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Objective 1: know basic plant genetics and

PLANT BREEDING breeding terminology
AN OVERVIEW

Gamete A mature reproductive cell that is

specialized for sexual fusion

Haploid (n) Containing only one set of

chromosomes (n). Each gamete
Gene The inherited segment of
is haploid DNA that determines a
specific characteristic in
Cross A mating between two
an organism
individuals, leading to the fusion
of gametes Locus The specific place on the
chromosome where a gene
Diploid (2n) Two copies of each type of is located
chromosome in the nuclei,
formed by the fusion of two
gametes Alleles Alternative forms of a gene

Zygote The cell produced by the fusion

of the male and female gametes
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Genotype The genetic

constitution of an Homogeneous A population of individuals having
organism the same genetic constitution (eg,
a field of pure-line soybean; a field
Homozygous An individual whose of hybrid corn)
genetic constitution
has both alleles the
same for a given Heterogeneous A population of individuals having
gene locus (eg, AA) different genetic constitutions

Heterozygous An individual whose Phenotype The physical manifestation of a

genetic constitution genetic trait that results from a
has different alleles specific genotype and its
interaction with the environment
for a given gene
locus (eg, Aa)
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Stamen: male part of the flower, consist of the anther and

Parts of the Flower
filament, makes pollen grains
Pedicel: flower stalk
Pollen: grains containing the male gametes
Receptacle: part of stalk bearing the floral organs, at
base of flower Pistil/Carpel: female part of the flower, consist of the
stigma, style and ovary
Sepal:leaflike structures at flower base, protects young
flower bud Ovule: located in the ovaries, carry female gametes

Calyx: all the sepals together form the calyx
Petal: located inside and above the sepals, often large
and colourful, sometimes scented, sometimes
producing nectar
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Staminate flower: flower bearing only male parts
Pistillate/Carpellate flower: flower bearing only female sex
parts
Hermaphrodite flower: flower bearing both male and
female sex parts

Flower: Individual Flowers

flower is the reproductive unit of angiosperm. Hermaphrodite -- bisexual flower with both stamens and

pistil
Unisexual -- flower is either staminate (male), or pistillate
generally, two types of flowers:
(or carpellate) (female)
an imperfect flower has either male or female
components, but not both (i.e. flowers can be
unisexual -- either male or female). Individual Plants
Hermaphrodite -- the plant has only hermaphrodite

a perfect flower has both male and female flowers

components. This is also known as a hermaphrodite Monoecious -- unisexual male and female flowers are on

or bisexual flower. the same plant

Dioecious -- unisexual male and female flowers are on

a complete flower has both male and female different plants

9 components together with the sepal and petal. 10

Ilex aquifolium is dioecious:

(above) shoot with flowers from
male plant; (top right) male flower
Alnus serrulata has enlarged, showing stamens with
unisexual flowers pollen and reduced, sterile stigma;
and is monoecious. (below) shoot with flowers from
female plant; (lower right) female
Shown here: flower enlarged, showing stigma
maturing male and reduced, sterile stamens
flower catkins on the (staminodes) with no pollen
right, last year's
female catkins on
the left.

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What is Plant Breeding?

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The genetic adjustment of plants to the service of

Plant Populations humankind
Hermaphrodite -- only hermaphrodite plants
---Sir Otto Frankel
Monoecious -- only monoecious plants
Dioecious -- only dioecious plants

Hermaphroditism is very common in plants -- about 70%

of flowering plants are hermaphroditic, while only about
5% are dioecious and 7% are monoecious.

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Objective 2: know why plant Increased global human population (shown here in billions of people) will lead
to increased demand for food, fiber and energy: improving plant genetics is one
tool
breeding is important and useful 10
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8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
1950 1970 1990 2010 2030 2050
Adapted from http://www.census.gov/population/popclockworld.html

Plant
Breeding Plant breeding
has contributed
Targets to more than
50% of increased
USA crop
productivity
1. Yield during the last 30
years
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Source: http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/photos/

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Plant Breeding Targets

Hydrogenation: flavor and oxidative stability
Trans fats: health issues
FDA label mandate

Improved product quality

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Source: http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/photos/

Plant Breeding Targets

3. Pest and Disease Resistance

Soybean sudden death syndrome

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Video Presentation (Duration 6:15) Joint Germplasm Release

(Drs. Arelli, Pantalone, Allen, Mengistu)
Plant Breeding Solves problem
USDA-ARS and
Tennessee Agricultural Exp. Stn.
Plant breeders harness genetic variation to solve
problems in agriculture. This video uses bacterial spot of Release of JTN-5303 Soybean
tomato as an example. Interviews with plant pathologists Resistant to multiple diseases:
and farmers set up the problem and present the continual
need for new varieties. Kelli then describes how plant
Soybean cyst nematode
breeders use germplasm resources to identify new Sudden death syndrome
sources of resistance to emerging plant diseases and the Stem canker
steps that plant breeders use to incorporate new Frogeye leaf spot
resistance into improved varieties. Charcoal rot
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Plant Breeding Targets

Plant Breeding Targets
4. Environmental Stress Tolerance

5. Ease of Management
Deployment of transgenic traits (e.g., transfer of
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herbicide resistant genes in commercial varieties)

Plant Breeding Targets

Plant Breeding Targets
6. Adaptation to Mechanization 7. Environmental sustainability

Conservation Tillage

Source: http://www.ars.usda.gov/is/graphics/photos/
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Higher Yields:
Change in Maturity Duration:
Most of the breeding programmes aim at higher crop yield. This is achieved by
developing more efficient genotypes. E.g. Hybrid varieties of maize (Zeamays), Sorghum, It permits new crop rotations and often extends
(S.bicolar), bajara ( P. amercanum), etc. the crop area. Development of wheat varieties
suitable for late plating has permitted rice-
Improved Quality: wheat rotation. Thus breeding for early
The quality of plant produce determines its suitability for various uses. Therefore, quality is maturing crop varieties or varieties suitable for
an important aspect for plant breeders. Quality characters very from one crop to another, different dates of planting may be an
E.g. Grain size, colour, miling and baking qualities in wheat ( Triticum aestivum ) ; cooking important objective in many cases.
quality in rice ( Oryza sativa); malting quality in barley ( Hordeum vulgree) , size , colour,
and flavour of fruits, keeping quality of vegetables, protein content in cereals and Agronomic Characteristics:
legumes ; lysine content in cereals , methionine and tryptophan contents in pulses, etc.
Modification of agronomic characteristics, such
Disease and Insect Resistance: as, plant height, tillering, branching, erect or
trailing habit, etc is often desirable. For
Resistant varieties offer the cheapest and the most convenient method of disease and example, dwarfness in cereals in generally
insect management. In some cases, they offer the only feasible means of control, E.g. rusts associated with lodging resistance and fertilizer
in wheat. Resistant varieties not only increase production but also stabilise it. responsiveness.

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Nonshattering Characteristics:

Photoinsensitivity: It would be of great value in crop like mung

Development of photoinsensitive and
thermosesitive wheat, and photoinsensitive rice
(O.sativa) varieties has permitted their
cultivation in new areas. Rice is now cultivated in
Punjab, while wheat is a major rabi crop in
West Bengal. In case of Wheat, photoperiod
insensitivity is due to genes Ppd1 and Ppd2
(Polymeric gene interaction).
Synchronous Maturity:
Synchronous maturity is highly desirable in crops
like Mung (Vigna radiata) , where several
pickings are necessary.
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where shattering is a major problems in case of
many commercial varieties.
Determinate Growth:
Developments of varieties with determine
growth is desirable in crops like Mung, Pigeon
pea, cotton, etc.
Dormancy:
In some crops, seeds germinate even before
harvesting, the if there are rains at the time of
maturity, E.g. Mung, barley, etc. a period of
dormancy in such cases would check the loss due
to germination. In some other cases, however, it
may be desirable to remove dormancy.
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Moisture Stress and Salt Tolerance: Class Activity :Write a short notes on following
Development of varieties for rainfed areas and
for saline soils would be helpful in increasing crop varieties planted in Malaysia.
crop production in India. The major proportion 34
(Ca 70%) of the cropped area in the country is
rainfed. The estimates of salt- affected (Saline)
sols in the country vary from 7 to 20 million
hectare, of which about 2.8 million hectares are 1. Durian musang king 7. Cempedak durian
alkaline soils. Most of these areas are spread in
the states of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and 2. Nanas Josapine 8. Jambu loha
Punjab.
3. Kelapa Mataq 9. Lada hitam
Elimination of Toxic Substances:
Some crops have toxic substances, which must 4. Betik sekaki semenggok
be eliminated to make them safe for
consumption. For example, khesari (Lathyruys
5. Limau bali/pamelo emas/aman/kuching
sativus) seeds have a neurotoxin, B-N-oxalyl- 6. Dokong 10. Cili kulai
alfa, Beta-diaminopropionic acid (BOAA) that
cause paralysis. Similarly, Brassica oil has cruic
acid, which is harmful to human health. Removal
of such toxic substances would increase the
nutritional value of these crops.
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What are the causes of biological

variation observed in plants?
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Objective 3: know the basic principles of plant 1. Genetic causes (mode of inheritance)
breeding single genes
multiple genes
Importance of genetic variation and selection
2. Environmental
Refer to CLO1, CLO2
3. GxE: the interaction between the
genotype of the plant and the
environment in which it grows

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Plant selections to improve plant traits

A plant breeder needs to: are made by assessing plant
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be observant of phenotypic
differences among plants In plants, examples include:
understand the genetics plantheight
plantand leaf morphology
have the imagination to visualize final
biomass yield
product
seed yield
foresight to predict demand for future
chemical composition of plant tissues
plant products and seeds

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Genetic variation?

Genetic variation refers to diversity in gene

frequencies. Genetic variation can refer to
differences between individuals or to differences
between populations. Mutation is the ultimate source
of genetic variation, but mechanisms such as sexual
reproduction and genetic drift contribute to it as
well.

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Genetic variation: the basis for improvement

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How do we breed improved crop
cultivars?
Objective 4: know some basic plant
breeding methods and strategies
Refer to CLO 2 & 3
1.Inheritance of trait

Refer to CLO2

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How complex is selection? How do we breed improved

Qualitative traits, simple crop cultivars?
inheritance, controlled by major
genes
2. Understand the effect of reproductive
Quantitative traits, complex behavior
inheritance controlled be several
gene loci

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Reproductive Behavior
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Self Cross pollinated Vegetative
pollinated reproduction
Biotechnology can be used to
improve crop cultivars?

Perfect
flower Monoecy Dioecy Self-incompatible No flowering/limited
flowering
3. Transgenic varieties
- Synthetic variety heterogeneous
- Pure line variety population (not a pure line) Clonal variety
- Hybrid variety Hybrid
Refer to CLO3
- Hybrid variety, if inbred
development is possible

For the plant breeder patience is a virtue

when working with new genetics

47 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gm_crops 48

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Key points

Know basic terminology in transmission genetics and

plant breeding
Understand the goals of plant breeding
Know plant reproductive syndromes, e.g., self-
fertilization, and how they effect breeding methods

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