
2 2
Field quantities have different
magnitudes and units but same shape
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Space Vector to Represent Sinusoidal

Three-phase sinusoidally-distributed Distributions
b axis
stator windings
b axis
ib =
b axis JJG
120 o b
Fc (t ) At time t Fs (t ) JJG
ib b
b'
ib 1 Fs (t )
JJG JJG
Ba ( ) 0 Fa (t ) Fc (t )
a axis JJG
Fa (t ) JJG a axis
a axis ia
-1 JJG
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420
Fb (t ) ia = + Fb (t )
o a 1
a ' i a 0 ic =
a Bb ( ) 0
c'
ic -1
ic 1
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420
c axis c axis
c
c
Bc ( ) 0
c axis -1 Properties of sine(cosine) Fs ( )

240 o 0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420
sum of two sine = sine

1
Bs ( ) stator surface
Example 0

integral/derivative of sine = sine 0 3

2 5 rotor surface
o N sia
-1
0 60 120 180 240 300 360 420
Ba ( ) = cos = 0.628 cos Wb / m 2 Complex number representation 2 2 2
2A g Ns JJG N
( )
Bb ( ) = 0.440 cos 1200 Wb / m 2 Fa ( , t ) =
2
i a ( t ) cos ( ) Fa ( t ) = s i a ( t ) 0 o
JJG 2 JJG
Bc ( ) = 0.188 cos ( 240 ) Wb / m 2
0 Similarly, Fb ( t ) = N s ib ( t ) 120o ; Fc ( t ) = N s ic ( t ) 240o
JJG JJG 2 JJG JJG 2
And Fs = Fa + Fb + Fc = Fs F
Bs ( ) = Ba ( ) + Bb ( ) + Bc ( ) = 0.967 cos ( 13.03 ) s
Similar expressions for B and H
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Example Space Vectors Representation of
N
Three-phase, sinusoidally-distributed stator with s = 50 turns
At time t , ia = 10 A, ib = 10 A and ic = 0 A 2 Combined Phase Currents and
Find F
JG Voltages
JG N
(
F ( t ) = s ia 00 + ib1200 + ic 2400
2
) Mathematical concept
= 50 {10 + ( 10 ) [cos 120 + j sin 1200 ] + ( 0 ) [cos 2400 + j sin 2400 ]}
0 b axis
120 o b
JG At time t ib
F ( t ) = 50 17.32 30 o = 866 30 o A turns b'
Fs ( ) at t JG
is (t ) = ia (t )00 + ib (t )1200 + ic (t )2400 a axis
a' a 0 o
ia
phase 'a' magnetic axis = Is (t ) i (t )
s c'
30 o ic
o
30
G c
=0 JJG v s (t ) = va (t )00 + vb (t )1200 + vc (t )2400

Fs (t ) c axis
JG = Vs (t ) vs (t ) 240 o
If l g = 1.5 mm and m = , find B (t ).

JG
B (t ) = 0.73 30 o T
Audio TOC Audio TOC
JG
Physical interpretation of is (t ) Space Vector Components:
N s JG JJG
Finding Phase Currents from Current Space
2
is (t ) =
Ns
2
ia (t )00 +
Ns
2
ib (t )1200 +
Ns
2
ic (t )2400 = Fs (t ) Vector

JJG
JJG
JJ
G
b axis
G 3 120 o
Re is 00 = ia + Re ib1200 + Re ib2400 = ia
at time t
G Fa (t ) Fb (t ) Fc (t ) at time t b
G Fs (t ) Fs (t ) magnetic axis of

2
ib
is (t ) = I s (t ) = hypothetical winding
b'
Ns 2 Ns 2 1 1
with current Is ib ic
2 2 a axis
and is (t ) = Fs (t ) 2 JG o 2 a 0 o
JJG JG a axis ia (t ) = Re(is 0 ) = Is cos is a' ia
Fs (t ) and is (t ) are collinear 3 3 c'

ic
Is G 3
JJG N JG Re is 1200 = Re ia 1200 + ib + Re ic 1200 = ib
c
Bs (t ) = s o is (t )

2
2l g c axis
1 1 ia + ib + ic = 0
ia ic 240 o
Magnetic filed is produced by 2 2
projection
2
= ic (t )
phase b
2 JG 2 b axis
ib (t ) = Re(is 120 ) = Is cos is 120
o o
combined effect of ia , ib and ic magnetic axis 3
JG
3 3 is (t )
but could equivalently be 30 o
phase a
magnetic axis G 3
produced by hypothetical
JG
Re is 2400 = Re ia 2400 + Re ib 2400 + ic = ic

JJG
is JJG is

JG Bs 2 a axis
winding current is (t ) at is phase c
magnetic axis
1
ia
1
ib
projection
2
3
= ia (t )
2 2
helps in obtaining expression 2 JG 2 projection
2
= ib (t )
ic (t ) = Re(is 240 ) = Is cos is 240
o o 3
for torque 3 3
c axis
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Balanced Sinusoidal Steady-State
Excitation (Rotor Open-Circuited) Relation Between Space Vectors and
b 2 @ t =
Phasors
imb ima (t ) imb (t ) imc (t ) @ t = 3
3
ima (t ) imb (t ) imc (t )
ima
Im
t
Time domain Im
@ t = t = 0 0 t
a 0 t
ia (t ) = Im cos ( t )
imc t = 0
5
c 4 t = t = 0
t = @
@
3
Phasor
( ) ( )
3 ref
ima = Im cos t ; imb = Im cos t 1200 ; imc = Im cos t 2400
JJG I a = Im
I ma = Im
ims (t ) = Im cos t00 + cos( t 1200 )1200 + cos( t 2400 )2400

JJG 3 Space Vector @ t =0

ims (t ) = I ms t
where I ms = I m JJG a axis
2 3
JJJG JG ims = Ims ; Ims = Im
Rotating MMF Fms (t ) = N s is (t ) = Fms t where Fms = 3 N s Im = N s Ims t =0 JJJG
2 ims = Ims
2 2 2 2
JJJJG o N s JJG Space Vector phasor
& Flux density Bms (t ) = ims (t ) JJG 3
Ag 2 ims t =0
I ma
2
Constant amplitude
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Voltages in the stator windings Example

b imb Emc @ t =0 I ma
v
+
JJJG
ems
+ va ( t ) = 120 2 cos t phase b
I mc JJG
eb I mb magnetic axis vs (t )
ima j Lm
vb ( t ) = 120 2 cos ( t 120 )
JJJG Ema
e ims
ec a + a Ema 30 o
phase a
+ magnetic axis
vc ( t ) = 120 2 cos ( t 240 )
JJG 60 o
imc im (t )
I ma
c JJJG
Emb Bm (t )
G 3 phase c
vs = 120 2300 = 254.56 300 V magnetic axis
d 2
ema (t ) = Lm ima (t ) etc.
dt G
JJG vs 254.56 (300 900 )
2 ims = = = 0.869 600 A
Where the three phase magnetizing inductance (2 pole), Lm = 3 o rl N s j Lm 2 60 0.777
2 lg 2
JJJG JJG JJJJG N iG 4 10 7 50 0.869 600
3 N JJJJG Bms = o s ms = = 0.055 600 Wb / m 2
ems (t ) = j Lm ims (t ) = j rl s Bms (t ) 2A g 10 3
2 2
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary Summary
How is sinusoidal distribution of conductor density in
Draw the three-phase axis in the motor cross-section. Also, a phase winding approximated in practical machines with
draw the three phasors Va , Vb and Va in a balanced sinusoidal only a few slots available to each phase?
steady state. Why is the phase-b axis ahead of the phase-a How are the three field distributions (F, H, and B) related
axis by 120 degrees, but Vb lags Va by 120 degrees? to each other, assuming that there is no magnetic saturation
Ideally, what should be the field (F, H, and B) distributions in the stator and the rotor iron?
produced by each of the three stator windings? What is the What is the significance of the magnetic axis of any phase
direction of this field in the air gap? What direction is winding?
considered positive and what is considered negative? Mathematically express the field distributions in the air gap
What should the conductor-density distribution in a winding due to ia as a function of . Repeat this for ib and ic .
be in order to achieve the desired field distribution in the air What do the phasors V and I JJG denote? What
JJG are the
gap? Express the conductor-density distribution ns ( ) for meanings of the space vectors Ba (t ) and Bs (t ) at time t,
phase-a. assuming that the rotor circuit is electrically open-circuited?
What is the constraint on the sum of the stator currents?
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary Summary
What are physical interpretations of various stator
winding inductances? With no excitation or currents in the rotor,
JJJGare JJJJ
all Gof the
JJJJG
Why is the per-phase inductance Lm greater than the single space vectors associated with the stator ims (t ), Fms (t ), Bms (t )
-phase inductance Lm,1 phase by a factor of 3/2? collinear (oriented in the same direction)?
JJG JG
What are the characteristics of space vectors which represent In ac machines, a stator space vector vs (t ) or is (t ) consists
the field distributions Fs ( ), H s ( ) and Bs ( ) at a given of a unique set of phase components. What is the condition on
time? What notations are used for these space vectors? which these components are based?
Which axis is used as a reference to express them Express the phase voltage components in terms of the stator
mathematically in this chapter? voltage space vector.
Why does a dc current through a phase winding produce a Under three-phase balanced sinusoidal condition with no
sinusoidal flux-density distribution in the air gap? rotor currents, and neglecting the stator winding resistances
How are the terminal phase voltages and currents combined Rs and the leakage inductance Lls for simplification,
for representation by space vectors? answer the following questions: (a) What is the speed at
What is the physical interpretation of the stator current which all of the space vectors rotate?
JG
space vector is (t ) ?
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary
(b) How is the peak flux density related to the magnetizing
Chapter 10
currents? Does this relationship depend on the frequency f
of the excitation? If the peak flux density is at its rated
value, then what about the peak value of the magnetizing
Sinusoidal Permanent
currents? (c) How do the magnitudes of the applied Magnet
voltages depend on the frequency of excitation, in order to
keep the flux density constant (at its rated value for example)? AC Drives,
What is the relationship between space vectors and phasors Load-Commutated-Inverter
under balanced sinusoidal operating conditions?
Synchronous Motor Drives,
and Synchronous
Generators
Permanent-Magnet AC (PMAC) Drives Structure of Permanent-Magnet

Synchronous Machines
Power Sinusoidal
ia Position
Processing PMAC Load
ib sensor b axis
Utility Unit ic motor JJG
ib Br (t )
m
N m (t )
Control m (t )
Controller a axis
input S ia
a axis
ic
c axis
System level operation similar to DC machines but without
brushes - sometimes called Brush-less DC Drives
Motor essentially a synchronous machine whose field flux Permanent Magnet rotor
is provided by permanent magnets Sinusoidally distributed stator windings
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Principle of Operation Torque Calculation
JG
is
d
Magnets shaped to produce sinusoidal b axis
JJG
Br
flux density distribution JG
is ib Using f em = Bli
JJG a'
m JJG
Br (t ) = B r m (t ) = 90 oN
S N Br
Is
ia a axis
Ns
dTem ( ) = r B r cos A I cos d
Controlled stator currents S

s 2
ic flux density at cond .length
G a
diff no. of cond . at
is (t ) controlled by PPU c axis
= / 2
(controlling ia (t ), ib (t ), and ic (t ) ) such that Ns / 2 N
G JJG Tem = 2 dTem ( ) = 2 rABr I s cos 2 d = s r AB r Is
is (t ) = Is (t ) is (t ), where Is Br
= / 2 2 / 2 2
JG
0 is
is (t ) = m (t ) + 90 m N
N Tem = k Is , where the machine torque constant, kT = s r A B r
2
T
= 90 maximizes torque/ampere
o
a axis
Stator current space vector is S

Torque is proportional to Is alone, just as in dc motors
controlled so that it leads the peak with constant field excitation. Hence the name
rotor flux by 90 degrees Brush-Less DC
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Similarity Between DC Motor and

Brushless DC Motor Mechanical System
JG
is
m
Tem
m
f = 90 o JJG Motor Load
N S S N Br
(stationary)
TL
a
(stationary)
d m Tem TL
DC motor Brush-Less DC motor drive m = =
JJG dt J eq
Stationary f produced Br produced by rotor magnets
by stator windings and
JG rotates with the rotor m (t ) = m (0 ) + ot m ( ) d
a produced by rotating rotor is produced by stator winding

windings and is made currents and is made to rotate m (t ) = m (0 ) + ot m ( ) d
stationary by commutator at rotor speed by the action of
action the PPU
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Calculation of the Reference Example
Values: ia* , ib* and ic*
kT = 0.5 Nm/A b axis JJG
Br
Reference values are generated by the controller based on To produce a counter clockwise ib
desired torque output and rotor position holding torque of 5 Nm at m = 45 JG
is
45o
Reference values tell the PPU what stator currents to deliver T
135o
N
Is = em = 10 A
Starting with the desired torque and known rotor position, the kT a axis
ia
desired stator currents are found as follows: 0
is = m + 90 = 135 0
S
*
JG ic
(Tem , m ) (is ) (ia* , ib* , ic* ) G
is = Is is = 10 1350
c axis
*
T (t ) 2 G 2
Is* (t ) = em ia* (t ) = Re is* (t ) = Is* (t )cos i*s (t ) ia =
2
I s cos is = 4.71 A ib =
2
I s cos( is 1200 ) = 6.44 A
3 3
kT 3 3
2 G 2
ib* (t ) = Re is* (t ) 1200 = Is* (t )cos( i*s (t ) 1200 )
i*s (t ) = m (t ) + 900 3 3
ic =
2
I s cos( is 2400 ) = 1.73 A
G 2 G 2 3
is* (t ) = Is* (t ) i*s (t ) ic* (t ) = Re is* (t ) 2400 = Is* (t )cos( i*s (t ) 2400 )
3 3 Stator currents are dc in this example.
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Induced EMF in Stator Induced EMF in theJJStator

G JJJWindings
G due
Windings under Balanced to Rotating Br (ems ,JJG
Sinusoidal Steady State B ) r
JJJG 3 N JJJJG m
ems (t ) = j ( r A s ) Bms (t ) (Eq. 9-41) t =0
JJG 2 2 JJJJJJJG
1. Br (t ) rotates with an instantaneous speed of m (t ) . This with substitutions in the current case:
ems, JJG
Br
a axis
rotating flux-density distribution cuts the stator windings to JJJG 3 N s JJG

induce a back-emf. ems ,JJG
Br (t ) = j m ( 2 r A 2 ) Br (t )
N
m
JG Voltage Constant:
2. The rotating flux-density distribution due to rotating is (t )
space vector induces an emf in the stator windings. V Nm N
kE = kT = r A s B r
rad / s A 2
JJJG 3 3 o
ems , JJ
G
Br (t ) = j 2 k E m m (t ) = 2 k E m ( m (t ) + 90 )
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Net induced EMF in the stator
Induced EMF in the
JG Stator
JJJG Windings due windings JJJG
to Rotating is (ems ,iJG )
s m
JJJG
ems
( ems (t ) )
t =0
JJJJJJG
ems, iJG
JJJG JJJG s
ems (t ) = j Lm ims (t ) (Eq. 9-40) JG

is
JJJJJJJG a axis
ems, JJG
JJJJJJG m t =0
Br
ems, iJG Ema
s Ema, iJG
s
with substitutions in the current case: JG
is a axis
N Ema , JJG ref axis
JJG JG m
B r Ia
es ,iJG (t ) = j m Lm is (t ) JJG
s N
Br
Space vector diagram Phasor diagram for phase-a
= m Lm Is ( m (t ) + 90 o + 90 o ) m

JJG
Br JJJG JJJG JJJG
is (t ) ems (t ) = ems , JJG
B
(t ) + ems ,iJG (t )
r s
JJJG 3 JG
Lm : Magnetizing inductance ems (t ) = k E m( m (t ) + 90 o ) + j m Lm is (t )
2
2
Ema = k E m( m (t ) + 90 o ) + j m Lm I a
3
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit Controller and Power Processing Unit

Ls

Ia
Rs Lls Lm
I a ( j m Ls )
Va + + Ema, iJGs +
+
I a Rs
Ema , JJG
B Power Sinusoidal
Va Ema r ia Position
Ema , JJG
B Processing PMAC Load
r
ib sensor
Utility Unit ic motor
Ia ref axis
2
E a,BG = E ms ,BG =k E m = E fa Control
Controller
m (t )
r 3 r input
Lm : Magnetizing inductance
Ls = LAs + Lm
Lls : Stator leakage inductance
Controller determines desired phase currents based on
Va = E fa + j m Ls I a + Rs I a
desired torque and motor position
Rs can often be ignored
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Load-Commutated-Inverter (LCI)
Hysterisis current control Supplied Synchronous Motor Drives
Id
If
Ld
ac line
actual current input
reference current
+ phase a Synchronous
Vd Line-commutated Load-commutated
t motor
0 converter inverter

High power levels

Field windings on rotor carrying a dc current
ia* (t ) +
*
Tem 1 Is*
ib* (t )

q A (t )
Thyristor PPU needed at these power levels

kT
ic* (t ) ia (t ) DC-link between utility and inverter is a nearly constant
m (t ) current ( I d ) rather than a constant voltage ( Vd ) as in
previous circuits
Inverter thyristors commutated by load (synchronous
motor)
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Synchronous Generators Per-Phase Model and Power-Angle

Characteristics Pem
steady state
stability limit
Ia generator
mode
Generally larger sizes + jX s +

E fa = E f Va = Va 0 o 90 o 0 90 o
Directly connected to utility without PPU

motoring
mode steady state
Three-phase winding on stator - DC field winding on rotor Total 3-phase power stability limit
3 E f V
Angle between rotor flux and stator flux not necessarily 90o Pem = sin
2 Xs
allowing generator to sink or source VARS For angles between -90o and +90o rotor speed remains locked to
line frequency
When the machine is asked to either supply or absorb to much power
the angle will move outside the 90 o range. In this situation the rotor
will no longer be synchronized to the line and will either speed up out
of control or slow down. In either case excessive currents should trip the
circuit breakers.
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Adjusting Reactive Power and Power Summary
Factor List various names associated with the PMAC drives and the
E fa E fa
jX s I a
E fa
90 o
jX s I a reasons behind them.
jX s I a
Va I a ,q { Ia
Draw the overall block diagram of a PMAC drive. Why

Ia Va

I a ,q Ia
Va must they operate in a closed-loop?

90 o How do sinusoidal PMAC drives differ from the ECM
drives described in Chapter 7?
Unity Power Factor Operation
Ideally, what are the flux-density distributions produced
For every operating condition there is one value of field current that will
cause the generator to deliver only real power.
by the rotor and the stator phase windings?
What does the space vector represent?
Over-excitation In PMAC drives, why at all times is the space vector
Increasing field current causes generator to supply more reactive power. placed 90 degrees ahead of the space vector in the intended
Under-excitation direction of rotation?
When field current is decreased below the value for Unity Power Factor Why do we need to measure the rotor position in PMAC
operation, the generator will absorb reactive power. drives?
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary Summary
What does the electromagnetic torque produced by a Does in the per-phase equivalent circuit of a PMAC machine
PMAC drive depend on? have the same expression as in Chapter 9? Describe the
How can regenerative braking be accomplished in PMAC differences, if any.
drives? Draw the per-phase equivalent circuit and describe its
Why are PMAC drives called self-synchronous? How is the various elements in PMAC drives.
frequency of the applied voltages and currents determined? Draw the controller block diagram and describe the hysteresis
Are they related to the rotational speed of the shaft? control of PMAC drives.
In a p-pole PMAC machine, what is the angle of the space What is an LCI-synchronous motor drive? Describe it briefly.
vector in relation to the phase-a axis, for a given ? For what purpose are line-connected synchronous generators
What is the frequency of currents and voltages in the stator used?
circuit needed to produce a holding torque in a PMAC drive? Why are there problems of stability and loss of synchronism
In calculating the voltages induced in the stator windings associated with line-connected synchronous machines?
of a PMAC motor, what are the two components that are How can the power factor associated with synchronous
superimposed? Describe the procedure and the expressions. generators be made to be leading or lagging?
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Induction Motors
Chapter 11
Adjustable speed drives
Induction Motors: Servo drives
Balanced, Sinusoidal Steady Induction motors under balanced sinusoidal steady

State Operation
state (Rated voltage at rated frequency)
Speed control using V/f
Field oriented control
Line-fed Induction Structure

Motors
b axis
ib
2 / 3
Structure 2 / 3
2 / 3 ia
a axis
ic
Principle of operation
c axis
Equivalent circuits Simple representation of three phase stator Squirrel-cage rotor

windings
Performance characteristics
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Electrically Open-circuited
Stator Representation Rotor
Vc Vc
va va
+ + + + I mc
vb vb I mb
vb ib ia ib ia
vb
+ +
Va
n va + Va n va +
vc vc vc vc
+ +
+ ic + ic Vb I ma
Vb
Assumptions : Rs, Ls,leakage = 0 Only magnetizing currents are present because rotor is inert
va (t ) = 2 E cos(2 ft )
Magnetizing currents set up rotating flux
2
vb (t ) = 2 E cos(2 ft -
) V G 3
3 Im = ims (t ) = Im ( t - )
4 Lm 2 2
vc (t ) = 2 E cos(2 ft - )
3 3
syn = = 2 f (for a 2-pole machine) ima (t ) = Im cos( t - / 2), etc. Ims = Im
2
2 2 G 3 3
syn = = (2 f ) (for a p-pole machine) vs (t ) = V t Vs = V
p p 2 2
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Electrically Open- Short-circuiting the Rotor

circuited Rotor Fields (Rs, Ls,leakage = 0)
at t = 0
syn
I ma
Transformer Analogy
phase Va + m
90 o
G a axis
vs j Lm im + i2 i2
Va
+

I ma v1 N1 N2 Load
syn
JJJJG JJJG
Bms , ims
JJJJG
Bms is a constant magnitude, rotating flux
G 3 Assuming no resistances or leakage inductance in the
ims (t ) = Im ( t - / 2) = Ims ( t - / 2)
2 stator windings, the stator voltages completely determine
G
G N s ims the motor flux regardless of any rotor currents
H ms (t ) =
2A g
G G G N Flux m is unaffected by the load
Bms (t ) = 0 H m (t ) Bms (t ) = 0 s Ims ( t - / 2)
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 2A g 219 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 220
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Induced Voltages on Rotor Induced Currents in Rotor
at t = 0

ebar
+
at t = 0 syn
m +
JJG a axis + Rbar
+ + vs +
+ + +

m syn
JJG a axis +
+ + vs + ibar ( )
+ +
+ syn +
+
JJJJG front + back end-ring
Bms
syn end-ring
JJJJG
Bms
Rotor conductors (bars) shorted together by end rings

Flux rotating at speed syn Because of symmetry of induced bar voltages, end rings are at
Rotor rotating at speed m same potential, therefore bar voltage is dropped across bar
Rotor conductors cutting flux at speed: resistance (assuming Lr,l = 0) generating currents by Ohms Law
syn m = slip (slip speed) Bm Ar slip
ebar
Cutting flux generates voltage across rotor conductors: ibar = =
Rbar Rbar
ebar() = Bms() A r slip
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Rotor MMF Reflected Rotor

MMF Reflected Rotor Current Slip frequency (fslip) in
m,ir '
m,ir at t = 0
the rotor circuit
net flux = 0 at t = 0
m G G G
JJG JJG JJG JJG JJG
Fs (t ) = Fms (t ) + Fr(t )
Fr
slip syn - m
vs Fr ir ' vs
a axis
a axis
G G G slip : s = =
ima + ira ' JJJG
ims is (t ) = ims (t ) + ir (t ) syn syn
JG
I = k B
JJJJG is
syn
Bms
r i ms slip slip
f slip = f = sf
JJJJG
Bms syn
G slip + m = syn
GFr produced by rotor currents
Fr produced by additional stator currents to keep total flux
unchanged (transformer analogy) G
These currents are viewed as a current space vector ir Slip is rotor speed normalized to synchronous speed
Total stator current is magnetizing current plus this reflected Slip generally small (< 3%), therefore rotor current
rotor current frequency is very low
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Electromagnetic Torque Torque Speed Characteristics
Production (slip small ; m near syn)
A
m
at t = 0
Tem, rated
syn,rated
slip,rated

JJG JJJG JJG m,rated

Fr Fr ' vs
a axis
JJG
ir '
0
Tem
N syn , ratedm
Tem,rated 0
m,rated slip,rated
JJJJG
Bms
G G Linear relationship
Current ir , in field Bms , produces torque Tem These curves are valid up to rated torque
N
Tem = s r A B ms Ir = ke B ms
2
slip
2

kt Audio TOC Audio TOC
Generator (Regenerative Braking) Rotor Leakage Inductance

Mode net=0
m,ir
m,ir at t = 0
at t = 0 A r
m

JJG
JJJG JJG Fr syn
Fr ' Fr a axis r a axis JJG
JJG Fr r a axis
JJJG vs (t ) JJG
F '
r
r vs
r JJJJG JJJG
ims JJG Fr '
ir '
syn
JJJJG JJJG
Bms ims
syn
For generation or for braking in either case rotor speed exceeds JJJJG
Bms JJJJG syn
synchronous speed, m > syn Bms
slip < 0 JJG

Fr
at t = 0
r
Bar voltage polarities reversed
G 90 o JJG
JJG
vs a axis
Rotor currents and mmf ( Fr ) reversed

G JJG
r Fr JG
ir
Br
Reflected rotor currents and mmf ( Fr) reversed JJJJG
90 o Bms
JJJG
Torque reversed Blr
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Rotor Leakage Per-Phase Equivalent Circuit
Inductance (cont)
at t = 0
Ia
I ra
Va
m
JJG
+ j Leq
Fr
r a axis I ra '
JJG
JJJG vs at f = V j Lm I ma Req I ma
2 a
Effect of rotor leakage inductance is to reduce JJJJG
ims
Fr ' JJG
ir '
syn
Tem at high slip JG
Req = Rr
slip
Leq = Llr
Ia
is
Rotor leakage inductance is often neglected JJJJG

Bms
syn
when motor is operating near synchronous Space Vectors Equivalent Circuit Phasor Diagram
speed (below the rated torque)
Includes rotor leakage inductance

Does not include stator leakage inductance or resistance
Req depends on slip
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Power Into Rotor Power Lost Stator Winding Resistance and

In Rotor Power Out Of Rotor Leakage Inductance
j Llr ' j Llr '
+
I ra +
I ra
syn Rr ' Pr , loss Ia I ra '
Va j Lm syn Rs
Rr ' Va
slip Va j Lm Rr '
slip m j Lls j Llr ' j Lls I a
Rr ' Pem +
+
slip syn
Ema Rs I a
Va I ma I ma
Ema Rr ' I ra
(at ) slip Ia
j Lm

Power in resistor is power into the rotor circuit Resistor split to indicate rotor loss and
mechanical power
Equivalent Circuit Phasor Diagram
Power in equivalent resistance represents power entering

rotor across air gap
Depending on slip, some or all of this power becomes
losses in the rotor
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Motor Tests No Load Test (Lm)
Ia I ra ' I ra ' 0
Rs j Lls
Rs
j Lls + j Llr ' +
+
I ma syn Ia
Va Ema Rr ' Va j Lm
(at ) slip

DC Resistance Test ( Rs ) Equivalent Circuit Equivalent Circuit under no

load conditions
( slip = 0 Req = )
No Load Test ( Lm )
j Lm
Blocked Rotor Test ( Rr , Lls , Llr )
Approximate Circuit
( Lm >> Ll ) (Rs negligible)
Under no load conditions the equivalent circuit is

dominated by the magnetizing inductance
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Blocked Rotor Test (Ll ) Characteristics at Rated

Voltage and Rated Frequency
Ia I ra '
Rs Ia I ra '
Rs
j Lls j Llr ' Tem
I ra
+ + j Lls j Llr
+
I ma syn Rr ' Tem,rated ,rated
I ra
Va Ema Rr ' syn pull-out torque
(at ) slip Va
=1 2.0 B ms decreases 6.0
I ma 0 slip

5.0
1.5
4.0
Equivalent Circuit Approximate Circuit With Rotor Blocked B ms,rated
(R eq << L m ) and (LAr << L m ) 1.0 3.0
(rated)
2.0 I ma
0.5
1.0
With the rotor blocked, the magnetizing inductance is nearly m m
0 1.0 syn 0 syn
shorted out and can be neglected 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
slip,rated
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
slip,rated
slip slip
Measurements give real power (into Rs and Rr ) and reactive
power (into Lls and Llr ) Nearly linear near syn
Rr can be found since Rs was previously determined through the At higher slip (m smaller) leakage inductances and
DC test stator resistance reduce torque
2 High currents at low speeds (start-up condition)
To find Lls and Llr we can often assume that Lls = Llr
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 3 TOC 235 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 236
Audio Audio TOC
Motor Currents, Efficiency, Power Line Start
Factor As a Function of Load When started directly off the line, induction motor draws a
100 very large current (approx. 8 x rated)
90
Efficiency
At the same time the torque available to accelerate the
80 motor/load is limited
70 Motor can quickly overheat Solution: Reduced voltage
Power Factor
Current (A) 60 soft start
Efficiency (%)
Power Factor (%) 50
I ra
,rated
I ra
40
6.0
Current Tem
30 Tacc = Tem TL
5.0
20 4.0 Tem
Tem
3.0
10
2.0 I ma
0 25 50 75 100 125 1.0
Load (%) m TL
0 m
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 syn
slip ,rated
slip steady state speed
Typical for design B 10 kW, 4 pole, three-phase induction motor
Current vs. Speed Accelerating Torque
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Reduced Voltage Starting (Soft Start) Summary/Review

Energy Savings in Lightly Loaded
Machines Describe the construction of squirrel-cage induction machines.
ia With the rated voltages applied, what does the magnetizing
ia
a
0 t
current depend on? Does this current, to a significant extent,
3-phase ea
depend on the mechanical load on the motor? How large is it in
ac input
n
0 t relation to the rated motor current?
Tem
Draw the space vector diagram at t = 0, and the corresponding
Three-phase
phasor diagram, assuming the rotor to be open-circuited.
0 t
induction
motor Under a balanced, three-phase, sinusoidal steady state
excitation, what is the speed of the rotating flux-density
Circuit applies reduced voltage to motor during start-up to avoid distribution called? How is this speed related to the angular
large currents and over heating frequency of the electrical excitation in a p-pole machine.
Circuit also used to reduce voltage to motor under light load
steady state conditions. This improves efficiency
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary/Review Summary/Review
In our analysis, why did we initially assume the stator leakage
The rotor bars located around the periphery of the rotor are of
impedance to be zero? How does the analogy to a transformer,
uniform cross-section. In spite of this, what allows us to
with the primary winding leakage impedance assumed to be
represent
G the mmf produced by the rotor bar currents by a space
zero, help? Under the assumption that the stator leakage
G vector Fr (t ) at any time t?
impedance is zero, is the flux-density space vector Bms (t)
Assuming the stator leakage impedance and the rotor inductance
completely independent of the motor loading?
to be zero, draw the space vector diagram, the phasor diagram,
What is the definition of the slip speed slip ? Does slip depend
and the per-phase equivalent circuit of a loaded induction motor.
on the number of poles? How large is the rated slip speed,
In the equivalent circuit of Problem 9, what quantities does the
compared to the rated synchronous speed?
rotor-bar current peak, represented by Ira , depend on?
Write the expressions for the voltage and the current (assuming
What is the frequency of voltages and currents in the rotor circuit
the rotor leakage inductance to be zero) in a rotor bar located at
called? How is it related to the slip speed? Does it depend on the
an angle from Gthe peak of the flux density distribution
number of poles?
represented by Bms (t ) .
Audio TOC Audio TOC
What makes an induction machine go into the regenerative-
What is the definition of slip s, and how does it relate the
braking mode? Draw the space vectors and the corresponding
frequency of voltages and currents in the stator circuit to that in
phasors under the regenerative-braking condition.
the rotor circuit?
Can an induction machine be operated as a generator that feeds
What is the speed of rotation of the mmf distribution produced
into a passive load, for example a bank of three-phase
by the rotor bar currents: (a) with respect to the rotor? (b) in the
resistors?
air gap with respect to a stationary observer?
How is it possible to reverse the direction of rotation of an
Assuming Llr to be zero, what is the expression for the torque
? induction machine?
Tem produced? How and why does it depend on slip and B ms
Explain the effect of including the rotor leakage flux by means
Draw the torque-speed characteristic.
of a space vector diagram.
Assuming Llr to be zero, explain how induction motors meet
How do we derive the torque expression, including the effect
load-torque demand.
of Llr ?
Audio TOC Audio TOC
G G G
What is Br (t ) and howG does it differ from Bms (t ) ? Is Br (t ) Is the torque expression in Eq. 11-41 valid in the presence of the
perpendicular to the Fr (t ) space vector? rotor leakage inductance and the stator leakage impedance?
Including the rotor leakage flux, which rotor bars have the highest When producing a desired torque Tem, what is the power loss in
currents at any instant of time? the rotor circuit proportional to?
What clue do we have for the vector control of induction Draw the per-phase equivalent circuit, including the stator
machines, to emulate the performance of brush-type and brush- leakage impedance.
less dc motors discussed in Chapters 7 and 10? Describe the tests and the procedure to obtain the parameters of
Describe how to obtain the per-phase equivalent circuit, including the per-phase equivalent circuit.
the effect of the rotor leakage flux. In steady state, how is the mechanical torque at the shaft
What is the difference between Ira in Fig. 11-18c and in Fig. 11- different than the electromechanical torque Tem developed by the
19c, in terms of its frequency, magnitude, and phase angle? machine?
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary/Review
Do induction machines have voltage and torque constants similar
to other machines that we have studied so far? If so, write their
expressions. Chapter 12
Plot the torque-speed characteristic of an induction motor for
applied rated voltages. Describe various portions of this
characteristic.
What are the various classes of induction machines? Briefly
Induction Motor Drives:
describe their differences. Speed Control
What are the problems associated with the line-starting of
induction motors? Why is the starting currents so high?
Why is reduced-voltage starting used? Show the circuit
implementation and discuss the pros and cons of using it to save
energy.
Induction Motor Drives :
Speed Control Rotor Losses
PPU
Induction
Load Sensors Power crossing air gap to rotor:
motor
Pr = Tem syn
m Power delivered through rotor to load:

Controller Pem = Tem m
Speed
control input
Efficient speed control over a wide range Power lost in rotor:

- Reduced voltage control (inefficient) Pr,loss = Pr Pem = Tem (syn-m) = Tem slip
- Frequency control (efficient)
PPU drives induction motor with variable frequency to Therefore, to minimize rotor losses, slip should be small
maintain low slip
As frequency decreases, voltage must also decrease to
avoid magnetic saturation
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Operating Characteristics with

Minimizing slip For A
Given TL and m B ms = ( B ms ) rated
Load Torque
m m (Constant)
syn1 syn , rated
slip1 frated slip , rated k frated
m , rated
syn ,1 syn ,1
slip2 syn2 increasing f1 slip,1 { f1
B ms slip,1 m1
slip3 syn3
f2 slip ,2 k f2
m m2
(a) f3 (b) f3
0 Tem 0 Tem
Tem
TL
If flux is kept constant, slope will be the same at
Large flux density allows low slip every frequency

as large as possible maintain at B
Keep B Load torque and speed are met by adjusting
ms ms,rated
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 251
frequency
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Maintaining B Over Operating ms,rated
Over Operating
Maintaining B ms,rated
Frequencies and Current Levels by Frequencies and Current Levels by

Adjusting Voltage Adjusting Voltage (cont)
Rs j Lls j Llr Rs j Lls
+ + + I ra Maintaining constant B is equivalent to maintaining a

+ I ra ms

constant I ma (magnetizing current)
Ia Ia
I ma syn I ma syn
Ema R Ema R
Va r Va r
slip slip
jL jL

m

m
E E E
Since I ma = ma , ma or ma should be kept constant
L m f
Lsl Ira V
Rs Ima , rated
Ignoring Rs and Lls, this means that a is a constant.
Va f
NN reference
I ra
I ma Ema
Lls Ima , rated Rs Ira As f decreases, so should Va. Constant volts per hertz.
This is a good first-order approximation
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Adjusting Voltage Stator Start-up Considerations

Resistance Included

V
Approximation: = k; f
V k= a,rated
a
f rated f
Including voltage drop across Rs: m
B ms = constant, rated
V = k f + R I f steadystate
a s ra
Va

(V syn,start fstart = fslip,rated
a,rated - R s I ra,rated )
{
Va,rated
Va at rated torque
k=
f rated slip,start
inertia
fstart
voltage Va Va,rated
boost = constant =
f frated
0 50% 100%
t
{
V at zeroTem
slope a

Rs I
I 'ra
ra,rated
0 frated f ( Hz) Tem
, (%)
For large torques, considerable voltage boost is Tem ,rated I ra ,rated
Copyright needed
Ned Mohanat low frequencies. This is the R s Ira term.
2003 255 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 256
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Capability Below and Above Braking in Induction Motor Drives
Rated Speed speed of airgap
field syn
P
m m m > syn
P
m , rated U slip = negative
Rated power
capability
Tem
1 .0 Tem
= constant
B ms
f0 Tem0
Rated torque Motoring
capability mod e
f1
0
m
0 1 .0 Tem R r Generation syn1
m syn 0 m
Tem , rated mod e
Tem1 < 0
Voltages limited to rated values, therefore B must be f1 < f0

ms
reduced at higher speeds (Flux Weakening) To initiate braking, lower syn to some value less than m
Braking torque can be adjusted by setting the negative slip
Currents limited to rated values, therefore torque
frequency
limited
Copyright when
Ned Mohan 2003Bms is limited 257 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 258
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Speed Control of Induction

Motor Drives Pulse-Width-Modulated
ac input
Power Processing Unit
Rectifier
Slip
compensation
Voltage a
boost id
Vd + +
V
m, ref PWM Vd b
Inverter
controller
*
m + syn c a

b
Current + c
limiter
Motor vcontrol,a (t)
circuit
Vd
qa (t) qb (t) qc (t) acmotor

syn = m, ref + Tem / KT ; this is an estimate

Vd limiter
Measured Vd
slip vcontrol,b (t)
Va = k f f + kvT Tem
da (t) db (t) dc (t)
vcontrol,c (t)
m,ref is passed through a rate limiter to avoid over driving the
vtri (t)
motor
This method does not give precise speed control
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Harmonics in PPU PPU Supplied Induction
Motor
vtri vcontrol ,a vcontrol ,b vcontrol ,c
Ia1
Ira,1 Iah
R s j1Lls j1Llr R s jhLls jhLlr
+ +
Ima,1
Rr
va syn,h
f1
Va1 j1L m Vah jhL m R r R r
slip,h
R r m
vb 2fs f1 2fs + f1
slip
3fs f1

3fs + f1
fs f1 fs + f1
(a) 3fs 2f1 3fs + 2f1 Fundamental Frequency Model Harmonic Frequency Model
vab = va vb fundamental, vab1
fs 2fs 3fs
t
At harmonic frequencies R e q Rr
PPU with switching frequency of 800 Hz generating a fundamental Magnetizing inductance can be ignored
sine wave of 50 Hz Harmonic currents controlled by leakage inductance
Frequency spectrum shows large 50 Hz component and smaller

V
components at higher frequencies due to switching I ah
Xlr,h )
ah
Copyright
TheseNed higher
Mohan frequency
2003 components add to the losses in the motor
261 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003
(X ls,h + 262
Audio TOC Audio TOC
PPU Supplied Induction Summary/Review

Motor Model
ia,1 (t ) R Lls ,1 (t ) Llr
ira Rr
+
s
im,1 (t )
What are the applications of adjustable-speed drives?
+
va,1 (t ) Lm

,1 (t ) = Rr
var
m
slip
,1
ira Why are the thyristor-based, voltage reduction circuits for

controlling induction-motor speed so inefficient?
(t ) ,1 (t )
var
In operating below the rated speed (and not considering the core
ia (t ) Rs Lls ira Llr Rr
Lm
+
losses), why is it most efficient to keep the flux-density peak in
Lls (t ) Llr ,1 (t )
vbr
the air gap at the rated value?
ib (t ) Rs irb Rr
Lm
+
Since an induction motor is operated at different values of
,1 (t )
vcr
frequency, hence different values of synchronous speed, how is
ic (t ) R Lls (t )
irc Llr
s Rr +
the slip speed defined?
Lm
Supplying a load that demands a constant torque independent of
Fundamental frequency drop across resistor replaced with speed, what is the slip speed at various values of the frequency f
AC voltage source of the applied voltages?
Harmonic currents produce voltage across R r
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary/Review
To keep the flux density peak in the air gap at the rated value,
why do the voltage magnitudes, at a given frequency of Chapter 13
operation, depend on the torque supplied by the motor?
At start-up, why should small-frequency voltages be applied
initially? What determines the rate at which the frequency can
be ramped up?
Vector Control of Induction-
At speeds below the rated value, what is the limit on the torque Motor Drives: A Qualitative
that can be delivered, and why?
At speeds above the rated values, what is the limit on the power Examination
that can be delivered, and why? What does it mean for the
torque that can be delivered above the rated speed?
DC Motor Drive Brushless DC Motor Drive
JG
is (t ) Is
ia JJG
Sa
ia Br (t )
+ 0 t
La 90 o
N m
N S f P 0 t Tem = kT Is
P va Ra S a axis Tem
Tem
U + Tem = kT ia
Na ea Tem

0
t
a
0
t
Tem = kT IS
Tem = kT ia
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Vector-Controlled Induction Analogy to a Current-
Motor Drive Excited Transformer
With a Shorted
JJG
Fr (t )
JJG
Secondary
r vs (t ) IM
P m,i2 m,i1
JJG a axis P Tacho
ir '(t ) JJJG U
r Fr '(t ) R2 shown explicitly
JJG i2
Br (t ) current
i1
feedback R2 v2 = 0
JJJJG speed feedback i1 l 2 short
Bms (t ) t
JJJG 0
Blr (t )
net = 0
N:N
G G G 2 (0+ ) = 2 (0- ) = 0
Br (t ) perpendicuar to Fr(t ) and Fr (t )
m,i (0+ ) = m,i (0+ ) + A 2 (0+ )
Tem = kT Ir' (keeping B r constant) 1 2
Lm
+
i 2 (0 ) = i1 (0+ )
L2
Audio TOC Audio TOC
d- and q- Axis Winding Initial Flux Buildup Prior to t = 0-

Representation q axis
isq = 0 t = 0
2 G m,isd
isd = the projection of is (t) vector along the d-axis
3 JG
is d axis
JJG
2 G Br
isd isd
isq = the projection of is (t) vector along the q-axis
3 0 t
q axis
1
i a (0- ) = I m,rated and i b (0- ) = i c (0- ) = - I m,rated
b axis b axis at t q axis
at t b axis at t
ib JG
is
isq JG
is
d axis
JG
is 2
d axis
a axis
isd
2 2 3 3
ia a axis
projection
a axis
isd (0- ) = Ims,rated = ( I m,rated ) = I m,rated
3 3 2 2
projection
2
isq = projection 2
ic 3 isd = projection
3
c axis c axis c axis isq = 0
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Step Change in Torque at t = 0- Flux Densities at t = 0+
slip
isq
m = 0 t = 0+
isq
m,isq
m,ir
lr slip
JJJJG
JJG
Br
a axis
Bms JJJG t = 0+
isd
isd Blr
net = 0
0 t
a axis
m = 0 JJG
Br
Isd unchanged
Step-change in isq
q,net = 0
m,i (0 ) = m,i (0 ) + Ar (0 )
+ + +
sq r
, Lm i
Tem B r sq
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 Lr Audio TOC
273 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003
Audio TOC
274
Transformer Analogy Currents and Fluxes at

Voltage Needed to Sometime Later t > 0, Blocked
Prevent the Decay of Rotor
Secondary Current q axis
slip
m = 0
t >0
isq
m,isq
m,ir
isq
slip
lr d axis
R1 Ll1
Ll2 R2 i2
t >0 JJG isd
Br
a axis
i1 u (t ) Lm im v2 = R2 i2 (0 + ) u (t )
net = 0
+
R r , (L m /L r )isq
slip

B r
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Vector-Controlled Condition Similarity Between Voltage-Fed
With a Rotor Speed m and Vector-Controlled
Induction Machines in Steady
State
q axis
syn t >0
isq
isq m,isq
m,ir
syn
lr d axis JJG
vs
r at t
JJG isd
Br JJG JJJG
m isd ims JG JJG
a axis
is ir '
net = 0
r JJG
isq
JJG JJJJG
Br Bms
JJJG
Blr
syn = m + slip
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Torque, Speed, and Position Sensor-Less Drives

Control
m (measured)
motor mathematical model
Br (calculated) Tem
B r calculations
isd
isq
abc DTC
to dq
m Br Br* Br
(measured) m +
PI
Reference 4: M. Depenbrock, Direct Self Control
*
isd
dq to
ia*
ib*
current
ia
ib Motor
(DSC) of Inverter-Fed Induction Machines, IEEE
regulated
*
isq
abc ic* PPU
ic
Transactions on Power Electronics, Vol. 3, 1988, pp.
420-429
*
m* m* Tem
+
P PI PI
+ +
m m
d / dt
(measured)
m m Tem encoder
(measured) (measured) (calculated) Reference 5: I. Takahashi and Y. Ohmori, High
Performance Direct Torque Control of an Induction
syn (t) = m (t) + slip (t) Motor, IEEE/IAS Annual Meeting, 1987, pp. 163-
t
169
B (t) = 0 + 0 syn () d
r
Audio TOC Audio TOC
G
How is torque controlled in brush-type dc drives and How are isd and isq obtained from the is space vector?
brushless-dc drives? At the end of the initial flux build-up process at t = 0-, are
In a sentence, describe the vector control of induction-motor there any currents in the rotor bar?
drives that emulates the performance of dc drives. Why is it How are the currents induced in the rotor bars at t = 0+ ?
more challenging? What needs to be done to maintain the torque produced at t =
What does the Theorem of Constant Flux Linkage state? 0+ ?
In words, what does the analogy of a transformer with the Why does the slip speed at which the d-axis and q-axis
short-circuited secondary, and excited by a step-current windings need to be rotated, to maintain the torque produced
conclude? beyond t = 0+, depend on various quantities as given in Eq.
What is the reason for introducing the d-axis and the q-axis 13-12?
windings? Describe the similarity between voltage-fed induction
Without the details, state the reason for choosing 3/2 N s 2 machines and vector-controlled induction machines.
as the number of turns in the d-axis and q-axis windings. Describe the control block diagram of vector control.
Describe DTC and its objectives.
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Reluctance Drives
Stepper Motor and Switched
Reluctance Drives
Chapter 14
Reluctance Drives
Stepper Motor drives
Reluctance Drives: - Accurate position control without feedback
- Electrical pulse input gives discrete angle change
Stepper-Motor and Switched- - Types: Variable Reluctance
Permanent Magnet
Reluctance Drives Hybrid
Switched Reluctance drives

- Variable-reluctance stepper-motor designed to go
into saturation
- Feedback necessary
Stepper-Motor Positioning Reluctance Motors Operating
Principles
m

Electrical fixed
i (t ) 2
step angle l
pulse
input + RS 2
0 t
0 t

1
T 1
at +
e(t )
at
i
Each pulse moves motor a discrete angle step angle 0 i1
Counting pulses tells how far motor has turned without

actually measuring (no feedback) Salient rotor aligns to salient stator
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Variable Reluctance Stepper

Stepper - Motors Motors
1
= rotor
3
=0 tooth pitch
ia
Variable reluctance motors z

ib z
- relies on rotor saliency
Permanent magnet motors

- relies on rotor magnets 2
= rotor
3 ia
tooth pitch = 1 rotor
Hybrid motors tooth pitch
- relies on both saliency and rotor magnets z

z
ic
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Variable - Reluctance Stepper Permanent Magnet Stepper
Motors (cont) Motor
= 0o = 45o
= 90o =135o
A A
N B S B B
N B S
S N
Rotor and stator saliency z S z N
N S S N
z
A N S S N A
A S N N S A z
S N
N S
N N S B
S N
B B S S
Unequal number of poles
N
A B
A
Stator current effectively pulls rotor pole in line with N

S
stator pole A
S N N S A = 180o
zS
N
A
360 0
q = number of phases
step-angle =
qN r N r = number of rotor poles
Permanent magnets replace salient poles of variable-
reluctance motor
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Hybrid Stepper Motor Hybrid Stepper Motor (cont)

L R
1 1
N N
8
2 N 2
stator windings S 8 N
S S
N N
S S
7S S3 7S N N N S3
S
S N S S
N N
shaft S S N
6 S 4 6 N 4
S N N N
5 5
end cap end cap
air gap
stator
outer casing 1
1
8 2
L' R' S S N 8 N 2
1 S S N N
rotor N
S 4 tooth N
pitch S
7 S 3 N
S 7 N 3
N
Uses both rotor saliency and permanent magnets on rotor S
S
N
N S S4 N
Saliency on ends of rotor ends not lined up 6 S
5
6
N N N S4
Permanent magnet makes one of the rotor ends a south

5
pole and the other a north pole

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Stepper-Motor Equivalent HalfStepping and Micro-Stepping
Circuit ia
i ph
ib
+ R ph
L ph
v ph
+
e ph

Possible to move rotor by half steps by exciting two stator

windings equally
Finer steps possible by exciting two windings unequally

Audio TOC Audio TOC
PPU for Variable-Reluctance PPU for Variable-

Stepper-Motor Reluctance Stepper-
+
T1
+
v ph

D1
Motor (cont)
i ph L ph e ph
+
Vd
Phase winding T2
D2
Rsense

Currents do not need to reverse

i ph
Circuit uses incomplete switch poles that can

Iref
pass current only one direction through the motor
phase
t
T1 on
T1 on T1 T1 ,T2 off
off
T2 on
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Switched-Reluctance Motor
PPU for PM and Hybrid Drives
Stepper-Motor
= -30o = 0o
ia ia
+ a
T1 D1 T3 D3 = 0o
Phase winding
Vd
= -30o
D4 + v ph D2 ia
T2
T4
Variable-reluctance stepper-motor
Phase currents must be reversible Closed-loop, uses feedback
Motor goes into saturation
Complete switch poles used Rugged, inexpensive
Audio TOC Audio TOC
What are the three broad categories of reluctance drives?
How is the principle on which reluctance drives operate What is the nature of power-processing units in stepper-motor
different than that seen earlier with other drives? drives?
Write down the reluctance torque expression. What does the Describe the operating principles of switched-reluctance drives.
direction of torque depend on? What are the application areas of switched-reluctance drives?
Describe the operating principle of a variable-reluctance
stepper-motor.
Describe the operating principle of a permanent-magnet stepper-
motor.
Describe the operating principle of a hybrid stepper-motor.
What is the equivalent-circuit representation of a stepper-motor?
How is half-stepping and micro-stepping achieved in stepper-
motors?
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Energy Efficiency of
Electric Drives and
Inverter-Motor
Chapter 15 Interactions
Motor Losses
Energy Efficiency of Electric
Harmonic Losses
Drives and Inverter-Motor
Interactions PPU Losses
Efficiency of Electric Drives drive = motor x ppu
Motor Losses Motor Loss and

Efficiency Curves
100
Core Losses frequency and flux density dependent (20% - 90

Efficiency
4, 000
25% of motor losses)
80
70
Hysteresis loss 3, 000 60

Power Factor
Current (A)
Eddy-current loss use laminations Loss (W)
2, 000
Total losses I 2 R loss Efficiency (%) 50
Power Factor (%)
Winding Power Losses I2R loss (55% - 60% of motor

40
Current
30
losses) 1, 000
Load loss
20
Friction and Windage Losses (5% - 10% of motor losses) Core loss
Friction and windage
10
Stray-Load Losses (10% - 15% of motor losses) load 0 40

Load (%)
80 120 0 25 50 75
Load (%)
100 125
dependent
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Switching Frequency
Premium Efficiency Motors Harmonics Effect on
100
Motor Losses
95 Premium efficiency
90
Efficiency (%) Standard efficiency
85
80
Core losses increased
75
Stator and rotor I2R losses increased
1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200
Rating (kW) Stray load losses increased
Thinner, higher quality laminations Losses 10% - 20% higher

Lower flux densities Efficiency 1% - 2% higher
Larger conductors
Audio TOC Audio TOC
PPU Efficiency Economics of Energy

Savings
Rectifier losses: 1% - 2%
Losses in switching section: 3% - 4%
Present Worth value
Total PPU losses: 4% - 6% Payback period

ppu = 94% - 96%
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Deleterious Effects of Summary/Review
PWM Inverter Voltage
Waveform on Motor Life What is the definition of energy efficiency of electric drives?
What are the various mechanisms of losses in motors, assuming
a sinusoidal excitation?
How do the losses and the efficiency depend on motor speed,
Derate motor (10%) because of increased losses assuming a constant torque loading?
Large dv/dt What are premium-efficiency motors? How much more
Insulation stress efficient are they, compared to standard motors?
Shaft currents (currents through bearings) What are the effects of switching-frequency harmonics on the
motor? How much should the motor be de-rated?
What is the typical range associated with the energy efficiency
of power-processing units and of overall drives?
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary/Review
Discuss the economics and the payback period of using
premium-efficiency motors.
Describe the various deleterious effects of PWM-inverter
Chapter 16
output voltage waveforms. Describe the techniques for
mitigating these effects.
Powering Electric Drives: Power
Quality Issues
Powering Electric Linear and Nonlinear Loads
Drives: Power Quality
Issues is
Electric Drives can affect utility power quality + Vs

Utility power quality can affect electric drive operation vs

Is
Electric Drive
Power
Processing Motor Load Linear Load
fixed Unit
form speed /
Electric Source adjustable position
(utility)
form
Sensors
Controller P
PF = = cos
Vs Is
input command
(speed / position)
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Linear and Nonlinear Loads

(cont) Harmonic Currents
Lower Power Factor
vs
is1 idistortion (= is is1 )
is
1
0 t 0 t 0.9
1 /
0.8
T1
0.7
PF
Non-linear Load (PPU) DPF 0.6
0.5
Nonlinear loads reduce power factor 0.4
0 50 100 150 200 250 300

%THD
Idistortion
Total Harmonic Distortion: %THD = 100 x
Is1 Ratio of actual power factor to displacement power
Displacement Power Factor: DPF = cos 1
factor (PF based solely on angle of fundamental current)
Is1 DPF decreases with increasing THD
PF = (DPF) =
Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 Is 1+THD 2 315 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 316
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Harmonic Guidelines Types of Electric Drive
Odd Harmonic Order h Total
Harmonic
Front-Ends
I SC / I1 h < 11 11 h 17 17 h 23 23 h 35 35 h Distortion(%)
< 20 4.0 2.0 1.5 0.6 0.3 5.0
20 50 7.0 3.5 2.5 1.0 0.5 8.0
50 100 10.0 4.5 4.0 1.5 0.7 12.0
100 1000 12.0 5.5 5.0 2.0 1.0 15.0
> 1000 15.0 7.0 6.0 2.5 1.4 20.0
IEEE 519
Limits on allowable harmonic currents drawn by loads of various
relative magnitudes
Relative magnitude of load currents is based on Short Circuit Diode-bridge rectifiers
Ratio (SCR) Switch-mode converters
Thyristor converter
Isc
SCR = Where Isc is the short circuit current and Is1 is the fundamental
Is1 current of the load
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Using Input Inductances to

Single Phase Diode Lower THD
Rectifier Bridge
increasing increasing
vd idr id Ls
Ls
is
1 2
idr + +
idr Ls Rs
t vs (t ) vd Cd Req
0 t1 t2 t3
is is
vs 4 3
Power levels up to several kW Current pulses widen as Ls is increased
Current drawn from utility in short pulses
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Three-Phase Diode-Rectifier Voltage and Current Without Cd
Bridge
va vb vc ia
120 o
idr 0 60 o
0 t
t
va Ls 1 3 5 ib
+
vb 0
+ Ls + vo
(a) t
vd Cd Req
ic
vc Ls 2VLL Vd
+ 0
0 t
t
4 6 2
va Ls
+
3
1
idr VP follows whichever phase voltage is most positive at any
P

vb
+ Ls 5 moment
vc
4 VN follows whichever phase voltage is most negative at any
Ls 6
+
2
N moment
Without Cd, phase currents flow for a full 120 duration
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Currents With Ls and Cd

Included Power Factor Corrected
Interface (PFC)
Ls = 0.1 mH THD = 123.33% Ls = 5 mH THD = 18.72%
Passive methods to lower THD (using Ls) are generally unable

to meet THD requirements
PFC circuits use active switching to make the PPU front end
look resistive to the utility
Showing characteristic double pulse in phase currents of 3-
Goal is sinusoidal input current in-phase with utility voltage
bridge
(unity PF)
First pulse in ia occurs roughly when Vab is at its maximum.
Second pulse comes 60 later when Vac is at its maximum
Increasing Ls tends to smooth out the pulses lowering THD
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Single Phase PFC Three-Phase PFC
iL
is +
+ +
+
vs vs Vd Load

Vd

vs is
is iL
is t
Combination of three boost converters

Boost converter is modulated to draw sinusoidal current
from utility Operation principle same as in single-phase PFC
Vd is adjusted by setting is to different values

Vd > V
Vd > V s
LL
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Avoiding Large Inrush Currents Bi-Directional Power Flow

AC motor
Rectifier P motoring
mode
P regenerative
Inverter braking mode
va (t ) ia (t ) i A (t ) e (t )
+ + A
Resistor limits inrush current at startup + n

c b a Vd
A B C

Resistor switched out during operation dc db da dA dB dC

ac motor
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Bi-Directional Power Flow Phase-Controlled Thyristor
(cont) Converters
DC Motor Drives
ia ,1 (t ) iA,1 (t )
+ + + +
va (t ) vao ,1 (t ) vao ,1 (t ) eA ( t )
sinusoidal More economical when response is not critical
Thyristors perform rectification and regulation
Front-end built as a switch-mode inverter
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Thyristor Operation Single-Phase Phase-

Controlled Thyristor
is
vs
Converters
+ + id
vs vd is +
is dc
vd
Ls
1 3 motor
+
vs
vd
+
ea
4 2

Thyristor is basically a diode that wont turn on until it is
gated on. Once on, it will conduct until external
waveforms drop its current to zero
Similar to single-phase rectifier with diodes replaced by
Regulation comes by choosing when to turn the thyristor
phase-controlled thyristors
on (phase-control)
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Gating Action Voltage and Operating Modes
Current Waveforms
Vd Vd Rectifier
vd
+ Vd P = Vd I d = +
1 3
vs 0
is + t
vd vs
Id 0 Id
iG 0 90 o 150 o 180 o
t
4 2 is
Id
0
Id t Inverter
P = Vd I d =
Angle is adjustable
Increasing lowers Vd Converter can pass power both directions
Vd = 0.9 Vs cos
Vd can be made negative with large values of
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Power Phasor Viewpoint Commutation Interval

vd
Vd
2 Ls I d vd
0 t
Vs Vd
vs vs
iG 1 = 0 t
1 i1 3
i3
0 is1 t is Ls vs + vs vs
is Id I s1 + vd iG
vL + Id
0 t t
Id
1 = 4 i2 is
i4 2
Id
0 t
Id
u
PAC = VsIs1 cos
Is1 = fundamental component of Id = 0.9 Id
= angle between vs and is1 Time needed to reverse inductor current reduces output voltage
PDC = Vd Id 2
Vd = Ls I d
Since Vd = 0.9 Vs cos and Id = Is1 / 0.9,
PDC = PAC
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Three-Phase Phase-Controlled Four-Quadrant Operation
Thyristor Converter
m ,Vd
id id
va ia 1 + regenerative motoring CW
va ia + conv1 conv2
1 3 5 P dc braking CCW conv 2: rectifier
+ 3 motor conv 2: inverter
Ls vd
vb 5 +
+ Tem , I d
Id vd
4 + regenerative
vc motoring CCW
+ 6 conv 1: rectifier braking CW
+
2 N conv 1: inverter
4 6 2

Vd = 1.35 VLL cos (without commutation interval)

Vd = 1.35 VLL cos (3 Ls Id) / (with commutation Two anti-parallel thyristor converters are needed for
interval) four-quadrant operation
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Power Quality and Thyristor Designing for Power System

Converters Disturbances
Poor DPF at low speeds (large angle )

Input voltage notching
Point of Common Coupling (PCC)
Ls1
is vs
v pcc Ls1 + Ls2
Ls1 + Ls2
+
vs v pcc
t

other
loads Many drives are designed to tolerate disturbances within the
CBEMA limits shown (Computer and Business Equipment
Manufactures Association)
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Handling Outages and Voltage Summary/Review
Sags
How is the power factor (PF) defined with linear loads?
Capacitor
Rectifier Inverter How does the definition of power factor change with loads
which draw distorted currents?
Injection What is meant by the distortion component of the current?
transformer
How is the Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) defined?
AC
source
thyristor L
What is the Displacement Power Factor (DPF)? What is it equal
switch o
a to in linear loads which draw sinusoidal waveform currents?
d
back-up
switch
What is the power factor equal to in terms of the displacement
power factor?
What are the deleterious effects of a high THD and a poor power
factor?
UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supplies) What are the various harmonic guidelines? Briefly describe the
DVR (Dynamic Voltage Restorer) IEEE-519 and the rationale behind it.
Audio TOC Audio TOC
What is the most common type of front-end used to interface What is a good solution for a three-phase PFC in systems where
drives with single-phase and three-phase utility systems? the power is not fed back into the utility grid?
Briefly describe the operation of single-phase diode-rectifier In the case of a bi-directional power flow, assuming a three-phase
bridges with a large capacitor at the dc output. Why is the current utility input, draw the complete topology of the power-processing
drawn by these highly distorted? What is the impact of the values unit. How can we analyze it in steady state on a per-phase basis?
of Ls and Cd on the input current waveform? For which type of motor drives are thyristor converters still used?
Repeat the previous question for a three-phase diode-rectifier Describe phase control and its effect on the simplest possible
bridge. thyristor circuit.
How do single-phase and three-phase rectifier bridges compare in Describe the operation of a single-phase, full-bridge thyristor
terms of performance? At higher power levels, if there is a converter. How is the average value of the output voltage
choice available, why is one much more favorable than the other? controlled?
Describe the operating principle of the single-phase power-factor- Describe current commutation and the effect of Ls on the
corrected (PFC) circuit, where the power flow is unidirectional. operation of a single-phase, full-bridge thyristor converter.
Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary/Review
How is it possible to achieve four-quadrant operation using Chapter 17

thyristor converters? Describe the role of each converter, based
on the quadrant in which the front-end is operating.
What are the two worst power quality impacts of thyristor
converter front-ends? Ancillary Issues In Drives:
Briefly describe the impact of utility disturbances on the proper
operation of drives. Also, briefly describe various mitigation
Sensors, ASICs, Micro-
measures that can be applied. Controllers
Sensors ASICs (Application Specific

Current sensors Integrated Circuits), Micro-
Hall-Effect sensors (DC to high frequency) Controllers, and FPGAs
Speed and Position Sensors
Hall-Effect
Rapid-Prototyping Tools
Optical
Magnetic
Magnetic resolvers
Incremental encoders (optical or magnetic)
vB
Light-
reciever
LED circuit
vA Lens Rotating Stationary

rotor
coated wheel aperture
with slots plate
Magnetic Resolver Optical encoder

Audio TOC Audio TOC
Summary/Review
What types of sensors are generally needed?
What are ASICs?
What are micro-controllers and FPGAs?
What are the advantages of rapid-prototyping tools?

Audio TOC

Introduction of Drives Slide PDF

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Introduction of Drives Slide PDF

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

First Course on Electric Drives

Electric Drives: An Integrated Approach Chapter 1

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 1 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 2

History Trend : Adjustable Speed Drives

Not amenable to automation

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 3 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 4

Controller measured Power

Role of Electric Drive: Efficient conversion of power

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 5 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 6

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 7 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 8

using an ASD Throttling introduces extra pressure drop, H

Energy Conservation in Blower Harnessing Wind Energy

Relative power consumption using three methods

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 11 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 12

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 13 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 14

Evolution of Power Processing Unit Summary

1968 1988 1998

Motivation Systems With Linear Motion

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 19 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 20

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 21 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 22

Calculation of Moment of Inertia Accelaration, Speed and Position, Power

T f = B f L = 0.046 Cw Av 2 ; (Cw : drag coefficient)

Coulomb friction: dynamic component 50 0.86 kW 1.44 kW

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 25 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 26

At motor end Tshaft = Tem J m

( J M and J L can be treated as one inertial mass )

Conversion between Linear and Rotary Gears

Optimum gear ratio (to minimize Tem ) Constant Torque loads

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 33 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 34

Types of Loads Four-Quadrant Operation

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 35 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 36

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 37 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 38

What is the mechanism for torsional resonances?

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 39 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 40

upper case V and I for average and rms v

Time-Domain Analysis Phasor Domain Analysis

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 43 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 44

maximum average power average power lower than P P = v i

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 45 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 46

Inductive Load Three Phase Circuits

In the power triangle, the same angle relates P,Q and

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 47 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 48

Line-to-Line Voltages Delta Connection

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 51 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 52

Rectifier: Line frequency AC to DC For DC Drives For AC Drives

Analysis of Switch-Mode Converters Pulse Width Modulation ( PWM )

if vc, A ( t ) < vtri ( t ) q A ( t ) = 0 switch "down" v AN ( t ) = 0

Average Representation of a Pole as Pole as a Two Quadrant Converter

Switch-Mode Converters for Analysis of DC-Motor Drives Based

vc,B (t ) = Vc sin( 1t 1200 ) 2Vtri 1 +

Power Devices Controlled Switches

Insulated Gate for low drive requirements

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 79 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 80

Flux, Flux Linkage, and MMF Magnetic Structures with Air

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 83 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 84

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 85 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 86

Coil in Sinusoidal Steady-State Leakage and Magnetizing Inductances

Assuming zero resistance and zero e1

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 89 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 90

Transformer with Secondary

Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 91 Copyright Ned Mohan 2003 92

Winding resistances Real

Laminations to reduce eddy current loss Open circuit test

Above rated speed, B f reduced to keep Va at its rated value.

Closed loop bandwidth fc