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L
Bardeen, Shockley, and Brattain at Bell The first germanium bipolar transistor.
Labs - Brattain and Bardeen invented Roughly 50 years later, electronics
the bipolar transistor in 1947. account for 10% (4 trillion dollars) of
the world GDP.
1874 Braun invents the solid-state rectifier. 1958 Integrated circuit developed by Kilby
and Noyce
1906 DeForest invents triode vacuum tube.
1961 First commercial IC from Fairchild
1907-1927 Semiconductor
First radio circuits developed from 1963 IEEE formed from merger or IRE and
diodes and triodes. AIEE
1925 Lilienfeld field-effect device patent 1968 First commercial IC opamp
filed.
1970 One transistor DRAM cell invented by
1947 Bardeen and Brattain at Bell Dennard at IBM.
Laboratories invent bipolar transistors.
1971 4004 Intel microprocessor introduced.
1952 Commercial bipolar transistor
production at Texas Instruments. 1978 First commercial 1-kilobit memory.
1956 Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley receive 1974 8080 microprocessor introduced.
Nobel prize.
1984 Megabit memory chip introduced.
2000 Alferov, Kilby, and Kromer share Nobel
prize
Vacuum Discrete
Tubes Transistors
v1 g mv1 i 1 i 1
v1 A v1 i1 i 1
and
Using the derived equations
with the indicated values,
3 k
i1 5 ma 3.00 mA
2 k 3 k
2 k
i 2 5 ma 2.00 mA
2 k 3 k
G1 1v s G1 1 G S v o
G1 1 R1RS 1RS
vo vs vs
G1 1 G S R1RS 1RS R1
Using the given component values:
vo
1RS
vs
50 11 k
v s 0.718v s
1RS R1 50 11 k 1 k
and
v TH 0.718 v s
Problem: Find the Thevenin
equivalent resistance.
Solution:
Known Information and Given
Data: Circuit topology and values
in figure.
Unknowns: Thevenin equivalent
resistance RTH.
Approach: RTH is defined as the Test voltage vx has been added to the
equivalent resistance at the output previous circuit. Applying vx and
terminals with all independent
sources in the network set to zero. solving for ix allows us to find the
Assumptions: None. Thevenin resistance as vx/ix.
Analysis: Next slide
Applying KCL,
i x i1 i1 G S v x
G1v x G1v x G S v x
G1 1 G S v x
vx 1 R1
Rth RS
i x G1 1 G S 1
R1 20 k
Rth RS 1 k 1 k 392 282
1 50 1
Problem: Find the Norton
equivalent circuit.
Solution:
Known Information and Given
Data: Circuit topology and
values in figure.
Unknowns: Norton equivalent
short circuit current iN. A short circuit has been applied
Approach: Evaluate current across the output. The Norton
through output short circuit. current is the current flowing
Assumptions: None. through the short circuit at the
Analysis: Next slide
output.
Applying KCL,
i N i1 i1
G1v s G1v s
G1 1v s
v s 1
Short circuit at the output causes
R1 zero current to flow through RS.
Rth is equal to Rth found earlier.
50 1 vs
iN vs (2.55 mS)v s
20 k 392
Check of Results: Note that vTH=iNRth and this can be used to check the
calculations: iNRth=(2.55 mS)vs(282 ) = 0.719vs, accurate within
round-off error.
While the two circuits are identical in terms of voltages and currents at
the output terminals, there is one difference between the two circuits.
With no load connected, the Norton circuit still dissipates power!
Nonrepetitive signals have continuous spectra often
occupying a broad range of frequencies
Fourier theory tells us that repetitive signals are
composed of a set of sinusoidal signals with distinct
amplitude, frequency, and phase.
The set of sinusoidal signals is known as a Fourier
series.
The frequency spectrum of a signal is the amplitude
and phase components of the signal versus
frequency.
Audible sounds 20 Hz - 20 KHz
Baseband TV 0 - 4.5 MHz
FM Radio 88 - 108 MHz
Television (Channels 2-6) 54 - 88 MHz
Television (Channels 7-13) 174 - 216 MHz
Maritime and Govt. Comm. 216 - 450 MHz
Cell phones 1710 - 2690 MHz
Satellite TV 3.7 - 4.2 GHz
All electronic components have manufacturing tolerances.
Resistors can be purchased with 10%, 5%, and
1% tolerance. (IC resistors are often 10%.)
Capacitors can have asymmetrical tolerances such as +20%/-50%.
Power supply voltages typically vary from 1% to 10%.