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Taiz University
Faculty of Engineering and IT
Communication Department
LTE Network
Planning and Optimization
Supervisor
Dr\ Mahdi Qubati
By
Abdullah Abdulwahab Mohammed Ghaleb
Adnan Saeed Ahmed Kaid
Hassan wazea Hassan ali
Haithem Abdu Saif Esmaeel
Mahmoud Abdullah Mohammed sadeq
Waseem Mohammed Abdulsalam
Younis Taher Kaid Ahmed
2014
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Abstract
This project is based on the newly advanced cellular technology called Long Term Evolution (LTE). It is
intended to give a good understanding of Radio Network planning of LTE and perform a case study in Taizz
City with a selected area of 118.09km2.
The LTE Radio network planning involves coverage estimation, capacity evaluation. In this project the
coverage estimation is done with consideration of the real environment information at its nominal stage to
obtain better estimations. The propagation modeling is done using COST HATA W/I model with inclusion of
additional parameters obtained from the real environment/terrain model which improves the coverage
estimation. And to get a high percentage coverage which will help introducing a high quality of services and
extra mobility support.
The simulation was performed using atoll program to evaluate the traffic demand for each services and calculate
the averaged throughput of each service. A simulation process was performed in three situations with different
percentage of users to demonstrate the effect of the number of user on the total throughput of each site. And
the successful rate of each.
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Contents
Dedication........................................................................................................................................ii
Abstract......................................................................................................................................... iii
Contents........................................................................................................................................iv
CHAPTER 1 : Introduction to LTE System
Introduction...... .........2
1.1 statement of project..... ....3
1.2 objective... .......3
1.2.1 General objective.........3
1.2.2 Detailed objective ...........3
1.3 Methodology ...........4
1.4 Scope and Limitation .............4
1.4.1 Scope of the project........4
1.4.2 Limitations of the project .....4
1.5 History of mobile telecommunication system.......4
1.6 Long Term Evolution (LTE) Definition.....7
1.7 The Need for LTE .......7
1.8 Targets Of LTE Design And Requirements ........10
1.9 LTE Services And Applications........12
1.10 LTE-Advanced......13
Chapter 2 : LTE Architecture ..14
2.1. LTE system architecture .....15
2.1.1. User Equipment (UE) Architecture .....16
2.1.2. Evolved-UTRAN (E_UTRAN) Architecture ..18
2.1.3. Evolved Packet Core (EPC) Architecture ..19
2.1.4. Roaming Architecture ......22
2.1.5. Network Areas ......23
2.1.6. Numbering, Addressing and Identification ........24
2.2. LTE Protocol Architecture ....25
2.2.1. Protocol Stack ..25
2.2.1.1. NASLayer........26
2.2.1.2. RRC Layer ....26
2.2.1.3. PDCP Layer .......27
2.2.1.4. RLC Layer ..27
2.2.1.5. MAC Layer ....28
2.2.2. Retransmission Handling ...30
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2.2.3. Scheduling ....30
2.2.4. Overview of LTE Physical layer..32
2.2.4.1. Multiple access technology in the downlink: OFDM and OFDMA ...32
2.2.4.1.1. OFDMA and SC-FDMA compared ..................33
2.2.4.1.2. SC-FDMA signal generation ......33
2.2.4.2. Spectrum flexibility: FDD and TDD .35
2.2.4.3. Physical channels and modulation ....37
2.2.4.4. MIMO Transmission ..37
2.3. LTE v.s WIMAX..39
2.3.1. Comparison between WiMAX and LTE protocol architectures ..40
2.3.2. Comparison of WiMAX and LTE physical layer .....40
2.3.2.1. Radio access modes and spectrum considerations .....40
2.3.2.2. Data Rates ..40
2.3.2.3. Multiple Access Technology .... .41
2.3.2.3.1. OFDMA .... .41
2.3.2.3.2. SC-FDMA .....41
Chapter 3 : Network Planning
3.1 Dimensioning of LTE Network ...44
3.2 LTE Access Network Dimensioning ..... 46
3.2.1 Inputs of LTE Dimensioning... 46
3.2.2 Outputs of LTE Dimensioning ... . 48
3.2.3 LTE Coverage Dimensioning Process ..... 48
3.2.4 LTE Capacity Dimensioning 59
3.3 Capacity and coverage optimization in LTE Networks .. 65
Chapter 4 : Simulation and Results Discussion.....69
4.1 Simulation ..70
4.1.1 Site Survey 70
4.2 Coverage and Capacity Planning.70
4.2.1 Planning Parameters71
4.2.2 Propagation Model...71
4.2.3 Dimensioning Tool (v 2.3.1) 72
4.2.4 Link Budget Calculation..73
4.2.5 Traffic Model....76
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4.2.6 Sites Count 77
4.2.7 Summary of calculation............78
4.3 Users Categories.....81
4.3.1 Mobility Categories.......81
4.4 Atoll Overview........82
4.4.1 LTE in Atoll ..82
4.4.1.1 Network Modelling. 82
4.4.1.2 Traffic Modelling.82
4.4.1.3 Simulation and Analysis......82
4.4.1.4 Neighbour Planning ....82
4.4.1.5 Multi-RAT Network Planning ...82
4.4.1.6 Automatic Frequency Planning - AFP (option)....83
4.4.1.7 Automatic Cell Planning - ACP (option)...84
4.4.1.8 Automatic Site Positionning - ASP (option)...84
4.5 Monte Carlo Simulation...92
4.5.1 What is Monte Carlo simulation..........................................................................................................92
4.5.2 LTE Traffic Simulation Algorithm.....92
4.5.3 Simulation Cases ..... 92
4.6 Results and notifications ......95
4.6.1 Result Commentary and Conclusion ....102
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Figures List
Figure 1.1Wireless evolution 1990-2011 and beyond
Figure 1.2 Measurements of voice and data traffic in worldwide mobile telecommunication networks, in the
period from January 2007 to July 2011. Reproduced by permission of Ericsson.
Figure 1.3 Forecasts of voice and data traffic in worldwide mobile telecommunication networks, in the period
from 2011 to 2016. Data supplied by Analysis Mason.
Figure 1.4 Shannon capacity of a communication system, in bandwidths of 5, 10 and 20 MHz Figure 2.1
EPC and LTE under the umbrella of EPS.
Figure 2.2 Modular architecture of a UE.
Figure 2.3 Architecture of the evolved UMTS terrestrial radio access network.
Figure 2.4 EPS network elements
Figure 2.5 Architecture of LTE for a roaming mobile.
Figure 2.6 Relationship between tracking areas, MME pool areas and S-GW service areas.
Figure 2.7 Identities used by the MME.
Figure 2.8 Temporary identities used by the mobile.
Figure 2.9 LTE Protocol Stack
Figure 2.10 Mac Downlink Channel Mapping
Figure 2.11 Mac Uplink Channel Mapping
Figure 2.12 - Scheduler In Lte Stack
Figure 2.13 - OFDM Signal Represented In Frequency And Time
Figure 2.14 - OFDM And OFDMA Subcarrier Allocation
Figure 2.14 - Creating The Time-Domain Waveform Of An Sc-Fdma Symbol
Figure 2.15 - Baseband Frequency And Shifted DFT Representations Of An SC-FDMA Symbol
Figure 2.16 - LTE spectrum (bandwidth and duplex) flexibility. half-duplex FDD
is seen from a terminal perspective
Figure 2.17 - General Outline of MIMO system
Figure 2.18 inter cell interference in the cell edge
Figure 2.19 using ICIC to avoid interference in the cell edge
Figure 2.20 conventional frequency planning (a) reuse of 1 (b) reuse of 3
Figure 2.21: Partial Frequency Reuse with Full Isolation (PFR-FI)
Figure 2.22: Soft Frequency Reuse: (a) Reuse of 1 in the cell-centre, (b) Partial frequency reuse in the cell-centre
Figure 2.23: Soft Fractional Frequency Reuse (SFFR)
Figure 2.24. peak data rates of LTE and WiMAX in DL and UL
Figure 3.1 The Input and Output to LTE Dimensioning Tool
Figure 3.2 Differences in Propagation Loss due to Frequency Band
Figure 3.3 Log-normal Fading Margin
Figure 3.3 interference margin (dB) vs. Cell Load from SLL
Figure 3.5 site configuration and coverage area calculation
Figure 3.6 Capacity Dimensioning Overview
Figure 3.7 Example traffic distribution between cells
Figure 3.8 Example traffic distribution over a 24-hour period
Figure 3.9 selections between coverage and capacity site result
Figure 3.10 Coverage holes with 2G/3G coverage
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Figure 3.11 Coverage holes without any other radio coverage
Figure 3.12 Coverage holes with isolated island cell coverage
Figure 3.13 Difference between actual and planned LTE coverage
Figure 4.] : Dimensioning Tool Sheets
Figure 4.2 : Dim Tool (Link Budget )
Figure 4.3 : Traffic Sheet
Figure 4.4 : Sites Count Sheet
Figure 4.5 : Traffic Map of Planning Area
Figure 4.6 : User distribution in each region (a) Region 1 (b) Region 2 (c) Region 3
Figure 4.7 : Types of Users (a) Business user (b) Standard user
Figure 4.8 : Mobility Types
Figure 4.9 : Forsk logo
Figure 4.10 : Atoll 3.2 symbol
Figure 4.11 : Digital map of Taiz
Figure 4.12 : Clutter Classes of Taiz
Figure 4.13 : Ortho Map of Taiz
Figure 4.14 : Vector map of Taizz
Figure 4.15 : Area of Planning
Figure 4.16 : Area with sites and transmitters
Figure 4.17 : (a) Coverage prediction by Signal level (b) Histogram
Figure 4.18 : Coverage prediction by transmitter (DL)
Figure 4.19 : Overlapping Zones
Figure 4.20 : Effective Signal analysis
Figure 4.21 : Coverage by C/(I+N) Level (DL)
Figure 4.22 : Coverage by C/(I+N) Level (UL)
Figure 4.23 : Coverage by throughput (DL)
Figure 4.24 : LTE Simulation Algorithm
Figure 4.25 : Monte Carlo Simulation
Figure 4.26 : Peak RC Cumulated Throughput (DL) (kbps)
Figure 4.27 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput (UL)
Figure 4.28 : Connection Success Rate (%)
Figure 4.29 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput High Speed Internet (DL) kbps
Figure 4.30 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput High Speed Internet (UL)
Figure 4.31 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Mobile Internet Access (DL) kbps
Figure 4.32 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Mobile Internet Access (UL) kbps
Figure 4.33 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Video Conferencing (DL) (kbps)
Figure 4.34 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Video Conferencing (UL) kbps
Figure 4.35 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput VOIP (DL) kbps
Figure 4.36 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput VOIP (UL) kbps
Figure 4.37 : Services Distributions with different Traffic loads (a) 10 % (b) 20 % (C) 30 % of total users
Figure 4.38 : Total throughput in each region with different user percentage
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Table List
Table 1.1 the services and applications of LTE
Table 2.1 UE categories and DL capabilities (according to 3GPP 36.306). Reproduced with
permission from 3GPP
Table 2.2 UE categories and UL capabilities (according to 3GPP 36.306). Reproduced with permission from
3GPP
Table2.3 summarizes the differences between the OFDMA and SC-FDMA modulation schemes
Table 2.4 - LTE Physical Signals
Table 2.5 - LTE Physical Channels
Table 3.1 Commonly used Wireless Channel Propagation Models
Table 3.2 Downlink link budget parameters
Table 3.3 the SFM value for different cell edge &cell area probabilities
Table 3.4 Uplink link budget parameters
Table 3.5 The peak (UL&DL) throughout for different Bandwidth
Table 4.1 : Regions of Planning
Table 4.2 : Planning Parameters
Table 4.3 : Propagation Model Inputs
Table 4.5 : Sites Names and Positions
Table 4.6 : Total peak RLC Cumulated Throughput
List of Acronyms
1XRTT 1x (single-carrier) Radio Transmission Technology
2G 2nd Generations
3G 3rd Generations
3GPP 3G partnership projects
3GPP 3rd Generation Partnership Project
3GPP2 3G partnership projects 2
ACIR Adjacent channel interference ratio
ACK Acknowledgment
ACLR Adjacent Channel Leakage Ratio
ACLR Adjacent channel leakage ratio
AFP Automatic Frequency Planning
AGW Access Gateway
AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone Service
AMS American Musicological Society
API Application Programming Interface
ARPU Average Revenue Per User
BCCH Broadcast Control Channel
BLER Block Error Rate
BTS Base Transceiver Station
BW Bandwidth
CAPEX Capital expenses
CCPCH Common Control Physical Channel
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CINR Carrier-to-Interference Plus Noise Ratio
CN Core Network
CP Cyclic Prefix
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CPICH Code on the primary common-pilot channel
CW Continuous wave
DL Downlink
DSCH Downlink Shared Channel
DTM Digital Terrain Model
EDGE Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution
EIRP Effective isotropic radiated power
eNB Enhanced Node
EPC Evolved Packet Core
eSFN Enhanced System Frame Number
ETSI European Telecommunication Standards Institute
EV-DO EVolution-Data Optimized
EVDO Evolution data only
EVDV Evolution Data Voice
EVM Error Vector Magnitude
FDD Frequency Division Duplex
FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access
GGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node
GPRS General Packet Radio Services
GPRS General Packet Radio System
GSM Global System for Mobile
HRPD High Rate Packet Data
HSDPA High Speed Downlink Packet Access
HS-DSCH High Speed Downlink Shared Channel
HSPA High Speed Packet Access
HS-PDSCH High Speed Physical Downlink Shared Channel
HS-SCCH High Speed Shared Control Channel
HSUPA High Speed Uplink Packet Access
ID Identification
IMSI Inter Mobile Subscriber Identity
IMT-2000 International mobile telecommunications 2000
IP Internet Protocol
IRC Interference Rejection Combining
ISI Inter-symbol-interference
IT Information Technology
ITU International Telecommunication Union
J-TACS Journal of Theoretical and Applied Computer Science
LTE Long Term Evolution
MAC Medium Access Control
MAC Medium Access Control
MBMS Multimedia Broad-cast/Multicast Service
Mbps Megabits per second
MCS Modulation and Coding Schemes
MIMO Multiple-Input and Multiple-Output
MME Mobility Management Entity
MME /GW Mobility Management Entity/Gateway (MME /GW)
MSC Mobile Switching Centre
MSCs Mobile switching systems
MSISDN Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number
MU-MIMO M ulti User - MIMO
NFFT Number of Samples of FFT
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NMT Nordic Mobile Telephony
OBF Overbooking factor
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
OFDMA Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiple Access
OPEX Operating Expenses
PAPR Peak-to-Average Power Ratio
PAR Peak and Average Rates
PBCH Physical Broadcast Channel
PDCCH Physical Downlink Control Channel
PDSCCH Physical Downlink Shared Control Channel
PDSCH Physical Downlink Shared Channel
PDSCH Physical Downlink Shared Channel
PHY Physical Layer
PS Packet Switched
PSTN Puplic Switched Telephone Network
PUCCH Physical Uplink Control Channel
PUSCH Physical Uplink Shared Channel
QAM Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
QoS Quality of Service
QPSK Quadrature Phase Shift keying
RAN Radio Access Network
RB Resource Block
RLB Radio link budget
RLC Radio Link Control
RNC Radio network controller
RNL Radio Network Layer
RRC Radio Resource Control
RSCP Received Signal Code Power
RSSI Received Signal Strength Indicator
SAE System Architecture Evolution
SC-FDMA Single Carrier-Frequency Division Multiple Access
SCTP Stream Control Transmission Protocol
SIMO Single-inputmulti-output
SINR Signal to Interference and Noise Ratio
SISO Single Input Single Output
SMS Short Message Service
SNR Signal to Noise Ratio
SU-MIMO Single User - MIMO
TACS Total Access Communication System
TCP/IP Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
TDD Time Division Duplex
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
TD-SCDMA Time Division Synchronous Code Division Multiple Access
TE Terminal Equipment
TMA Tower-Mounted Amplifier
TIA Transient Ischemic Attack
TNL Transport Network Layer
TTI Transmission Time Interval
UE User Equipment
UL Uplink
UMB Ultra Mobile Broadband
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UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
UPE User Plane Entity
U-plane User Plane
UTM Universal Transverse Mercator
UTRAN UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network
WCDMA Wideband Code Division Multiple Access
WGS84 World Geodetic System 1984
WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
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Chapter 1 :
Introduction
LTE Network Planning and Optimization Introduction
Introduction
These days, the rapid growth of mobile communication and technologies made an outstanding
development not only to ease our daily lives but also to make an important contribution to the
persistent computing environments. Starting from the first Generation of cellular network, which
is analog communication to the ones that are being developed now like LTE, LTE advance and
WIMAX 802.16m, the technology is expanding in higher quality and accessibility. Besides the
end user expectations have grown from conventional mobile voice traffic to additional simple
text communication and even to live streaming services and internet access which greatly
affecting the traffic demands. All these requirements motivated the need for new emerging
system architectures and management with issues related to quality of service, capacity and
coverage. For this reason, the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), which is currently the
dominant specifications development group for mobile radio systems in the world, started to
work on the upcoming new standard called, the Long-Term Evolution (LTE).
LTE is the evolution of the Third-generation of mobile communications to the Fourth-generation
technology that is essentially an all IP broadband Internet system with voice and other services
built to ensure 3GPPs competitive edge over other cellular technologies. On the contrary to the
circuit-switched 3GPP technologies like GSM and WCDMA, which are currently serving nearly
85% of the global mobile subscribers, LTE has been designed to be a high data rate and low
latency system supporting only packet switched services. It aims to provide seamless
connectivity between two end user equipment (UE) without any disruption to the services in use
during mobility. Based on the LTE Rel.8 standardization document of 3GPP, the technology
enables flexible transmission bandwidth selection between 1.4 MHz and 20 MHz depending on
the available spectrum which significantly enhances the service capacity compared to previous
cellular technologies.
These and other significant performance achievements rely on recently introduced physical layer
technologies, such as Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM), Multiple-Input
Multiple-Output (MIMO) systems and Smart Antennas. Furthermore, as a result of these
technologies minimization to the system and UE complexities; its co-existence with other 3GPP
and non- 3GPP Radio Access Technologies (RATs) and straightforward planning and
deployment approaches were basically achieved.
LTE is recently launched technology with improved performance in service delivery and system
simplicity. Thus, books, literatures and documentation are available describing the technological
advancement, technical standardizations and basic planning and deployment specifications. The
planning approach of LTE is divided depending upon the system architecture of LTE as Radio
access network and core network planning. LTE Radio access network planning refers to
analytical approach which is based on algorithmic formulation and focuses on the radio
engineering aspect of the planning process, i.e., on determining the locations, estimated capacity
and size of the cell sites (coverage and capacity planning), and assigning frequencies to them by
examining the radio-wave propagation environment and interferences among the cells.
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Introduction LTE Network Planning and Optimization
1.1. Statement of the Problem

In cellular network, there are sequential steps for radio network planning. These steps start from
simple analysis to computer aided mathematical computation; i.e., from nominal planning state to
detail planning and then optimization. The system to be deployed is a new technology, the first
step in RAN planning, i.e., the nominal planning, is considered as critical point since it gives the
first rough estimation to coverage and capacity.
LTE nominal radio network planning is done basically using link budget calculation to estimate
the cell size and theoretical traffic and throughput calculation for capacity estimation. In most
cases, since the simplicity of this stage is needed the coverage estimation is done with a general
propagation model which doesnt incorporate the actual geographical information (terrain
model). Thus, the major problem in the obtained result is that this results don't represent the real
values but In order to make this RAN planning stage more accurate, the inclusion of the terrain
model has to be considered in simple manners, so that improvement in the result is obtained
while the simplicity of the process is still maintained.
To properly resolve this problem and perform the LTE radio network planning, a consideration of
certain site is important where in this project Taiz City is considered. One thing that has been
clearly seen during the problem identification is that, the city has irregular geographical terrains
which make harder to choose the positions of the sites and to get a perfect coverage for the area
of planning. In the other hand, the city is widely populated with GSM base station antennas and
repeaters of 3 (2G and 3G) company and at the same time the service quality is far from being
perfect. This might be because of improper radio network planning or optimization done.
1.2. Objective
1.2.1. General Objective
The main aim of this work is to study and describe the nominal radio access network planning in
LTE. It is the intension of the work to understand the different inputs and outputs parameters in
LTE dimensioning. Furthermore, seeing see how proper the propagation model with that Kind of
terrain exist in Taiz and to predict the required traffic and the corresponding throughput within
different regions for different users percentage due to services (VOIP, Streaming, high speed
internet and mobile internet access). Same previous study was performed in a flat areas which
make it difficult to judge how suitable LTE for other kind of terrains for example Taiz terrains
which considered as mountains terrains.
1.2.2. Detailed Objectives
This project specially focuses on:
Defining accurate or site-based mathematical model of LTE RAN nominal planning for
capacity and coverage estimation, including environmental information of the selected
deployment area to refine the coverage estimation.
Considering both theoretical simulations and actual traffic demand information of the
deployment area which was built on a real statistics from the Taiz information center and
used to evaluate capacity.
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Performing the nominal radio planning on selected location to obtain reasonable and
interpretable results. The selected deployment location which is considered in this thesis is
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in Taiz city in particular the area within an area of 118.09 Km .
1.3. Methodology
The concept of LTE radio planning is still an ongoing study with different standardizations.
Thus, this project is entirely based on books on LTE, 3GPP standardization documents, different
IEEE articles, journals, previous studies on this subject and known simulators and NSN
documents and Tools.
The work started with preliminary study on LTE and the general radio network planning. On the
process of reviewing related works the statement of the problem had been clearly specified. Data
collections regarding the working area and the expected Voice traffic demand and long-term
telecom forecast have been done. After that, data analyses have been done to identify the area of
work ,Based on that, theoretical dimensioning processes staring from coverage planning, capacity
planning are carried out.
1.4. Scope and Limitation

1.4.1. Scope of the project
This project is a case study and is expected to address features that are necessary for proper
implementation of LTE technology in Taiz City. In depth,
It should estimate the calculation of capacity and coverage and positioning sites process in
the area of study.
From the technical point of view, it should point out the relation between coverage and
capacity when planning is performed.
Optimization is then required to improve the performance of the LTE network in that place
and how efficient it is to build it in real.
1.4.2. Limitations of the project
The main limitation was in propagation model which was not accurate enough for that kind of
terrains and also the traffic information which was built according to the information from Taiz
Information Center and it may be different from real information.
1.5. History of mobile telecommunication system

1.5.1. The first generation (1G) systems
Mobile telecommunication systems were first introduced in the early 1980s. The first generation
(1G) systems used analogue communication techniques, which were similar to those used by a
traditional analogue radio. The individual cells were large and the systems did not use the
available radio spectrum efficiently, so their capacity was by todays standards very small. The
mobile devices were large and expensive and were marketed almost exclusively at business
users.
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1.5.2. The second generation (2G) systems

Mobile telecommunications took off as a consumer product with the introduction of second
generation (2G) systems in the early 1990s. These systems were the first to use digital
technology, which permitted a more efficient use of the radio spectrum and the introduction of
smaller, cheaper devices. They were originally designed just for voice, but were later enhanced
to support instant messaging through the Short Message Service (SMS).
The most popular 2G system was the Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), which
was originally designed as a pan-European technology, but which later became popular
throughout the world. Also notable was IS-95, otherwise known as cdma One, which was
designed by Qualcomm, and which became the dominant 2G system in the USA. The success of
2G communication systems came at the same time as the early growth of the internet. It was
natural for network operators to bring the two concepts together, by allowing users to download
data onto mobile devices. To do this, so-called 2.5G systems built on the original ideas from 2G,
by introducing the core networks packet switched domain and by modifying the air interface so
that it could handle data as well as voice.
The General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) incorporated these techniques into GSM, while IS-95
was developed into a system known as IS-95B. At the same time, the data rates available over
the internet were progressively increasing. To mirror this, designers first improved the
performance of 2G systems using techniques such as Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution
(EDGE) and then introduced more powerful third generation (3G) systems in the years after
2000.
1.5.3. The third generation (3G) systems
The 3G systems use different techniques for radio transmission and reception from their 2G
predecessors, which increases the peak data rates that they can handle, makes still more efficient
use of the available radio spectrum, enabled faster data-transmission speeds, greater network
capacity and more advanced network services.
In these systems, the air interface includes extra optimizations that are targeted at data
applications, which increase the average rate at which a user can upload or download
information, at the expense of introducing greater variability into the data rate and the arrival
time.
The worlds dominant 3G system is the Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (UMTS).
UMTS was developed from GSM by completely changing the technology used on the air
interface, while keeping the core network almost unchanged. The system was later enhanced for
data applications, by introducing the 3.5G technologies of high speed downlink packet access
(HSDPA) and high speed uplink packet access (HSUPA), which are collectively known as high
speed packet access (HSPA).
The final 3G technology is Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX). This
was developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers under IEEE standard
802.16 and has a very different history from other 3G systems. The original specification (IEEE
5
802.162001) was for a system that delivered data over point-to point microwave links instead of
fixed cables.
A later revision, known as fixed WiMAX (IEEE 802.162004), supported point to-multipoint
Figure 1.1Wireless evolution 1990-2011 and beyond
communications between an omnidirectional base station and a number of fixed devices [3].
1.5.4. The fourth generation (4G) systems
4G is an ITU specification that is currently being developed for broadband mobile capabilities.
4G technologies would enable IP-based voice, data and streaming multimedia at higher speeds
and offer at least 100 Mbit/s with high mobility and up to 1GBit/s with low mobility (nomadic).
4G is an IP-based and packet-switched evolution of 3G technologies (such as WCDMA,
HSDPA, CDMA2000 and EVDO) that uses voice communications. A number of technologies
considered to be 4G standards include Long Term Evolution (LTE), Ultra Mobile Broadband
(UMB) and the IEEE 802.16 (WiMax) standard.
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1.6. Long Term Evolution (LTE) Definition:

LTE is a relatively new cellular technology intended to greatly increase the speed and capacity of
mobile phone networks. LTE is an improvement over 3G. Many of the technologies within LTE
are better versions of 3G.
The goal of LTE to provide a high data rate, low latency and packet optimized radio access
technology supporting flexible bandwidth deployments. In parallel, new network architecture is
designed with the goal to support packet-switched traffic with seamless mobility, quality of
service and minimal latency.
Like other cellular technologies LTE uses OFDM as multiplexing technique. LTE uses OFDMA
as downlink and Single Carrier FDMA (SC FDMA) as uplink transmission technique. The use of
SC FDMA in LTE reduces the Peak to Average Power Ratio (PAPR) which is the main
drawback of OFDM.
LTE uses wider spectrum, up to 20 MHz, to provide compatibility with existing cellular
technologies such as UMTS and HSPA+, and increases the capacity of the system. LTE uses
flexible spectrum which makes it possible to be deployed in any bandwidth combinations. This
makes LTE suitable for various sizes of spectrum resources.
LTE uses both FDD and TDD as duplexing techniques to accommodate all types of spectrum
resources.
1.7. The Need for LTE
1.7.1. The Growth of Mobile Data
For many years, voice calls dominated the traffic in mobile telecommunication networks.The
growth of mobile data was initially slow, but in the years leading up to 2010 its use started to
increase dramatically. To illustrate this, Figure 1.2 shows measurements by Ericsson of the total
traffic being handled by networks throughout the world, in petabytes (million gigabytes) per
month. The figure covers the period from January 2007 to July 2011, during which time the
amount of data traffic increased by a factor of over 100.
This trend is set to continue. For example, Figure 1.3 shows forecasts by Analysis Mason of the
growth of mobile traffic in the period from 2011 to 2016. Note the difference in the vertical
scales of the two diagrams.
In part, this growth was driven by the increased availability of 3.5G communication technologies.
More important, however, was the introduction of the Apple iPhone in 2007, followed by devices
based on Googles Android operating system from 2008.
These smartphones were more attractive and user-friendly than their predecessors and were
designed to support the creation of applications by third party developers. The result was an
explosion in the number and use of mobile applications, which is reflected in the diagrams.
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Figure 1.2 Measurements of voice and data traffic in worldwide mobile telecommunication
networks, in the period from January 2007 to July 2011. Reproduced by permission of Ericsson.
Figure 1.3 Forecasts of voice and data traffic in worldwide mobile telecommunication
networks, in the period from 2011 to 2016. Data supplied by Analysis Mason.
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1.7.2. Increasing the System Capacity

There are three main ways to increase the capacity of a mobile communication system, which we
can understand by inspection of Equation (1-1) and Figure 1.4 below.
The first, and the most important, is the use of smaller cells. In a cellular network, the channel
capacity is the maximum data rate that a single cell can handle. By building extra base stations
and reducing the size of each cell, we can increase the capacity of a network, essentially by using
many duplicate copies of Equation (1-1).
The second technique is to increase the bandwidth. Radio spectrum is managed by the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU) and by regional and national regulators, and the
increasing use of mobile telecommunications has led to the increasing allocation of spectrum to
2G and 3G systems. However, there is only a finite amount of radio spectrum available and it is
also required by applications as diverse as military communications and radio astronomy. There
are therefore limits as to how far this process can go.
The third technique is to improve the communication technology that we are using. This brings
several benefits: it lets us approach ever closer to the theoretical channel capacity, and it lets us
exploit the higher SINR and greater bandwidth that are made available by the other changes
above. This progressive improvement in communication technology has been an ongoing theme
in the development of mobile telecommunications and is the main reason for the introduction of
LTE.
C = B log2 (1 + SINR) (1.1)
Figure 1.4 Shannon capacity of a communication system, in bandwidths of 5, 10 and

20 MHz
9
1.7.3. Additional Motivations

Three other issues are driving the move to LTE. Firstly, a 2G or 3G operator has to maintain two
core networks: the circuit switched domain for voice, and the packet switched domain for data.
Provided that the network is not too congested, however, it is also possible to transport voice
calls over packet switched networks using techniques such as voice over IP (VoIP). By doing
this, operators can move everything to the packet switched domain, and can reduce both their
capital and operational expenditure.
In a related issue, 3G networks introduce delays of the order of 100 milliseconds for data
applications, in transferring data packets between network elements and across the air interface.
This is barely acceptable for voice and causes great difficulties for more demanding applications
such as real-time interactive games. Thus a second driver is the wish to reduce the end-to-end
delay, or latency, in the network.
Thirdly, the specifications for UMTS and GSM have become increasingly complex over the
years, due to the need to add new features to the system while maintaining backwards
compatibility with earlier devices. A fresh start aids the task of the designers, by letting them
improve the performance of the system without the need to support legacy devices [3].
1.8. Targets Of LTE Design And Requirements
The initial 3GPP activity on 3G evolution was setting the objectives, requirements and targets for
LTE. These targets/requirements are should be noted that the capabilities, system performance,
and other aspects are outlined as below and are the targets set out in the initial phase of the LTE
standards development.
The final capabilities and performance reached are different and do in many cases exceed the
targets set at the beginning of the LTE development. The requirements for LTE were divided
into seven different areas: Capabilities, System performance, Deployment-related aspects,
Architecture and migration, Radio resource management and Complexity. Below, each of these
groups is discussed.
1.8.1. Capabilities
The targets for downlink and uplink peak data-rate requirements are 100 Mbit/s and 50Mbit/s,
respectively, when operating in 20 MHz spectrum allocation. For narrower spectrum allocations,
the peak data rates are scaled accordingly. Thus, the requirements can be expressed as 5 bit/s/Hz
for the downlink and 2.5 bit/s/Hz for the uplink.
The latency requirements are split into control-plane requirements and user plane requirements.
The control-plane latency requirements address the delay for transiting from different non-active
terminal states to an active state where the mobile terminal can send and/or receive data.
The user-plane latency requirement is expressed as the time it takes to transmit a small IP packet
from the terminal to the RAN (Radio Access Network) edge node or vice versa measured on the
IP layer. The one-way transmission time should not exceed 5 ms in an unloaded network, that is,
no other terminals are present in the cell.
10
As a side requirement to the control-plane latency requirement, LTE should support at least 200
mobile terminals in the active state when operating in 5MHz.
In wider allocations than 5MHz, at least 400 terminals should be supported. The number of
inactive terminals in a cell is not explicitly stated, but should be significantly higher.
1.8.2. System performance
The LTE system performance design targets address user throughput, spectrum efficiency,
mobility, coverage, and further enhanced MBMS (Multimedia Broad-cast/Multicast Service).
The LTE user throughput requirement is specified at two points: at the average and at the fifth
percentile of the user distribution (where 95 percent of the users have better performance).A
spectrum efficiency target has also been specified, where in this context, spectrum efficiency is
defined as the system throughput per cell in bit/s/ MHz/cell.
The mobility requirements focus on the mobile terminals speed. Maximal performance is
targeted at low terminal speeds, 015 km/h, whereas a slight degradation is allowed for higher
speeds. For speeds up to 120 km/h, LTE should provide high performance and for speeds above
120 km/h, the system should be able to maintain the connection across the cellular network. The
maximum speed to manage in an LTE system is set to 350 km/h (or even up to 500 km/h
depending on frequency band). Special emphasis is put on the voice service that LTE needs to
provide with equal quality as supported by WCDMA/HSPA.
The coverage requirements focus on the cell range (radius) that is the maximum distance from
the cell site to a mobile terminal in a cell.
The requirement for non-interference-limited scenarios is to meet the user throughput, the
spectrum efficiency, and the mobility requirements for cells with up to 5km cell range. For cells
with up to 30km cell range, a slight degradation of the user through-put is tolerated and a more
significant degradation of the spectrum efficiency is acceptable relative to the requirements.
However, the mobility requirements should be met. Cell ranges up to 100 km should not be
precluded by the specifications, but no performance requirements are stated in this case.
1.8.3. Deployment-related aspects
The deployment-related requirements include deployment scenarios, spectrum flexibility,
spectrum deployment, and coexistence and interworking with other 3GPP radio access
technologies such as GSM and WCDMA /HSPA.
The requirement on the deployment scenario includes both the case when the LTE system is
deployed as a stand-alone system and the case when it is deployed together with
WCDMA/HSPA and/or GSM. The coexistence and interworking with other 3GPP systems and
their respective requirements set the requirement on mobility between LTE and GSM, and
between LTE and WCDMA/HSPA for mobile terminals supporting those technologies.
1.8.4. Architecture and migration
A few guiding principles for the LTE RAN architecture design as stated by 3GPP are listed:
A single LTE RAN architecture should be agreed.
11
The LTE RAN architecture should be packet based, although real time and conversational
class traffic should be supported.
The LTE RAN architecture should minimize the presence of single points of failure
without additional cost for backhaul.
The LTE RAN architecture should simplify and minimize the introduced number of
interfaces.
Radio Network Layer (RNL) and Transport Network Layer (TNL) interaction should not
be precluded if in the interest of improved system performance.
The LTE RAN architecture should support an end-to-end QoS. The TNL should provide
the appropriate QoS requested by the RNL.
QoS mechanism(s) should take into account the various types of traffic that exists to
provide efficient bandwidth utilization: Control-Plane. Traffic, User-Plane traffic, O & M
traffic, etc.
The LTE RAN should be designed in such a way to minimize the delay variation (jitter) for
traffic needing low jitter, for example, TCP/IP.
1.8.5. Radio resource management
The radio resource management requirements are divided into enhanced support for end-to end
QoS, efficient support for transmission of higher layers, and support of load sharing and policy
management across different radio access technologies.
The enhanced support for end-to-end QoS requires an improved matching of service, application
and protocol requirements (including higher layer signaling) to RAN resources and radio
characteristics.
The efficient support for transmission of higher layers requires that the LTE RAN should provide
mechanisms to support efficient transmission and operation of higher layer protocols over the
radio interface, such as IP header compression.
The support of load sharing and policy management across different radio access technologies
requires consideration of reselection mechanisms to direct mobile terminals toward appropriate
radio access technologies in all types of states as well as that support for end-to-end QoS during
handover between radio access technologies.
1.8.6. Complexity
The LTE complexity requirements address the complexity of the overall system as well as the
complexity of the mobile terminal. Essentially, these requirements imply that the number of
options should be minimized with no redundant mandatory features. This also leads to a
minimized number of necessary test cases.
1.9. LTE Services And Applications
Through a combination of very high (downlink and uplink) transmission speeds more flexible,
efficient use of spectrum and reduced packet latency, LTE promises to enhance the delivery of
mobile broadband services while adding exciting new value added service possibilities. An
overarching objective for LTE is the stabilization and reversal of steadily declining ARPU
(Average Revenue per User) that is characteristic of many mobile markets.
12
Table 1.1 illustrates some of the services and applications that LTE will enable and enrich in
mobile space.
Service category Current environment LTE environment

VoIP, high quality video
Rich voice Real-time audio
conferencing
Photo messages, IM
P2F messaging SMS, MMS low priority e-mail .mobile email, video
messaging
Access to online information
Service, for which users pay
Super-fast browsing,
Standard network rates currently
Browsing uploading content to social.
limited to WAP browsing over
Networking sites
GPRS and JG networks
Content for which users pay

over and above standard network E-newspaper high quality
Paid information
charges. Mainly text-based audio streaming
information
Real tone's (original artist
Predominantly ringtones. Also
recording).
Personalization includes screen services and ring
Personalized mobile web
backs
sites
A consistent online
gaming experience across
Games Downloadable and online games
both fixed and mobile
networks
Broadcast television
TV/video on Streamed and downloadable services. true on-demand
demand video content. television. High quality
video streaming.
Full track downloads and High quality music
Music
analogue radio services downloading and storage
Wide scale distribution of
Peer-to-peer messaging using
Content messaging video dips- Karaoke
third party content as well as
and cross media Services- video based
interaction with other media.
mobile advertising.
Table 1.1 the services and applications of LTE
1.10. LTE-Advanced
LTE-Advanced is seen as the next major step in the evolution of LTE, which is very similar to
HSPA being the first major step in the evolution of the WCDMA radio access. Although LTE
already in its first release provides very high performance, it can also serve as a solid frame-work
13
for evolving into even higher performance. Most likely, the evolution will also continue beyond
LTE-Advanced to meet future requirements emerging with raising user expectations.
1.10.1. Fundamental requirements for LTE-Advanced
Driven by the ITUs requirements for IMT-Advanced, 3GPP started to study how to enhance the
capabilities of LTE. The main output from the study was a specification for a system known as
LTE-Advanced, in which the main requirements were as follows.
LTE-Advanced was required to deliver a peak data rate of 1000 Mbps in the downlink, and 500
Mbps in the uplink. In practice, the system has been designed so that it can eventually deliver
peak data rates of 3000 and 1500 Mbps respectively, using a total bandwidth of 100MHz that is
made from five separate components of 20MHz each.
Note, as before, that these figures are unachievable in any realistic scenario. Finally, LTE-
Advanced is designed to be backwards compatible with LTE, in the sense that an LTE mobile
can communicate with a base station that is operating LTE-Advanced and vice-versa [3].
1.10.2. The main evolution in LTE-advanced
The LTE specifications support up to four transmitters and receivers on the eNB with up to two
transmitters and four receivers for the UE. The potential reception gains from MIMO systems
and from beam steering are a function of the number of antennas, and proposals are being
considered that would increase this number for systems up to 8x8 for the eNB and 4x4 for the
UE. Support for peak-data up to 1Gbps in the downlink and 500Mbps in the uplink.
References:
[1] Dimensioning of LTE Network. Description of Models and Tools, Coverage and Capacity
Estimation of 3GPP Long Term Evolution / Abdul Basit, Syed
[2] LTE Radio Network Planning: Modeling Approaches for the Case of Addis Ababa /
Bethelhem Seifu
[3] An introduction to LTE: LTE, LTE- advanced, SAE and 4G mobile communications
/Christopher Cox.
14
Chapter 2 :
LTE Architecture
LTE Network planning and optimization LTE Architecture
This chapter contains a brief overview of the overall architecture of an LTE radio-access
network and the associated core network, followed by descriptions of the radio-access network
user-plane and control-plane protocols. Enabling LTE techniques such as OFDMA, SC-FDMA,
MIMO, and ICIC are discussed .Then a comparison between LTE and WIMAX techniques.
2.1. LTE System Architecture
LTE (Long-Term Evolution) of UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunications Service) is one
of the latest steps in an advancing series of mobile telecommunication systems.
The standards body behind the paperwork is the 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP).
Along with the term LTE , the acronyms EPS (Evolved Packet System) , EPC (Evolved Packet
Core) , and SAE (System Architecture Evolution) are often heard . Figure 2.1 shows how these
terms are related to each other: EPS is the umbrella that covers both the LTE of the Evolved
Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) and the SAE of the EPC network. [1]
Figure 2.1 EPC and LTE under the umbrella of EPS.
16
LTE Architecture LTE Network planning and optimization
2.1.1. User Equipment (UE) Architecture

As in UMTS, the LTE mobile station is called User Equipment(UE). It is constructed using a
modular architecture that consists of three main components (see Figure 2.2):
Figure 2.2 Modular architecture of a UE.
Mobile Termination: The MT represents termination of the radio interface. In this entity
all the communication functions are handled (the RRC signaling is terminated and RRC
messages are sent/received). [1],[2].
Terminal Adapter: The terminal adapter represents the termination of the application-
specic service protocols, for example, SIP signaling for VoIP. The terminal adapter
might be constructed as an external interface, for example, USB to connect a laptop PC
using LTE technology with a mobile network.
Terminal Equipment: The TE represents termination of the service. Depending on the
UEs application capabilities, it may act as the TE or not. For instance, the Apple iPhone
with its browser functionalities has full TE capability while a simple USB stick for mobile
data transmission has no TE capability at all. In the case of the USB stick, the connected
laptop PC is the TE. [1]
UE Categories
The UE categories stand for an abstract grouping of common UE radio access capabilities and
are dened in 3GPP 36.306.In particular, the handset-type groups vary in maximum possible
throughput (the maximum number of DL-SCH transport blocks bits received within a Time
Transmission Interval (TTI)). Assuming a TTI of 1ms for category 1, the maximum possible
throughput is 10296 bits/1ms which is approximately 10Mbps of physical layer DL throughput
(including the RLC/MAC header information so the payload throughput will be slightly less).
17
Category 5 mobiles are the only handsets that support 64 Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
(QAM)on the UL as highlighted in Tables( 2.1 & 2.2). The maximum possible bit rate ranges
from 5Mbps (Cat. 1) to 75Mbps (Cat. 5). [1]
Maximum number of DL- Maximum number of bits

Approximate
SCH transport of a DL-SCH
UE category maximum bit rate
block bits received transport block received
DL (Mbps)
within a TTI within a TTI
Category 1 10296 10296 10
Category 2 51024 51024 50
Category 3 102048 75 376 75
Category 4 150752 75 376 75
Category 5 302752 151 376 150
Table 2.1 UE categories and DL capabilities (according to 3GPP 36.306). Reproduced with
Maximum number of bits of Support for Approximate

UE category an UL-SCH transport block 64QAM in UL maximum bit rate UL
transmitted within a TTI (Mbps)
Category 1 5 160 NO 5
Category 5 75 376 YES 75
Table 2.2 UE categories and UL capabilities (according to 3GPP 36.306). Reproduced with
18
2.1.2. Evolved-UTRAN (E_UTRAN) Architecture

The evolved UMTS terrestrial radio access network (E-UTRAN) is illustrated in (Figure 2.3).
Figure 2.3 Architecture of the evolved UMTS terrestrial radio access network.
The E-UTRAN handles the radio communications between the mobile and the evolved packet
core and just has one component, the evolved Node B (eNB). Each eNB is a base station that
controls the mobiles in one or more cells. A mobile communicates with just one base station and
one cell at a time, so there is no equivalent of the soft handover state from UMTS. The base
station that is communicating with a mobile is known as its serving eNB. [2]
The LTE base station(eNB) hosts all RRC functions such as broadcast of system information
and RRC connection control including:
Paging of subscribers.
Establishment, modication, and release of RRC connection including the allocation of
temporary UE identities (Radio Network Temporary Identier, RNTI).
RRC connection mobility that includes all types of intra-LTE handover (intra-
frequency and inter-frequency). In the case of handover, the source eNB will take care of
the associated security handling and provide the necessary key and algorithm
information to the handover target cell by sending specic RRC context information
embedded in a transparent container to the handover target eNB.
Establishment, modication, and release of DRBs (Dedicated Radio Bearers) carrying
user data.
QoS control to ensure that, for example, user plane packets of different connections are
scheduled with the required priority for DL transmission and that mobiles receive the
scheduling grants for UL data transmission according to the QoS parameters of the radio
bearers.
19
Recovery functions that allow re-establishment of radio connections after physical

channel failure or Radio Link Control Acknowledged Mode (RLC AM) retransmission
errors.
The most crucial part for measuring the eNB performance is the UL/DL resource management
and packet scheduling performed by the eNB. This is probably the most difcult function which
requires the eNB to cope with many different constraints like radio link quality, user priority,
requested QoS,and UE capabilities. It is the task of the eNB to make use of the available
resources in the most efficient way. The support of self- conguration and self-optimization is
seen as one of the key features of the E-UTRAN. Among these functions we nd , for example,
intelligent learning functions for automatic updates of neighbor cell lists (handover candidates)
as they are used for RRC measurement tasks and handover decisions.
The eNB is a critical part of the user plane connections. Here the data is routed, multiplexed,
ciphered/deciphered, segmented, and reassembled. It is correct to say that on the E-UTRAN
transport layer level, the eNB acts as an IP router and switch. The eNB is also responsible for
optional IP header compression. On the control plane level, the eNB selects the MME to which
NAS signaling messages are routed. [1]
Each base station is connected to the EPC by means of the S1 interface. It can also be connected
to nearby base stations by the X2 interface, which is mainly used for signaling and packet
forwarding during handover. The X2 interface is optional, in that theS1 interface can also handle
all the functions of X2, albeit indirectly and more slowly.
A home eNB (HeNB) is a base station that has been purchased by a user to provide femtocell
coverage within the home . A home eNB belongs to a closed subscriber group (CSG) and can
only be accessed by mobiles with a USIM that also belongs to the closed subscriber group.
From an architectural point of view, a home eNB can be connected directly to the evolved
packet core in the same way as any other base station,or can be connected by way of an
intermediate device known as a home eNB gateway that collects the information from several
home eNBs. Home eNBs only control one cell, and do not support the X2 interface until Release
10. [2]
2.1.3. Evolved Packet Core (EPC) Architecture
Figure 2.4 shows the main components of the evolved packet core. We have already seen one
component, the home subscriber server (HSS), which is a central database that contains
information about all the network operators subscribers. This is one of the few components of
LTE that has been carried forward from UMTS and GSM.
20
Figure 2.4 EPS network elements
Mobility Management Entity (MME( :

The MME is responsible for the NAS connection with the UE. All Non Access Stratum (NAS)
signaling messages are exchanged between the UE and MME to trigger further procedures in the
core network if necessary.
.A new function of the E-UTRAN is NAS signaling security. The purpose of this feature is to
protect the signaling messages that could reveal the true subscribers identity and location from
unauthorized eavesdropping. The MME is also responsible for paging subscribers in the EPS
Connection Management (ECM(IDLE state (including control and execution of paging
retransmission) and is concerned with tracking area list management. The list of tracking areas
is the list of locations where the UE will be paged.
To route the user plane data streams the MME will select the best tting PDN-GW and S-GW. It
will also connect the E-UTRAN with the 3G UTRAN using the S3 interface (MME to SGSN).
When necessary, a relocation of gateways will be triggered and controlled by the MME. As its
name suggests, the MME will perform management of handovers by selecting a new (target(
MME or SGSN for handovers to 2G or 3G 3GPP access networks. Also, it is the MME that
hosts the connection to the HSS across the S6a interface and, hence, it is responsible for
Figure 2.4 EPS
roaming management and authentication network elements
of subscribers.Last but not least, the MME sets up,
modies, and releases default and dedicated bearers. This function is commonly known as the
bearer management function. [1]
21
The S-GW (Serving Gateway):

acts as a router, and forwards data between the base station and the PDN gateway. A typical
network might contain a handful of serving gateways, each of which looks after the mobiles in a
certain geographical region. Each mobile is assigned to a single serving gateway, but the serving
gateway can be changed if the mobile moves sufficiently far. [2]
The packet data network (PDN) gateway (P-GW) :
The (P-GW)is the EPCs point of contact with the outside world . Through the SGi interface,
each PDN gateway exchanges data with one or more external devices or packet data networks,
such as the network operators servers ,the internet or the IP multimedia subsystem. Each packet
data network is identied by an access point name (APN) . A network operator typically uses a
handful of different APNs, for example one for its own servers and one for the internet .Each
mobile is assigned to a default PDN gateway when it rst switches on, to give it always-on
connectivity to a default packet data network such as the internet. Later on, a mobile may be
assigned to one or more additional PDN gateways, if it wishes to connect to additional packet
data networks such as private corporate networks. Each PDN gateway stays the same throughout
the lifetime of the data connection. [2],[1]
Policy and Charging Rule Function (PCRF) :
For policy control and charging, the PDN-GW can be connected to a (PCRF) via the Gx
reference point. The PCRF provides guidance on how a particular service data ow should be
treated in terms of priority, throughput, and other QoS parameters according to the users
subscription prole.
The Home Subscriber Server (HSS) :
The HSS (Home Subscriber Server) is the concatenation of the HLR (Home Location Register)
and the AuC (Authentication Center), two functions being already present in pre-IMS 2G/GSM
and 3G/UMTS networks. The HLR part of the HSS is in charge of storing and updating when
necessary the database containing all the user subscription information, including (list is no
exhaustive):
User identification and addressing: this corresponds to the IMSI (Inter Mobile
Subscriber Identity) and MSISDN (Mobile Subscriber ISDN Number) or mobile
telephone number.
User profile information: this includes service subscription states and user-subscribed
Quality of Service information (such as maximum allowed bit rate or allowed traffic
class).
The AuC part of the HSS is in charge of generating security information from user identity
keys. This security information is provided to the HLR and further communicated to other
entities in the network .
22
The EPC has some other components that were not shown in Figure 2.4. Firstly, the cell
broadcast center (CBC) was previously used by UMTS for the rarely implemented cell
broadcast service (CBS). In LTE, the equipment is re-used for a service known as the
earthquake and tsunami warning system (ETWS) . Secondly, the equipment identity register
(EIR) was also inherited from UMTS, and lists the details of lost or stolen mobiles.
2.1.4. Roaming Architecture
Roaming allows users to move outside their network operators coverage area by using the
resources from two different networks. It relies on the existence of a roaming agreement , which
denes how the operators will share the resulting revenue. There are two possible architectures ,
which are shown in Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.5 Architecture of LTE for a roaming mobile.
If a user is roaming, then the home subscriber server is always in the home network, while the
mobile, E-UTRAN, MME and serving gateway are always in the visited network. The PDN
gateway, however, can be in two places. In the usual situation of home routed traffic, the PDN
gateway lies in the home network, through which all the users traffic is all routed. This
architecture allows the home network operator to see all the traffic and to charge the user for it
directly, but can be inefficient if the user is travelling overseas, particularly during a voice call
with another user nearby. To deal with this situation, the specications also support local
breakout, in which the PDN gateway is located in the visited network.
The HSS indicates whether or not the home network will permit local breakout, for each
combination of user and APN. The interface between the serving and PDN gateways is known
as S5/S8. This has two slightly different implementations, namely S5 if the two devices are in
23
the same network, and S8 if they are in different networks. For mobiles that are not roaming, the
serving and PDN gateways can be integrated into a single device, so that the S5/S8 interface
vanishes altogether. This can be useful because of the associated reduction in latency. [2]
2.1.5. Network Areas
The EPC is divided into three different types of geographical area, which are illustrated in
Figure 2.6.
An MME pool area is an area through which the mobile can move without a change of serving
MME. Every pool area is controlled by one or more MMEs, while every base station is
connected to all the MMEs in a pool area by means of the S1-MME interface.
Pool areas can also overlap. Typically, a network operator might congure a pool area to cover a
large region of the network such as a major city and might add MMEs to the pool as the
signaling load in that city increases.
Similarly, an S-GW service area is an area served by one or more serving gateways,through
which the mobile can move without a change of serving gateway. Every base station is
connected to all the serving gateways in a service area by means of the S1-U interface. S-GW
service areas do not necessarily correspond to MME pool areas.
Figure 2.6 Relationship between tracking areas, MME pool areas and S-GW service areas.
MME pool areas and S-GW service areas are both made from smaller, non-overlapping units
known as tracking areas (TAs).
Tracking areas (TAs) are used to track the locations of mobiles that are on standby and are
similar to the location and routing areas from UMTS and GSM. [2]
24
2.1.6. Numbering, Addressing and Identication

The components of the network are associated with several different identities.
public land mobile network identity (PLMN-ID):
As in previous systems, each network is associated with a )PLMN-ID). This comprises a three
digit mobile country code (MCC) and a two or three digit mobile network code (MNC).For
example, the mobile country code for Yemen is 967, while MTNs Yemen network uses a
mobile network code of 73.
MME Identities :
Each MME has three main identities, which are shown as the shaded parts of Figure 2.7. The 8
bit MME code (MMEC)uniquely identies the MME within all the pool areas that it belongs to.
By combining this with a 16 bit MME group identity (MMEGI), we arrive at a 24 bit MME
identier (MMEI), which uniquely identies the MME within a particular network. By bringing
in the network identity, we arrive at the globally unique MME identier (GUMMEI), which
identies an MME anywhere in the world.
Tracking Area Identities

Figure : 2.7 Identities used by the MME.
each tracking area has two main identities. The 16 bit tracking area code (TAC) identies a
tracking area within a particular network. Combining this with the network identity gives the
globally unique tracking area identity (TAI).
Cells Identities :
Cells have three types of identity. The 28 bit E-UTRAN cell identity (ECI) identies a cell
within a particular network, while the E-UTRAN cell global identier (ECGI( identies a cell
anywhere in the world. Also important for the air interface is the physical cell identity, which is
a number from 0 to 503 that distinguishes a cell from its immediate neighbors.
25
Mobile Identities :
A mobile is also associated with several different identities. The most important are the
international mobile equipment identity (IMEI), which is a unique identity for the mobile
equipment, and the international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI), which is a unique identity
for the UICC and the USIM.
The IMSI is one of the quantities that an intruder needs to clone a mobile, so we avoid
transmitting it across the air interface wherever possible. Instead, a serving MME identies each
mobile using temporary identities, which it updates at regular intervals.Three types of
temporary identity are important, and are shown as the shaded parts of Figure 2.8. The 32 bit
M temporary mobile subscriber identity (M-TMSI) identies a mobile to its serving MME .
Adding the MME code results in the 40 bit S temporary mobile subscriber identity (S-TMSI),
which identies the mobile within an MME pool area. Finally, adding the MME group identity
and the PLMN identity results in the most important quantity, the globally unique temporary
identity (GUTI). [2],[1]
Figure 2.8 Temporary identities used by the mobile.
2.2. LTE Protocol Architecture

2.2.1. Protocol Stack
The Long Term Evolution protocol architecture embraces the first three levels of the ISO/OSI
stack. In fact, as we can see from figure 2.9, two sub-layers of the LTE protocol stack operate at
level 3: NAS and RRC. Anyway, they are concerned just with the control plane, so no user
traffic passes through them.
26
The sub-layers concerned with the user plane are at level 2: going down, we have PDCP, RLC
and MAC. In next sections, we will analyze all these sub-layers, focusing on their tasks and on
what happens to a packet passing through them. [3]
Figure 2.9 LTE Protocol Stack
2.2.1.1. NAS Layer
The Non Access Stratum Protocol runs between the Mobility Management Entity (MME) and
the User Equipment (UE). It is used for control-purposes such as network attach, authentication,
setting up of bearers, and mobility management. All NAS messages are ciphered and integrity
protected by the MME and UE.
2.2.1.2. RRC Layer
The Radio Resource Control acts between the eNB node and the UE. As like as the NAS layer,
RRC also is concerned with the control plane. Functions handled by the RRC include the
following:
Processing of broadcast system information, which provides information that allows a
device to decide if it wants to connect to the network or not.
Paging, which indicates to a device in idle mode that it might have an incoming call.
Integrity protection and ciphering of RRC messages (RRC uses different keys than the
user plane).
Radio Bearer setting up and maintenance (logical channels at the top of the PDCP layer).
27
Mobility functions (handover decisions during active calls, based on neighbor cell
measurements sent by the UE, and cell reselection when idle).
UE measurement reporting and control of signal quality, both for the current base station
and other base stations that the UE can hear.
In fact, there exist two RRC states: idle (the radio is not active, but an ID is assigned and
tracked by the network) and connected (active radio operations).
2.2.1.3. PDCP Layer
The Packet Data Convergence Protocol layer acts both in control and user plane and it is
responsible of several tasks. In uplink, when PDCP receives an IP packet from the upper layer,
it applies to it a sequence number. The second task is the compression of the headers of user
plane IP packets, using Robust Header Compression (ROHC), in order to enable efficient use of
air interface bandwidth. ROHC can be performed in three different modes:
Unidirectional Mode (U-Mode) Packets are only sent in one direction (from compressor
to decompressor), making ROHC usable over link where a return path is unavailable.
Bidirectional Optimistic Mode (O-Mode) Similar to the U-Mode, except that a feedback
channel is used to send error recovery requests and updates from decompressor to
compressor. Anyway, this mode contemplates a sparse usage of the feedback channel and
aims to the maximization of the compression efficiency.
Bidirectional Reliable Mode (R-Mode) Involves a more intensive usage of the feedback
channel and a stricter logic at both the compressor and the decompressor, in order to
prevent loss of context synchronization. Then, PDCP also performs an integrity protection
of control plane data and ciphering of both user plane and control plane data. [3]
2.2.1.4. RLC Layer
The Radio Link Control layer is used to format and transport traffic between the UE and the
eNB. RLC performs segmentation and reassembly and provides three different reliability
modes, which are used by different radio bearers for different purposes:
Transparent Mode (TM) It is used only for control plane signaling for a few RLC
messages during the initial connection and, because of this reason, it does not perform
segmentation of the RLC SDUs. Moreover, it does not guarantee delivery and does not add
a RLC header: it simply passes the messages through. This mode is used especially when
the PDU sizes are known a priori, such as for broadcasting system information.
Unacknowledged Mode (UM) Differently from TM, this mode does provide
segmentation (in uplink) and reassembly (in downlink) of RLC SDUs. The operations
performed, in uplink, in this mode can be so resumed:
1. Receive the upper layer SDU from PDCP or RRC.
2. Add the SDU to the transmission buffer.
3. Segment the SDU into RLC PDUs.
28
4. Add the RLC header to the PDUs.

5. Pass the PDUs to MAC for transmission over the air.
In downlink, the operations are symmetrical. The UM mode is suitable for transport of Real
Time services (like streaming) because they are delay sensitive and cannot wait for
retransmissions.
Acknowledged Mode (AM) Differently from UM, this mode does guarantee a reliable in
sequence delivery service. The operations performed in this mode are exactly the same of
the ones of UM, but here, after the segmentation of the SDU, a copy of the transmission
buffer is made. When a packet is successfully delivered, the sender node receives a positive
ACK from the remote end: so the RLC layer at the sender node accesses the retransmission
queue and remove the acknowledged buffer; after this, it updates the received sequence
numbers to advance the sliding window. On the contrary, when the delivery of a packet
fails, the sender node receives a negative ACK from the remote end: in this case, the RLC
layer at the sender node accesses the transmission queue, extracts the undelivered buffer
and retransmits it.
2.2.1.5. MAC Layer
The Media Access Control layer is responsible for managing the hybrid ARQ function (HARQ),
which is a transport-block level automatic retry. It also performs the transport as a logical
mappinga function that breaks down different logical channels out of the transport block for
the higher layers.
MAC layer receives data as MAC SDUs from RLC layer. The MAC SDUs are combined along
with the attachment of MAC header and MAC control elements to form MAC PDUs. The MAC
header is further divided into sub-headers where every sub-header contains the Logical Control
Identification (LCID) and length field. The LCID indicates which type of control elements are
used in the MAC payload field or indicates the type of channel. The length field indicates the
length of MAC SDUs or MAC control elements.
Figure 2.10 Mac Downlink Channel Mapping Figure 2.11 Mac Uplink Channel Mapping
29
As said above, a very important task performed by MAC is the mapping between channels. In
fact, MAC interfaces itself with RLC through different logical channels: they represent data
transfer services offered by the MAC and are defined by what type of information they carry;
types of logical channels include control channels (for control plane data) and traffic channels
(for user plane data). On the other hand, the link between MAC and PHY is represented by
different transport channels: they represent data transfer services offered by the PHY and are
defined by how the information is carried, different physical layer modulations and the way they
are encoded. So, for example, in downlink its critical to send a packet arriving from a certain
transport channel to the appropriate logical channel.
As we can see from the figures above, the logical channels standing between MAC and RLC
are:
Paging Control Channel (PCCH) A downlink channel that transfers paging information. It
is used when the network does not know the location cell of the UE.
Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) A downlink channel for broadcasting system control
information.
Common Control Channel (CCCH) Uplink channel for transmitting control information
between UEs and network. It is used by the UEs having no RRC connection with the
network.
Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) A point-to-point bi-directional channel that transmits
dedicated control information between a UE and the network. It is used by UEs that have an
RRC connection.
Dedicated Traffic Channel (DTCH) A point-to-point channel, dedicated to one UE, for
the transfer of user information. It can exist in both uplink and downlink.
Multicast Control Channel (MCCH) A point-to-multipoint downlink channel used for
transmitting MBMS (Multimedia Broadcast and Multicast Service) control information from
the network to the UE. It is used only by UEs that receive MBMS.
Multicast Traffic Channel (MTCH) A point-to-multipoint downlink channel for
transmitting traffic data from the network to the UE. It is used only by UEs that receive
MBMS.
On the other hand, the transport channels standing between MAC and PHY are:
Paging Channel (PCH) A downlink channel that supports discontinuous reception to
enable UE power saving. It broadcasts in the entire coverage area of the cell.
Broadcast Channel (BCH) A downlink channel with fixed, pre-defined transport format.
It broadcasts in the entire coverage area of the cell.
Multicast Channel (MCH) A downlink channel that supports MBMS transmission on
multiple cells and semi-static resource allocation (e.g. with a time frame of a long cyclic
prefix). It broadcasts in the entire coverage area of the cell.
30
Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH) A downlink channel that supports Hybrid ARQ and
dynamic link adaptation by varying the modulation, coding and transmit power. It also
supports both dynamic and semi-static resource allocation, UE discontinuous reception and
MBMS transmission.
Random Access Channel (RACH) An uplink channel which carries minimal information.
Transmissions on this channel may be lost due to collisions.
Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH) An uplink channel that supports dynamic link
adaptation by varying the transmit power, modulation and coding. It also supports Hybrid
ARQ and dynamic and semi-static resource allocation.
The second critical task performed by MAC layer in LTE is the managing of Hybrid ARQ
(HARQ) function and so the retransmission handling, together with PHY layer. This will be
explained in the next section. [3]
2.2.2. Retransmission Handling
In any communication system, there are occasional data transmission errors, for example, due to
noise, interference, and/or fading. Link-layer, network-layer (IP), and transport-layer protocols
are not prepared to cope with bit errors in headers, and the majority of the protocols are not
capable of handling errors in the payload either. Therefore, a fundamental design choice for
LTE has been not to propagate any bit errors to higher layers but rather to drop or retransmit the
entire data unit containing bit errors. This goal is achieved by a two layer ARQ design: ARQ at
RLC layer and HARQ at MAC/PHY layers.
The ARQ at RLC layer is performed only in AM mode and it has already been discussed in the
RLC section. The Hybrid Automatic Repeat-reQuest (HARQ) process, done in combination
between the MAC and the PHY layers, retransmits transport blocks (TBs) for error recovery.
The PHY performs the retention and re-combination (incremental redundancy) and the MAC
performs the management and signaling.
The functionality and performance is comparable to that of a window-based selective repeat
protocol. In particular, it allows continuous transmission, which cannot be achieved with a
single stop-and-wait scheme. Instead of a status message containing a sequence number, a
single-bit HARQ feedback acknowledgment/negative acknowledgment (ACK/NACK), with a
fixed-timing relation to the corresponding transmission attempt, provides information about the
successful reception of the HARQ process. [3]
This approach gains in terms of delay, simplicity, and control overhead compared to a window-
based selective repeat protocol. The two-layer ARQ design achieves low latency and low
overhead without sacrificing reliability. Most errors are captured and corrected by the
lightweight HARQ protocol. Only residual HARQ errors are detected and resolved by the more
expensive (in terms of latency and 0overhead) ARQ retransmissions.
31
2.2.3. Scheduling
In order to allow the UE to request uplink-transmission resources from the eNB, LTE provides a
Scheduling Request (SR) mechanism. The SR conveys a single bit of information, indicating
that the UE has new data to transmit. Because the SR procedure conveys little detail about the
UE resource requirement, a Buffer Status Report (BSR) with more detailed information about
the amount of data waiting in the UE is attached to the first uplink transmission following the
SR procedure. In fact, the requirement to transmit a BSR triggers the SR.
From a protocol point of view, as we can see from figure 2.12, in a LTE eNB the scheduler
embraces both the physical layer and the link layer. More precisely, at level 2 the scheduler is
concerned with MAC and RLC sub-layers.
As like as all schedulers, also for the LTE eNB scheduler a particular challenge is to provide
the desired quality of service (QoS) on a shared channel. However, it is up to the eNB
implementation and consequently, the responsibility of the scheduler to assign radio resources in
a way that the terminals and radio bearers obtain the QoS characteristics assigned by the EPC.
Depending on the implementation, the scheduler can base its scheduling decision on the QoS
class and the queuing delay of the available data, on the instantaneous channel conditions, or on
fairness indicators.
The channel conditions in a wideband
system vary not only over time but
also can differ in the frequency
domain. If the UE provides sufficiently
detailed channel-quality information to
the eNB, the scheduler can perform
channel-dependent scheduling in the
time and frequency domain and
thereby improve the cell and system
capacity.
Also, the physical downlink-control
channel (PDCCH) that carries the
scheduling decisions to the affected
UE and the PUCCH that carries
HARQ feedback and channel quality Figure 2.12 - Scheduler In LTE Stack
information to the eNB have a finite
capacity and thus, may constrain the scheduler in its freedom of how many users to address in a
sub-frame. Furthermore, the scheduler must ensure that HARQ retransmissions are performed
on a timely basis. In the uplink direction, the HARQ retransmission must occur exactly one
32
round-trip time after the previous transmission attempt, whereas the scheduler can postpone
downlink retransmissions in favor of higher priority transmissions.
For the downlink, the scheduler selects not only the appropriate user but also decides which
radio bearer to serve. In contrast, uplink scheduling grants are dedicated to particular UE but do
not comprise instructions about which radio bearers to serve. This additional information would
increase the size of the uplink grants and thereby limit the capacity of the PDCCH and
consequently, the number of UE units that could be addressed in a sub-frame. Rather, the UE
makes this decision autonomously in the logical channel prioritization function, which is
preconfigured by the eNB. Moreover, the UE sends BSRs for active radio bearers. Based on
these reports, the eNB can ensure that users with high priority data are prioritized and obtain the
assigned QoS characteristics. Not only user data but also control information, namely, MAC
control elements such as BSR, and discontinuous reception (DRX) and timing advance
messages can be chosen for transmission. [3],[4]
2.2.4. Overview of LTE physical layer
2.2.4.1. Multiple access technology in the downlink: OFDM and OFDMA
OFDMA is derived from OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing), a digital multi-
carrier modulation scheme which uses the principle that information can be transmitted on a
radio channel through variations of a carrier signals frequency, phase or magnitude. Instead of
transmitting all the information on to a single RF carrier signal, the high data rate input stream is
multiplexed into parallel combination of low data rate streams. The parallel streams are
modulated onto separate subcarriers in the frequency domain through the use of inverse fast
Fourier transform (IFFT) and transmitted through the channel. At the receiver, the signal is
demodulated using an FFT process to convert a time varying complex waveform back to its
spectral components, recovering the initial subcarriers with their modulation and thus the
original digital bit stream. Figure 2.13 below shows frequency and time domain representation
of an OFDM signal.
Figure 2.13 OFDM Signal Represented In Frequency And Time
33
In OFDM, the subcarriers are

spaced closely together without
any guard bands in frequency
domain and use the FFT to
convert the digital signals from
time domain into a spectrum of
frequency domain signals that
are mathematically orthogonal
to each other. The frequency Figure 2.14 OFDM and OFDMA Subcarrier Allocation
domain null of one subcarrier
corresponds to the maximum value of the adjacent subcarrier which allows subcarriers to
overlap without interference and thus conserve bandwidth. By using TDMA with basic OFDM,
OFDMA is achieved thus allowing dynamic allocation of subcarriers among different users on
the channel. OFDMA provides a robust system with increased capacity and resistance to
multipath fading.
In LTE and WiMAX, each subcarrier is modulated with a conventional modulation scheme
depending on the channel condition. LTE uses QPSK, 16QAM, or 64QAM while WiMAX uses
BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM, or 64QAM for modulation at a low symbol rate. The FFT sizes of 128,
256, 512, 1024 and 2048, corresponding to WiMAX and LTE channel bandwidth of 1.25, 2.5, 5,
10 and 20MHz are used. In time domain, guard intervals known as cyclic prefix (CP) are
inserted between each of the symbols to prevent inter-symbol interference at the receiver caused
by multi-path delay spread in the radio channel. The normal CP for LTE is 4.69 s while for
WiMAX it is 1/8 the length of OFDMA symbol time, typically 11.43 s for OFDMA symbol
duration of 102.86 s. The CP is a copy of the end of the symbol inserted at the beginning.
2.2.4.1.1. SC-FDMA signal generation
As noted, SC-FDMA signal generation begins with a special pre-coding process. Figure 2.14
shows the first steps, which create a time-domain waveform of the QPSK data sub-symbols.
Figure 2.14 - Creating The Time-Domain Waveform Of An SC-FDMA Symbol
34
Using the four color-coded QPSK data symbols, the process creates one SC-FDMA symbol in
the time domain by computing the trajectory traced by moving from one QPSK data symbol to
the next. This is done at M times the rate of the SC-FDMA symbol such that one SC-FDMA
symbol contains M consecutive QPSK data symbols.
Once an IQ representation of one SC-FDMA symbol has been created in the time domain, the
next step is to represent that symbol in the frequency domain using a DFT. This is shown in
figure 2.15. The DFT sampling frequency is chosen such that the time-domain waveform of one
Figure 2.15 - Baseband Frequency And Shifted DFT Representations Of An SC-FDMA

Symbol
SC-FDMA symbol is fully represented by M DFT bins spaced 15 kHz apart, with each bin
representing one subcarrier in which amplitude and phase are held constant for 66.7 s.
A one-to-one correlation always exists between the number of data symbols to be transmitted
during one SC-FDMA symbol period and the number of DFT bins created. This in turn becomes
the number of occupied subcarriers. When an increasing number of data symbols are transmitted
during one SC-FDMA period, the time-domain waveform changes faster, generating a higher
bandwidth and hence requiring more DFT bins to fully represent the signal in the frequency
domain. Note in figure 2.15 that there is no longer a direct relationship between the amplitude
and phase of the individual DFT bins and the original QPSK data symbols. This differs from the
OFDMA example in which data symbols directly modulate the subcarriers.
The next step of the signal generation process is to shift the baseband DFT representation of the
time-domain SC-FDMA symbol to the desired part of the overall channel bandwidth. Because
the signal is now represented as a DFT, frequency-shifting is a simple process achieved by
copying the M bins into a larger DFT space of N bins (typically N=256). This larger space
equals the size of the system channel bandwidth, of which there are six to choose from in LTE
spanning 1.4 to 20 MHz. The signal can be positioned anywhere in the channel bandwidth, thus
executing the frequency-division multiple access (FDMA) essential for efficiently sharing the
uplink between multiple users. To complete SC-FDMA signal generation, the process follows
the same steps as for OFDMA. Performing an IDFT converts the frequency-shifted signal to the
time domain and inserting the CP provides the fundamental robustness of OFDMA against
multipath.
At this point, it is reasonable to ask how SC-FDMA can be resistant to multipath when the data
symbols are still short. In OFDMA, the modulating data symbols are constant over the 66.7 s
35
OFDMA symbol period, but an SC-FDMA symbol is not constant over time since it contains M
sub-symbols of much shorter duration. The multipath resistance of the OFDMA demodulation
process seems to rely on the long data symbols that map directly onto the subcarriers.
Fortunately, it is the constant nature of each subcarrier not the data symbols that provides
the resistance to delay spread.
Table2.3 summarizes the differences between the OFDMA and SC-FDMA modulation
schemes. When OFDMA is analyzed one subcarrier at a time, it resembles the original data
symbols.[3]
Modulation Format OFDMA SC-FDMA

Signal
Signal bandwidth
Analysis Bandwidth 15khz bandwidth 15khz
(M*15khz)
(M*15khz)
Lower than data
Peak -To Average Same as data High PAPR Same as
symbol
Power Ratio symbol (Gaussian) data symbol
(not meaningful)
Same as data not Same as data
Observable IQ not meaningful
symbol at meaningful symbol at
Constellation (Gaussian)
1/66.7 us rate (Gaussian) M/66.7 us rate
TABLE 2.3: ANALYSIS OF OFDMA AND SC-FDMA AT DIFFERENT BANDWIDTHS

2.2.4.2. Spectrum flexibility: FDD and TDD
Depending on regulatory aspects in different geographical areas, radio spectrum for mobile
communication is available in different frequency bands in different bandwidths, and comes as
both paired and unpaired spectrum. Spectrum flexibility, which enables operation under all these
conditions, is one of the key features of LTE radio access. Besides being able to operate in
different frequency bands, LTE can be deployed with different bandwidths ranging from
approximately 1.25MHz up to approximately 20MHz. Furthermore, LTE can operate in both
paired and unpaired spectrum by providing a single radio-access technology that supports
frequency-division duplex (FDD) as well as time division duplex (TDD) operation.
Where terminals are concerned, FDD can be operated in full- and half-duplex modes. Half
duplex FDD, in which the terminal separates transmission and reception in frequency and time
(figure 2.16), is useful because it allows terminals to operate with relaxed duplex-filter
requirements. This, in turn, reduces the cost of terminals and makes it possible to exploit FDD
frequency bands that could not otherwise be used (too narrow duplex distance).Together, these
solutions make LTE fit nearly arbitrary spectrum allocations.[3]
One challenge when designing a spectrum flexible radio-access technology is to preserve
commonality between the spectrum and duplexing modes. The frame structure that LTE uses is
the same for different bandwidths and similar for FDD and TDD.
36
figure 2.16 - LTE spectrum (bandwidth and duplex) flexibility.half-duplex FDD is seen
from Physical
2.2.4.3. a terminalchannels
perspective
and modulation
The LTE air interface consists of physical signals and physical channels, which are defined in
36.211 . Physical signals are generated in Layer 1 and used for system synchronization, cell
identification, and radio channel estimation. Physical channels carry data from higher layers
including control, scheduling, and user payload.
Physical signals are summarized in Table 2.4. In the downlink, primary and secondary
synchronization signals encode the cell identification, allowing the UE to identify and
synchronize with the network. In both the downlink and the uplink there are reference signals
(RS), known as pilot signals in other standards, which are used by the receiver to estimate the
Table 2.4 - LTE Physical Signals
37
amplitude and phase flatness of the received signal. The flatness is a combination of errors in
the transmitted signal and additional imperfections that are due to the radio channel. Without the
use of the RS, phase and amplitude shifts in the received signal would make demodulation
unreliable, particularly at high modulation depths such as 16QAM or 64QAM. In these high
modulation cases, even a small error in the received signal amplitude or phase can cause
demodulation errors.
Alongside the physical signals are physical channels, which carry the user and system
information. These are summarized in Table 2.5. Notice the absence of dedicated channels,
which is a characteristic of packet-only systems.
Table 2.5 - LTE Physical Channels

2.2.4.4. MIMO Transmission
MIMO, Multiple Input Multiple Output is another of the LTE major technology innovations
used to improve the performance of the system. This technology provides LTE with the ability
to further improve its data throughput and spectral efficiency above that obtained by the use of
OFDM.
Although MIMO adds complexity to the system in terms of processing and the number of
antennas required, it enables far high data
rates to be achieved along with much
improved spectral efficiency. As a result,
MIMO has been included as an integral part
of LTE.[5]
Figure 2.17 General Outline of MIMO system
38
LTE MIMO basics

The basic concept of MIMO utilizes the multipath signal propagation that is present in all
terrestrial communications. Rather than providing interference, these paths can be used to
advantage.
The transmitter and receiver have more than one antenna and using the processing power
available at either end of the link, they are able to utilize the different paths that exist between
the two entities to provide improvements in data rate of signal to noise.
MIMO is being used increasingly in many high data rate technologies including Wi-Fi and other
wireless and cellular technologies to provide improved levels of efficiency. Essentially MIMO
employs multiple antennas on the receiver and transmitter to utilize the multi-path effects that
always exist to transmit additional data, rather than causing interference.
LTE MIMO
The use of MIMO technology has been introduced successively over the different releases of the
LTE standards.
MIMO has been a cornerstone of the LTE standard, but initially, in releases 8 and 9 multiple
transmit antennas on the UE was not supported because in the interested of power reduction,
only a single RF power amplifier was assumed to be available. It was in Rel. 10 that a number
of new schemes were introduced. Closed loop spatial multiplexing for SU-MIMO as well as
multiple antennas on the UE. [5]
LTE MIMO modes
There are several ways in which MIMO is implemented in LTE. These vary according to the
equipment used, the channel function and the equipment involved in the link.
Single antenna: This is the form of wireless transmission used on most basic wireless
links. A single data stream is transmitted on one antenna and received by one or more
antennas. It may also be referred to as SISO: Single In Single Out or SIMO Single In
Multiple Out dependent upon the antennas used. SIMO is also called receive diversity.
Transmit diversity: This form of LTE MIMO scheme utilizes the transmission of the same
information stream from multiple antennas. LTE supports two or four for this technique..
The information is coded differently using Space Frequency Block Codes. This mode
provides an improvement in signal quality at reception and does not improve the data rate.
Accordingly this form of LTE MIMO is used on the Common Channels as well as the
Control and Broadcast channels.
Open loop spatial multiplexing: This form of MIMO used within the LTE system involves
sending two information streams which can be transmitted over two or more antennas.
However there is no feedback from the UE although a TRI, Transmit Rank Indicator
39
transmitted from the UE can be used by the base station to determine the number of spatial
layers.
Close loop spatial multiplexing : This form of LTE MIMO is similar to the open loop
version, but as the name indicates it has feedback incorporated to close the loop. A PMI,
Pre-coding Matrix Indicator is fed back from the UE to the base station. This enables the
transmitter to pre-code the data to optimize the transmission and enable the receiver to more
easily separate the different data streams.
Closed loop with pre-coding: This is another form of LTE MIMO, but where a single code
word is transmitted over a single spatial layer. This can be sued as a fall-back mode for
closed loop spatial multiplexing and it may also be associated with beamforming as well.
Multi-User MIMO, MU-MIMO: This form of LTE MIMO enables the system to target
different spatial streams to different users.
Beam-forming: This is the most complex of the MIMO modes and it is likely to use linear
arrays that will enable the antenna to focus on a particular area. This will reduce
interference, and increase capacity as the particular UE will have a beam formed in their
particular direction. In this a single code word is transmitted over a single spatial layer. A
dedicated reference signal is used for an additional port. The terminal estimates the channel
quality from the common reference signals on the antennas.[5]
2.2.4.5. Inter-Cell Interference Coordination (ICIC)
In 2G/3G networks, it was base station controllers, i.e., upper nodes of base stations that control
inter-cell interference. In 4G networks like LTE/LTE-A, however, inter-cell interference can be
controlled through coordination among base stations.
This was made possible because now LTE networks have X2 interfaces defined between base
stations. By exchanging interference information over these X2 interfaces, base stations now can
schedule radio resources in a way that avoids inter-cell interference.
There are several Interference Coordination technologies in LTE and LTE-A:
LTE: Inter-Cell Interference Coordination (ICIC)
LTE-A: Enhanced ICIC (eICIC) which is an adjusted version of ICIC for HetNet, and
Coordinated Multi-Point (CoMP) which uses Channel Status Information (CSI) reported
by UE .
The biggest cause of lower mobile network capacity is interference. Interference is caused when
users in different neighbor cells attempt to use the same resource at the same time. Suppose
there are two cells that use the same frequency channel (F, e.g., 10MHz at 1.8GHz band), and
each cell has a UE that uses the same frequency resource (fi, fiF).
As seen in the figure below, if the two UEs are located in cell centers like A2 and B2, no
interference is caused because they use low power to communicate. However, if they are at cell
40
edges like A1 and B1, their signals cause interference for each other because the two use high
power to communicate.
Figure 2.18 inter cell interference in the cell edge

Interference is caused because cells only know what radio resources their own UEs are using,
and not what other UEs in the neighbor cells are using. For example, in the figure above, Cell A
knows what resources A1 is using, but not about what B1 is using, and vice versa. And the cells
independently schedule radio resources for their own UEs. So, to the UEs at cell edges (A1 in
Cell A and B1 in Cell B), same frequency resource can be allocated.
2.2.4.5.1. ICIC Concept

ICIC is defined in 3GPP release 8 as an interference coordination technology used in LTE
systems. It reduces inter-cell interference by having UEs, at the same cell edge but belonging to
different cells, use different frequency resources. Base stations that support this feature can
generate interference information for each frequency resource (RB), and exchange the
information with neighbor base stations through X2 messages. Then, from the messages, the
neighbor stations can learn the interference status of their neighbors, and allocate radio
resources (frequency, Tx power, etc.) to their UEs in a way that would avoid inter-cell
interference.
For instance, let's say a UE belonging to Cell A is using high Tx power on frequency resource
(f3) at the cell edge. With ICIC, Cell B then allocates a different frequency resource (f2) to its UE
41
at the cell edge, and f3 to its other UE at the cell center, having the one at the center use low Tx
power in communicating.
Figure 2.19 using ICIC to avoid interference in the cell edge
2.2.4.5.2. Interference Information used in ICIC

eNBs exchange interference information of their cells with the neighbor eNBs by sending an X2
message (Load Information message3) after each ICIC period. At this time, the message
includes information like Relative Narrowband Tx Power (RNTP), High-Interference Indicator
(HII), and Overload Indicator (OI).
RNTP: Indicates frequency resources (RBs) that will be using high Tx power for DL during the
next ICIC period. Power strength of each RB is measured over the current ICIC period and
shown in bits (0: low, 1: high). For example, the strength can be averaged over the current ICIC
period.
HII: Indicates frequency resources (RBs) that will be using high Tx power for UL during the
next ICIC period, just like RNTP, but for UL this time. RBs with high allocated power are used
by UEs at cell edges, and thus are very likely to cause interference for neighbor cells. The power
strength of each RB is measured and shown in bits (0: low, 1: high).
OI: Indicates frequency resources (RBs) that have experienced most interference during the last
ICIC period. Degree of interference caused to each RB is measured and marked as Low,
Medium or High.
RNTP and HII are information about interference to be caused by a cell to its neighbor cell.
However, OI is information about interference that has already been caused by the neighbor cell
42
to the cell during the last ICIC period. HII information is mandatory and serves as the most
important information.[7]
2.2.4.5.3. ICIC Frequency Reuse-based Scheme
This section surveys the various ICIC schemes based on frequency reuse. In particular, the
section reviews conventional frequency planning schemes, fractional frequency reuse (FFR),
partial frequency reuse (PFR), and software frequency reuse (SFR)
Conventional Frequency Planning
The simplest scheme to allocate frequencies in a cellular network is to use a FRF of 1, i.e.
available frequency spectrum is reused in each sector without imposing any restriction to
frequency resource usage or power allocation (Figure 2.20-a), leading thus to high peak data
rate. However, this case presents the worst inter-cell interference scenario, where high inter-cell
interference is observed especially at cell edges.
On the other hand, the whole frequency band can be divided into three equal, orthogonal sub-
bands, allocated to sectors so that adjacent sectors always use different frequencies Figure 2.20-
b).
This setup is called reuse of 3 scheme. This clustering obviously leads to an improved (low)
inter-cell interference, with a price to a large capacity loss due to the restrictions imposed on the
resources, where only one third of the resources are used in each sector.
In conventional frequency planning two extremes are presented. While reuse 1 does not employ
any interference coordination, reuse 3 can be regarded as an extreme case of partition based
static interference coordination.
Figure 2.20 conventional frequency planning (a) reuse of 1 (b) reuse of 3

(a) (b)
43
Fractional Frequency Reuse (FFR)

The basic idea on which the FFR schemes rely is to divide the whole available resources into
two subsets or groups: major group, and minor group. The former is then used in order to serve
the cell-edge users means the cell-edge users are served with a fraction of the available
resources, while the latter is used to cover the cell-center users. Different combination of
frequencies, and powers used form different schemes. Different FFR schemes aim is to achieve
a FRF between 1 and 3.
Generally speaking, the FFR scheme has two main classes:
Partial Frequency Reuse (PFR): in this scheme a common frequency band is used in
all sectors (i.e., with a frequency reuse of 1) with equal power, while the power
allocation of the remaining sub-bands is coordinated among the neighbouring cells in
order to create one sub-band with a low inter-cell interference level in each sector.
Soft Frequency Reuse (SFR): in this scheme, each sector transmits in the whole
frequency band. However, the sector uses full power in some frequency sub-bands
while reduced power is used in the rest of the frequency band.
1. Partial Frequency Reuse (PFR)
One way to improve the cell-edge SINR, while maintaining a good spectral efficiency, is to use
an FRF greater than unity for the cell-edge regions and an FRF of unity for the cell-center
regions. In a homogeneous network, the cell center regions have equal areas. The idea of the
partial frequency reuse (PFR) is to restrict portion of the resources so that some frequencies are
not used in some sectors at all. The effective reuse factor of this scheme depends on the fraction
of unused frequency.
Figure 2.21: Partial Frequency Reuse with Full Isolation (PFR-FI)
44
2. Soft Frequency Reuse (SFR)

The PFR scheme may result in under-utilization of available frequency resources due to its strict
no-sharing policy. Soft Frequency Reuse (SFR) was proposed in [6] to present a balance
between the FRF and the PFR schemes.
It avoids the high ICI levels associated with the unity FRF configurations, while providing
more flexibility to the PFR scheme. The term soft reuse is due to the fact that effective reuse of
the scheme can be adjusted by the division of powers between the frequencies used in the centre
and edge bands.
SFR makes use of the concept of zone-based reuse factors in the cell-center and cell-edge areas.
Unlike the PFR; however, frequency and power used in these zones are restricted.
In particular, a frequency reuse factor of 1 is employed in the central region of a cell, while
frequency reuse factor greater than 1 at the outer region of the cell close to the cell edge. For
example, consider the 3-sector cell sites shown in Figure 2.22, the cell-edge band (major band)
uses 1/3 of the available spectrum which is orthogonal to those in the neighboring cells and
forms a structure of cluster size of 3.
The cell-center band (minor band) in any sector is composed of the frequencies used in the
outer zone of neighboring sectors.
The above discussion can lead to the general conclusion that the SFR scheme can improve the
SINR of the cell-edge UEs using a greater than unity FRF, while degrading the SINR of the cell-
Centre UEs.
This degradation is due to the overlap in frequency resources between the cell-edge band of the
neighboring cells, and the cell- Centre band of the serving cell. However, as mentioned earlier,
the cell-edge performance improvement is almost linear while the degradation to the cell-centre
UEs is logarithmic.
In SFR, the power ratio between the cell-edge band and the cell-centre band can be an operator-
defined parameter, thereby increasing the flexibility in system tuning.
45
Figure 2.22: Soft Frequency Reuse: (a) Reuse of 1 in the cell-centre, (b)
Partial frequency reuse in the cell-centre
3. Soft Fractional Frequency Reuse (SFFR)

The PFR and SFR schemes can improve the throughput for the cell-edge users by reducing the
ICI experienced by users in that region. However, both schemes may lead to a lower cell
throughput as compared to the conventional reuse of one scheme. The PFR scheme does not
utilize the whole available frequency bandwidth, and thus, it has a lower cell throughput as
compared to reuse of one scheme. Moreover, although SFR can make use of the overall
frequency band available in the cell, and thus, increase the overall system capacity compared to
that of the PFR; however, the overall system capacity of SFR maybe lower than that of reuse
one scheme.
Soft FFR (SFFR) scheme has been proposed as a way to improve the overall cell throughput of
FFR. Unlike the PFR that does not make use of the sub-bands allocated to the outer region in the
adjacent cells, the Soft FFR scheme utilizes these sub-bands for the inner UEs, but with low
power levels (See Figure 2.23). As a result, the SFFR is similar to the SFR in that both adopt a
non-uniform power profile (it uses high power levels for some sub-bands and low power levels
for others). Unlike the SFR; however, the Soft FFR uses the common sub-band which can
enhance the throughput of the inner users.[6]
46
Figure 2.23: Soft Fractional Frequency Reuse (SFFR)
2.3. LTE vs. WIMAX

2.3.1 Comparison between WiMAX and LTE protocol architectures
In this section, we will resume the differences between the WiMAX and LTE protocol
architectures. The first peculiarity that we can find in the LTE protocol stack is that it embraces
the first three layers of the ISO/OSI stack, while the WiMAX architecture is concerned just with
the physical and link layers. Anyway, the two sub-layers of the LTE stack which stand at level 3
(NAS and RRC) are used only for control-plane tasks: the user-plane traffic, instead, goes
through the level-2 sub-layers, exactly like in WiMAX. A strong difference between the two
standards is given by the protocol through which they provide the interface between the link and
network layers. In fact, we know that WiMAX uses the LLC protocol, which is common to all
802.x standards and provides the multiplexing of the upper-layer protocols, making WiMAX
able to interface with an high variety of level-3 protocols.
On the contrary, the network architecture of LTE is IP-based: so, when a packet goes down from
the network layer, it passes through the PDCP protocol, which has tasks like compression,
ordering and ciphering of the packets. The analysis of MAC layers of WiMAX and LTE brings
us another difference. First of all, we have seen that in WiMAX it was chosen to split the MAC
tasks in three sub-layers: the CS sub-layer provides the classification and mapping of the
packets arriving from the variety of upper-layer protocols; CPS performs all the typical tasks of
47
the MAC layer; SS provides encryption and privacy. On the contrary, in LTE some of the tasks
exposed above are delegated to the other two layers standing upon MAC (for example,
fragmentation is a RLCs duty). Nevertheless, LTE MAC layer has to deal with a problem not
present in WiMAX: the mapping of the transport and logical channels standing between RLC,
MAC and PHY layers. Finally, another huge difference between WiMAX and LTE is given by
the retransmission handling. In WiMAX MAC layer, ARQ is optional and used when needed by
the receiver to provide acknowledgements on successfully received data or notifying missing
blocks of data. When implemented, the ARQ may be enabled on a per-connection basis. The
per-connection ARQ is specified and negotiated during connection creation. A connection
cannot have a mixture of ARQ and non-ARQ traffic. On the other hand, LTE contemplates a
double-level retransmission handling: the Hybrid ARQ and the outer ARQ. The HARQ
mechanism is performed locally in a host, between MAC and PHY layers: the former performs
the management and signaling, while the latter performs the retention and re-combination
(incremental redundancy). The outer ARQ is implemented by the RLC layer (when used in AM
mode) and is required to handle residual errors that are not corrected by HARQ. [3]
2.3.2 Comparison of WiMAX and LTE physical layer
2.3.2.1 Radio access modes and spectrum considerations
In FDD, Base Station and mobile user transmit and receive simultaneously due to allocation of
separate frequency bands. While in TDD, downlink and uplink transmit in different times due to
sharing of same frequency. The radio mode currently specified by WiMAX is TDD whereas
LTE is specified for FDD. The spectral holdings of operators will be a key decision factor for
selecting the technology (based on FDD or TDD). Equipment vendors have focused their efforts
on developing equipment in the frequency bands of the major mobile network operators who are
one of the main forces behind LTE. A common profile of the standard is necessary to drive
high volumes and low prices in addition to supporting key services such as roaming. As mobile
services became ubiquitous around the world, different spectral bands were opened globally for
these services.
The result is a relatively high number of bands where mobile wireless networks are operating in
(or planned for operation) including: 700 MHz (USA), 800 MHz (North America, and digital
divided band in some European countries), 900 and 1800 MHz (Europe, rest of world), 1700
MHz (North America AWS band), 1900 MHz (North America PCS band), and 2.1 GHz (Europe
UMTS band). These bands, all configured for paired allocation (FDD), have been the main
candidates for LTE deployments in addition to the 2.5-2.7 GHz band. In contrast to LTE,
WiMAX has been focused on deployments in higher frequencies, namely 2.3 GHz (Korea,
India), 2.5-2.7 GHz (USA), and 3.4-3.6 GHz (Europe, rest of the world). Depending on
geography, these bands feature unpaired (TDD) or paired allocations. The WiMAX Forum, the
industry coalition behind WiMAX, certified equipment for compliance with the IEEE standard
and for interoperability in these bands. Meanwhile the frequency bands for TD-LTE which is
48
being promoted as a substitute to WiMAX have focused on 2.3 GHz and 2.5 GHz, driven by
interest of China Mobile and Indian broadband deployments and by US operator Clear wire ,
respectively. This leaves WiMAX relatively little challenged in the 3.x GHz bands for the time
being. The fragmentation of spectrum presents a challenge for equipment vendors as wireless
devices (and base stations) need to support a continually higher number of frequency bands. It is
particularly in the Radio Frequency chain that includes RFICs, filters, mixers and power and
low-noise amplifiers that this challenge becomes manifest. Even as component vendors strive to
develop multi-band RFICs, supporting wideband or dual-band power amplifiers is very
challenging.[3]
2.3.2.2 Data Rates
The peak data rates of LTE and WiMAX depend upon multiple antenna configuration and
modulation scheme used. The peak data rates of LTE and WiMAX in DL and UL are illustrated
below in figure 2.18.
figure 2.24. peak data rates of LTE and WiMAX in DL and UL

2.3.2.3 Multiple Access Technology
The multiple access technologies used by WiMAX and LTE are quite similar having
modification in the uplink. The multiple access technology adopted in the downlink of LTE and
uplink/downlink of WiMAX is OFDMA, whereas uplink of LTE is based on SC-FDMA. The
benefit of SC-FDMA in the uplink is the reduction of the PAPR.
2.3.2.3.1 OFDMA
It is an extension OFDM and is used in downlink of LTE and uplink/downlink of WiMAX. In
OFDMA, subcarriers are allocated dynamically to users in different time slots. OFDMA has
various advantages as compared to OFDM where single user can transmit/receive in the entire
time frame. Due to this, OFDM suffers from PAPR. OFDMA reduces PAPR by distributing the
entire bandwidth to multiple mobile stations with low transmit power. In addition, OFDMA
accommodates multiple users with widely varying applications, QoS requirements and data
rates.
2.3.2.3.2 SC-FDMA
SC-FDMA is an extension of OFDMA and is used in the uplink of LTE. SC-FDMA
significantly reduces PAPR as compared to OFDMA by adding additional blocks of DFT and
49
IDFT at transmitter and receiver. However, due to existing similarities with OFDMA,
parameterization of LTE in the uplink and downlink can be harmonized. [3]
References :
[1] LTE signaling, troubleshooting, and optimization / Ralf Kreher, Karsten Gaenger.
[2] An introduction to LTE: LTE, LTE-advanced , SAE and 4G mobile communications /

Christopher Cox.
[3] LTE and 4G: a comparison with WiMAX / Gaetano Guida, Valerio Massa, Fabio Parente
[4] 4G LTE/LTE-Advanced for Mobile Broadband /Erik Dahlman, Stefan Parkvall, and Johan
Skld .
[5] http://www.radio-electronics.com/info/cellulartelecomms/lte-long-term-evolution/lte-
mimo.php
[6] 4G++: Advanced Performance Boosting Techniques in 4th Generation Wireless Systems
[7] http://www.netmanias.com/en/?m=view&id=blog&no=6551
50
Chapter 3:
Network Planning
Network Planning LTE Network Planning and Optimization
Radio network planning is a very vital step for a wireless communication technology. As
standardization work of LTE is approaching the end line, it's high time to go for efficient radio
network planning guideline for LTE. For the same reason, along with the fact that LTE radio
network planning work just like other cellular technologies, initial stage plans is normally guided
by various industries and vendors at their own discretion [6]. They aren't likely to disclose their
advancements and findings. That makes the job even more challenging. Whenever new cellular
technology is considered for mass deployment hundreds of its RF parameters go through tuning
process with a view to find out optimum value. But this phase is time consuming and very costly.
So, before commercial deployment if extensive simulation can be run this tuning phase can be
facilitated in numerous ways. Cost can also be greatly minimized. That is the benefit of running
simulation before mass commercial deployment. All these aim at proper radio network planning
of LTE. So, looking for optimizing the vital parameters in the least possible time is a very
challenging issue which will obviously help network operators in a greater extent [6].
LTE Radio access network planning refers to analytical approach which is based on algorithmic
formulation and focuses on the radio engineering aspect of the planning process, i.e., on
determining the locations, estimated capacity and size of the cell sites (coverage and capacity
planning), and assigning frequencies to them by examining the radio-wave propagation
environment and interferences among the cells[7].
3.1 Dimensioning of LTE Network:

Dimensioning is the initial phase of network planning. It provides the first estimate of the network
element count as well as the capacity of those elements. The purpose of dimensioning is to
estimate the required number of radio base stations needed to support a specified traffic load in an
area and the specific service to the cell edge users .Dimensioning is an important part of the
whole planning process, which also includes, detailed planning and optimization of the wireless
cellular network. As a whole, planning is an iterative process covering design, synthesis and
realization. The aim of this whole exercise is to provide a method to design the wireless cellular
network such that it meets the requirements set forth by the customers. This process can be
modified to fit the needs of any wireless cellular network. This is a very important process in
network deployment.
Dimensioning is based on a set of input parameters and the provided results are relevant for that
set of input parameters only. These parameters include area under consideration, expected traffic
and required QoS. Dimensioning provides the evaluation of the requirements for network
infrastructure and computation of number of sites required to serve certain area while fulfilling
the coverage capacity requirements. This is done with the help of dimensioning tool for both
access and core networks. Dimensioning uses relatively simpler models for modeling of the actual
conditions as compared to the detailed planning. Simpler models and methods reduce the time
required for dimensioning On the other hand; dimensioning tool should be accurate enough to
provide results with an acceptable level of accuracy, when loaded with expected traffic profile
53
LTE Network Planning and Optimization Network Planning
and subscriber base. Wireless cellular network dimensioning is directly related to the quality and
effectiveness of the network, and can deeply affect its development. Wireless cellular network
dimensioning follows these basic steps:
Data/Traffic Analysis.
Coverage estimation.
Capacity evaluation.
Transport dimensioning.
A proper set of inputs is vital for dimensioning to yield accurate results. Wireless cellular
dimensioning requires some fundamental data elements [10]. These parameters include operators
requirements, operators existent network sites density and distribution, the frequency band and
bandwidth available for LTE system, the geographic environment information of the city to be
covered and subscriber's population and traffic distribution forecast [8]. Propagation models
according to the area and frequency band should be selected and modified (if needed). This is
necessary for coverage estimation. System specific parameters like, transmit power of the
antennas, their gains, estimate of system losses, type of antenna system used etc, must be known
prior to the start of wireless cellular network dimensioning. Each wireless network has its own set
of parameters.
Traffic analysis gives an estimate of the traffic to be carried by the system. Different types of
traffic (voice, data) that will be carried by the network are modeled. Overheads carried by each
type of traffic are calculated and included in the model. Time and amount of traffic is also
forecasted to evaluate the performance of the network and to determine whether the network can
fulfill the requirements set forth at high load.
Coverage estimation is used to determine the required base station must be used to fulfill
coverage of area under study. Coverage estimation calculates the area where base station can be
heard by the users (receivers). It gives the maximum area that can be covered by a base station.
Coverage planning includes radio link budget and coverage analysis. Based on the calculation of
RLB, maximum allowed propagation loss is obtained. Maximum allowed propagation loss gives
the attenuation of the signal as it travels from transmitted to the receiver. Path loss is converted
into distance by using appropriate propagation models. This is the distance from the base station
where the transmitter signals can be received by the users (receiver). This distance or the radius of
the cell is used to calculate the number of sites required to cover the whole area with respect to
coverage estimation.
Capacity planning deals with the ability of the network to provide services to the users with a
desired level of quality. After the site coverage area is calculated using coverage estimation,
capacity related issues are analyzed. This involves selection of site and system configuration, e.g.
channels used, channel elements and sectors. These elements are different for each system.
Configuration is selected such that it fulfills the traffic requirements. In some wireless cellular
systems, coverage and capacity are interrelated, e.g. in WCDMA. In this case, data pertaining to
54
user distribution and forecast of subscribers growth is of utmost importance .Dimensioning team
must consider these values as they have direct impact on coverage and capacity. Capacity
evaluation gives an estimate of the number of sites required to carry the anticipated traffic over
the coverage area.
Once the number of sites according to the traffic forecast is determined, the interfaces of the
network are dimensioned. Number of interfaces can vary from a few in some systems to many in
others. The objective of this step is to perform the allocation of traffic in such a way that no bottle
neck is created in the wireless network. All the quality of service requirements are to be met and
cost has to be minimized .Good interface dimensioning is very important for smooth performance
of the network [10].
3.2 LTE Access Network Dimensioning:
The target of the LTE access network dimensioning is to estimate the required site density and
site configurations for the area of interest. Initial LTE access network planning activities include
radio link budget and coverage analysis, cell capacity estimation, estimation of the amount of
eNB. This section focuses on the issues related to LTE dimensioning. The calculation of the sites
number based on the coverage and the capacity.
LTE dimensioning process starts with the Radio Link Budget Calculations, used to determine the
maximum path loss. The result of this step depends upon the propagation models used. The
estimated cell size, obtained in this step, leads to the maximum allowed size of the cells. This
parameter is used to calculate the number of cells in the area of interest. Thus, a rough estimate of
the required number of ends is obtained. Capacity calculations follow the above process for
coverage estimation. If the coverage estimates for the given configuration, fulfills the capacity
requirements, then there is no addition to the previous plan. On the other hand, suitable number of
cell sites is added to achieve the capacity targets. If the highest expected traffic is used, then it can
lead to an unnecessarily high number of sites. Assessment of eNB capacity comes next, which
completes the dimensioning process [9].
We used Dimension Tool structure (v2.3.0) of Nokia Siemens network Excel sheet to calculate
the link budget and the traffic and the capacity we discuss it in the next chapter.
Inputs of LTE Dimensioning
One of the basic objectives of this work is to clearly differentiate between LTE dimensioning
inputs and outputs. This section discusses all the LTE dimensioning inputs used in the
development of methods and models for LTE dimensioning. LTE dimension inputs can be
broadly divided into three categories: Traffic, coverage and capacity-related inputs.
Traffic related inputs include average cell throughput, number of subscribers and demand traffic
for each user in BH. These parameters are the customer requirements to provide a certain level of
service to its users. These inputs directly translate into (QoS) parameters. Besides cell edge
performance criterion is used in the dimensioning tool to determine the cell radius and thus the site
55
count. Three methods are employed to determine the cell edge. These include user defined
maximum throughput at the cell edge, maximum coverage with respect to lowest MCS (giving the
minimum possible site count) and predefined cell radius.LTE dimensioning inputs for coverage
dimensioning exercise are similar to the corresponding inputs for 3G UMTS networks. Radio link
budge (RLB) is of central importance to coverage planning in LTE.
Figure 3.1 the input and output to LTE dimensioning tool
Radio link budget (RLB) inputs include transmitter power, transmitter and receiver antenna
systems, configuration antennas used, conventional system gains and losses, Cell loading that
effect the value of interference margin and propagation models. LTE can operate in conventional
frequency bands of 900, 1800 and 2100 MHz as well as extended band of 2600 MHz .Models for
all the three possible frequency bands are incorporated in this work. Additionally, channel types
(Pedestrian, Vehicular) and geographical information is needed to start the coverage dimensioning
exercise. Geographical input information consists of area type information (Urban, Rural, etc) and
it related parameters (penetration loss, shadowing margin, etc) and sizes of each area type to be
covered. Furthermore, required coverage probability plays a vital role in determination of cell
56
radius. Even a minor change in coverage probability or other some parameter causes a large
variation in cell radius calculation.
Capacity dimensioning inputs provides the requirements, to be met by LTE network dimensioning
exercise. Capacity planning inputs gives the number of subscribers in the system, their demanded
services and subscriber usage level in the busy hour. Available spectrum and channel bandwidth
used by the LTE system are also very important for LTE capacity planning. Traffic analysis and
data rate to support available services (voice, Data) are used to determine the number of subscribers
supported by a single cell and eventually the cell radius based on capacity evaluation. LTE system
level simulation results and LTE link level simulation results are used to carry out capacity
planning exercise along with other inputs. These results are obtained from Nokias internal sources.
Subscriber growth forecast is used in this work to predict the growth and cost of the network in
years to come.
Outputs of LTE Dimensioning
Outputs or targets of LTE dimensioning process have already been discussed indirectly in the
previous section. Outputs of the dimensioning phase are used to estimate the feasibility and cost
of the network. These outputs are further used in detailed network planning and can be utilized for
future work on LTE core network planning. Dimensioned LTE network can help out LTE core
network team to plan a suitable network design and to determine the number of backhaul links
required in the starting phase of the network [9].
Cell size is the main output of LTE dimensioning exercise. Two values of cell radii are obtained,
one from coverage evaluation and second from capacity evaluation. The maximum of the two
numbers is taken as the final output. Cell radius is then used to determine the number of sites
.Assuming a hexagonal cell shape, number of sites can be calculated by using simple geometry.
Capacities of eNBs are obtained from capacity evaluation, along with the number of subscribers
supported by each cell. Interface dimensioning is the last step in LTE access network
dimensioning, which is out of scope of this work. The reason is that LTE interfaces (S1 and X2)
were still undergoing standardization at the time of this work.
3.2.1 LTE Coverage Dimensioning Process:
For LTE systems, the main goal of coverage planning is to estimate the coverage distance of an
eNB with parameter settings based on actual cell edge coverage requirements in order to meet
network size requirements [1].The first steps for the initial planning of a cellular network are the
selection of an adequate propagation model for the frequency range and type of region considered
[5].
3.2.1.1 Radio Link Budget:
Coverage planning consists of evaluation of DL and UL radio link budgets. The maximum path
loss is calculated based on service throughput defined by the cell edge user that required SINR
level at the receiver. The minimum of the maximum path losses in UL and DL directions is
57
converted into cell radius, by using a propagation model appropriate to the deployment area.
Radio Link Budget is the most prominent component of coverage planning exercise.
Radio Link Budget Calculation:
Calculating the link budget, one can determine the coverage area and radius of the cell, allowing
estimation of the number of base stations needed to cover the area where you intend to offer the
service. It is noteworthy that the characteristics of the environment (dense urban, urban, suburban,
etc.) in which the network is installed, are determinant for the results of Link Budget, due to
propagation loss the signal will suffer.
Figure 3.2 Differences in Propagation Loss due to Frequency Band
The link budget gives the path loss estimate both for the uplink and the downlink which gives to
deliver specific throughput to the cell edge user. The LTE link budget calculation is similar to that
of other cellular technologies. Maximum allowable attenuation of the radio wave traversing the
air interface excludes clutter data (e.g. penetration loses, propagation data) is expresses as:
(3.1)
( ) (3.2)
Where:
is the maximum downlink/uplink loss (dB);

is the transmitter power (dBm);
/ is the transmitting/receiving antenna gain (dBi);
is the transmitter/receiver loss (dB);
58
is the required signal noise ratio (dB);

is the receiver sensitivity (dBm);
is the diversity gain (dB).
The maximum path loss allows the maximum cell range to be estimated with a suitable
propagation model, such as Cost231Hata model. The cell range gives the number of base station
sites required to cover the target geographical area. The cell has different range according to the
carrier frequency that used as shown in the figure 3.2 .The cell range increase with low carrier
frequency for that the low carrier frequency used to coverage the rural area.
Propagation data is included in the calculation such as (penetration loss (Pen loss), Fading
Margin, Gain against Shadowing (sh Margin)) then, considering the interference margin (IM) and
the body loss (BL), the maximum propagation loss is given by:
( ) (3. 3)
Maximum Allowed Path Loss ( ) has different values for dense urban, urban and
suburban (UL & DL). So the calculation must be done to every condition. From the equation (3.3)
we can find the cell radii from the propagation model cost-231 hata that discus in next section [5].
Required SINR is the main performance indicator for LTE. Cell edge is defined according to the
required SINR for a given cell throughput. Therefore, the accurate knowledge of required SINR is
central to the authenticity of the RLB and thus the process of dimensioning. Required SINR
depends up on the following factors:
Modulation and Coding Schemes (MCS).

Propagation Channel Model.
Higher the MCS used, higher the required SINR and vice versa. This means that using QPSK
will have lower required SINR than 16-QAM .
SINR requirement is practically obtained from link level simulations, which depend on channel
model, MIMO scheme, BLER requirement. In order to meet the defined quality [9].
3.2.1.2 Propagation models:
The radio propagation model plays a key role in the link budget. The coverage radius of a base
station is obtained based on the maximum propagation loss allowance in the link budget.
Radio propagation models are classified into outdoor and indoor propagation models. These two
types of propagation models involve different factors. In an outdoor environment, landforms and
obstructions on the propagation path, such as buildings and trees, must be considered. Signals
fade at varying rates in different environments. Propagation in free space gives the lowest fade
rate. The fading of signals is larger than free space when radio waves propagate in open
areas/suburban areas and fading rate is the largest in urban/dense urban areas.
Indoor propagation model features low RF transmits power, a short coverage distance and
complicated environmental changes.
59
Empirical /statistical path loss models

Path loss models are important in the RF planning phase to be able to predict coverage and link
Frequency
Model Recommended use
MHZ
Cost-231 Hata 1502000 0.02 < d < 5 km, UMTS, GSM1800, LTE
Erceg-Greenstein 19006000 0.1 < d < 8 km, Fixed WiMAX
800-2800 Indoor office, vehicular, outdoor to indoor

IMT
ITU-526 301000 Fixed receivers
ITU-529 300-1500 1 < d < 100 km, GSM900, CDMA2000, LTE

Okumura-Hata 1502200 1 < d < 20 km, GSM900, CDMA2000, LTE
WLL 3010000 Fixed receivers, Microwave Links, WiMAX
Table 3.1 Commonly used Wireless Channel Propagation Models
IMT: International Mobile Telecommunication.
ITU: International Telecommunication Union
WLL: Wireless Local Loop.
budget among other important performance parameters. These models are based on the frequency
band, type of deployment area (urban, rural, suburban, etc.), and type of application. Table 3.1
lists the most widely used propagation models in current cellular systems. Most of these models
are a fusion of empirical formulas extracted from field measurements and some statistical
prediction models. One of the listed models that will be used in LTE are used in our project and
discussed in detail in the rest of this section. [2]
Cost231-Hata Model
Path loss estimation is performed by empirical models if land cover is known only roughly, and
the parameters required for semi-deterministic models cannot be determined. Four parameters are
used for estimation of the propagation loss by Hata's well-known model: frequency f, distance d,
base station antenna height and the height of the mobile antenna . Cost231-Hata
model can be used in macro cells as the propagation model. The application range is as follows:
Frequency band: 1500 MHz to 2000 MHz

Base station height: 30 meters to 200 meters.
Terminal antenna height: 1 meter to 10 meters
60
Distance between the transmitter and receiver: 1 km to 20 km

The Cost231-Hata model can be expressed by the following formula:
Total = L - a( )+ (3.4)
( ) ( ) ( ( ) ( ) (3.5)
Where:
f indicates the working frequency of the system. The unit is MHz
indicates the height of the base station antenna. The unit is m.
indicates the height of the terminal antenna. The unit in m.
d indicates the distance between the terminal and the base station. The unit in km.
a( )indicates the terminal gain function. This function is related to the antenna
height and working frequency of the terminal and the environment.
The value of depends on the terrain type. The values of in the standard Cost231-Hata
are as follows:
In large cities:
= 3 (as defined in Urban - large city)
47In medium-sized cities:
= 0 (as defined in Urban small city)
In suburban areas:
=-2(( ( )) ) 5.4dB (as defined Urban Suburban)
In rural open areas:
= ( ( )) ( ) (As defined in Rural
(open) desert in the related protocol).
In highways:
= ( ( )) ( ) (As defined in Rural (quasi-open)
Countryside where the terminal is unobstructed for 100 meters in the front).
Since some of the working frequencies of the LTE networks are 2.1 GHz and 2.6 GHz have
exceeded the band range of the standard Cost 231-Hata model, that is, 150 MHz to 2000 MHz
Therefore, in the actual LTE system design, the standard Cost231-Hata model must be corrected
based on the CW test result. According to the planning experience and actual CW test results in
multiple scenarios, a set of Cm has been created in the experienced model [2].
Link budget and coverage planning is calculated, for both cases UL and DL as following the
procedure steps are [5]:
Step 1: Calculate the Max Allowed Path Loss (MAPL) for DL and UL.
Step 2: Calculate the DL and UL cell radiuses by the propagation model equation
and the MAPL.
61
Step 3: Determine the appropriate cell radius by balancing the DL and UL radiuses.
Step 4: Calculate the site coverage area and the required sites number.
3.2.1.3 Downlink Link Budget and Maximum Losses:
Downlink budget: the equipment parameters for downlink budget calculation are shown in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Downlink link budget parameters (clutter not included)

Filed Transmiter side eNode B Typical value
Cell edge user throughput (kbps) 1024
A Tx power (dBm) 43 for one antenna
B Tx antenna gain (dBi) 0 to 18
C Cable loss (dB) 1 to 6
D TMA insertion loss(dB) .5
E =A+B-C-D EIRP (dBm ) calculated

Receiever side - UE Typical value
G UE noise figure 6 to 11
F Thermal noise dBm* 101.5 dBm for

100 RB/user
H=G+F Receiver noise floor dB -95.5 to -100.5
I Required SINR (dB) From LLS for 1024

kbps
J=H+I Receiver sensitivity (dBm) G+ SINR
K Rx antenna gain (dBi) 0
L Body loss (dB) 3 for voice,0 for data
Max path loss (dB)( clutter not included )

*
Table 3.2 (a) Downlink Link budget parameters (Clutter not Included)
62
M Interference margin (dB)*4 38

N Shadowing loss (dB) *3 0 13.2
O Penetration loss (dB) Dense Urban 20 to 25
Urban 15 to 20
Suburban 10 to 15
In-car /Rural 5 to 10 dB
( )
Table 3.2 (b) Downlink Link budget parameters (Clutter Included)
( ) (3.6)
Additional gain such as Scheduling gain, MIMO gain and gain against shadowing.
The interference margin depends on the load of cell.
( ) ( ) (3. 7)
(3. 8)
From the formula above it shall be noted that Interference Margin is a function of required SINR, Neighbor
Cell Load and C/I relation on the cell edge.
The slow fading margin SFM is caused by signal shadowing due to obstructions on the radio
path, SFM is required in order to achieve higher coverage quality, better coverage
probability. SFM values presented for the different cell edge and cell area probabilities
Jakes formula used to convert cell area into cell edge probability.
(3. 9)
F: Factor to adapt SFM to required cell edge probability.
: Standard deviation assumed to be 8 dB [14].
63
The standard deviations () for various environments and the lognormal margin that should be
used to achieve the require coverage probability is illustrated in Table 3.3.
Table 3.3 the SFM value for different cell edge &cell area probabilities
Figure 3.3 The log-normal fading margins
The log-normal fading margins (BLNF) illustrated in figure 3.3 below are used in both uplink
and downlink [10]. LTE link budget calculations from the last row of the downlink link budget
table we find the downlink cell radius by using appropriate propagation model (Cost-231Hata)
with modified it environment parameters in each geographic areas (urban, rural, suburban).In the
next chapter we will calculate downlink link budget for each geographic area separately.
3.2.1.4 Uplink Link Budget and Maximum Losses:
Maximum Allowed Path Loss (MAPL) has different values for urban, suburban and rural (UL
&DL). So the calculation must be done to every condition and area apart, and from these results
the cell radius can be calculated for each case. At the end, the minimum cell radius from UL& DL
cell radiuses is chosen for each area. Three different cell radiuses can be obtained; each
geographical area has its own cell radius. The basic input parameters for uplink link budget are as
shown in Table 3.4
64
Uplink link budget parameters

Filed Transmiter side UE Typical value
Cell edge user throughput (kbps) 384
A Tx power (dBm) class 3 23
B Tx antenna gain (dBi) typically assumed to be 0
dBi for data card 2 dBi
possible
C Body loss (dB) 3for voice,0 for data

E =A+B-C EIRP (dBm ) Calculated
Receiver side - eNode B Typical value
G eNode B noise figure dB 2
K eNode B Rx Gain dBi 18 dBi for a 3-sectored site /
directional antenna
F Thermal noise dBm 107.5 dBm for
25 RB/user
H=G+F Receiver noise floor dB 2+F

I Required SINR (dB) From LLS*
J=H+I Receiver sensitivity (dBm) NF+ SINR
L Cable loss (dB) 1 to 6
Max path loss (dB)( clutter not included )
*
M Interference margin (dB) 3 to 8
N Shadowing margin (dB) 0 to 13.2
O Penetration loss (dB) In-Building:
Dense Urban:20 to25
Urban: 15 to20
Suburban: 10 to15
In-car/Rural 5 to 10dB
( )
Table 3.4 Uplink link budget parameters
* Link level simulation

* Additional margin such as gain against shadowing
65
Due to the non-deterministic characteristic of uplink interferences it is difficult to make a

mathematical model (like in downlink).Based on the system level simulation we determine the
Figure 3.4 Interference Margin (dB) vs. Cell Load from SLL
amount of the interference margin as a function of the cell load as shown in the figure 3.4.
Shadowing margin and the penetration loss is the same as Downlink link budget.
From the last row of the downlink link budget table we find the downlink cell radius by using
appropriate propagation model (Cost-231Hata) with modified it environment parameters in each
geographic areas (urban, rural, suburban).In the next chapter we will calculate Uplink link budget
for each geographic area separately.
The last step in the calculation of the link budget is the determining of the cell radius by balancing
between Uplink and Downlink cell radius
3.2.1.5 Coverage-based site account:
From the last section we get the cell radii a result of link budget calculation. Given the cell radius,
the cell coverage area (that we assume to be hexagonal) depends on the site configuration see
figure 3. 5.
After determining the cell radius for each scenario, sites number and sites coverage areas are
calculated by the equations below:
For Omni-directional configuration Sites:

(3.10)
66
3R (3.11)
For 3-Sector site configuration:

(3. 12)
(3. 13)
(3.14)
Figure 3.5 site configuration and coverage area calculation
If a 6-sector site configuration is used the site coverage area (A) and site-to-site distance (d) are
calculated using the same formulae as an Omni site.
The number of sites needed to meet coverage requirements can be calculated by dividing the site
coverage area into the area to be covered as following:
(3.15)
3.2.2 LTE Capacity Dimensioning:
With a rough estimation of the cell size and sites count, verification of coverage analysis is
carried out for the required capacity. It is verified whether with the given sites density, the system
can carry the specified load or new sites have to be added. Theoretical capacity of the network is
limited by the number of eNBs installed in the network. Cell capacity in LTE is impacted by
several factors, which includes interference level, packet scheduler implementation and supported
In LTE, the main indicator of capacity is the SINR distribution in the cell. The SINR distribution
can be directly mapped to the system capacity (data rate). The capacity based on the number of
sites is compared with the result of the coverage and the larger of the two numbers is selected as
67
Figure 3.6 Capacity Dimensioning Overview
the number of end sites. The subscriber density and subscriber traffic profile are the main
requirements for capacity dimensioning see figure 3.6 [10].
3.2.2.1 Subscriber traffic profile from traffic model:
Traffic forecast should be done by analyzing the offered Busy Hour traffic per subscriber for
different services in each area.The traffic model defines an application mix consisting of 5
services (VoIP, Video, Streaming, Web browsing & FTP).The main purpose of traffic model is to
describe the average subscriber behaviour during the most loaded day period (the Busy Hour) .
Traffic data:
Voice:
Erlang per subscriber during busy hour of the network
Codec bit rate, Voice activity
Video call :
Erlang per subscriber during busy hour of the network
Service bit rates
Non Real-Time (NRT) data :
Average throughput (kbps) per subscriber during busy hour of the network
Target bit rates [14]
68
3.2.2.2 LTE Capacity Dimensioning Process:

In this section presents how to convert the cell throughput values to the maximum number of
broadband subscribers. Two methods are used: a traffic volume based approach and a data rate
based approach [11].
The LTE Cell Capacity (Throughput) depends on:
1. Cell Range (Path loss): the cell rang considered a variation of the Inter Site Distance
(ISD), the larger ISD the less cell capacity because the SINR distribution is bad in
larger cells which becomes more & more noise limited.
2. Channel Bandwidth (1.4 MHz... 20 MHz): The best capacity performance can be
achieved with wide channel bandwidth due to the maximum frequency diversity gain
And Small Bandwidth configuration are characterized by high system overhead.
3. LTE Features:
MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output):
Transmit diversity (Tx diversity) it results in coverage improvement
therefore, it is more suitable to be used at the cell edge.
Open / Closed Loop Spatial Multiplexing Spatial multiplexing on the other
hand doubles the subscriber data rate
Scheduling: Proportional Fair or Round Robin: From the average cell
throughput point of view there is some gain when Proportional Fair (PF) is used,
the main reason for the gain is coming from the fact that the SINR distribution in
the cell is improved when proportional fair is used. The gain is dependent on the
number of users that are scheduled together in the same TTI (1ms): the higher the
number of scheduled users per TTI the higher the average cell throughput gain
when proportional fair is in use
4. Cell Load: It has to be noticed that when the neighbour cell load is decreasing the cell
throughput is increasing as expected [14].
3.2.2.3 Traffic volume based approach:
The traffic volume based approach estimates the maximum traffic volume in gigabytes that can be
carried by LTE 20 MHz 3-sectors configuration. For LTE, we assume 35 Mbps cell throughput
for 20 MHz bandwidth.
A margin in network dimensioning in the busy hour needs to be reserved in order to guarantee
low delays and reasonably good data rates, a maximum 50% loading over the busy hour is
assumed, which leads to an average busy hour throughput of 17.5 Mbps per cell in LTE 20MHZ.
(3.16)
The 50% margin is not constant but depends on the targeted subscriber data rates and on the
applications [13] .The higher the loading, the lower are the data rates. The maximum loading also
depends on the applied QoS differentiation strategy [12].
69
Traffic is never equally distributed between sites.

In a network, several sites will provide coverage, but will not be fully loaded. Figure 3.6
illustrates an example of traffic distribution during the busy hour in which 50% of the traffic is
carried by 15% of the cells.
In estimating the maximum network capacity, this section always assumes that it is those 15% of
the cells that become congested and limit the total capacity. At the same time, 85% of cells are
not congested. Network capacity could be improved by adding cell sites to the congested areas.
The traffic distribution depends on the network deployment, country geography and number of
Figure 3.7 Example traffic distribution between cells
subscribers. Typically, more users lead to a more equal traffic distribution between sites.
Traffic is also not equally distributed over a 24 h our period:
The busy hour in data networks is typically in the evening, but data traffic is also generated
during the night. Figure 3.7 shows an example traffic distribution, in which the busy hour carries
Figure 3.8 Example traffic distribution over a 24-hour period
70
7% of the networks daily traffic [13].Demand traffic vary from geographical area (urban,
suburban, rural) to other depend on the subscriber density in each area, and the services usage
level at the busy hours, for that we will provide the subscribers density in each area and
percentage of services usage in each area.
The equation (3.17) used to determine the number of subscribers per site that has specific demand
traffic (calculated by using Traffic model of NSN Dim Tool) as:
( ) ( ) ( )
( ( ) ( )
) (3.17)
Where
is Busy Hour Average load
BW is the Cell allocated Bandwidth (Hz)
SE is the spectral efficiency (bps/Hz)
BH average loading is explained earlier and recommended 50%
is operator requirement assumed 15%
Gigabytes
BH Busy Hour
Day per Month
Sector per site
Demand traffic per subscriber in month (GB)
By using equation (3.16) we find the number of sites requires for Network capacity requirements
as:
( ) (3.18)
3.2.2.4 Data rate based approach:

Another way to calculate capacity is to consider user data rates. Lets aim for a minimum of 1
Mbps user data rate. A so-called overbooking factor can be used to take into account the fact that
only a small proportion of users will typically be downloading data at the same time. For
Example: 3.8 GB of downlink data per month with 7% busy hour share corresponds to 20 kbps
average data rate per subscriber during the busy hour, which is equal to an overbooking factor of
1Mbps/20 kbps = 50. Overbooking factor (OBF) is the average number of subscribers that can
share a given unit of channel. The channel unit used in dimensioning is the peak data rate [13].
Cell capacity provided from the link level simulation as input to these approach assumes that the
target date rate is #Mbps per subscriber. Since only some of the subscribers are downloading data
simultaneously, we can apply an overbooking factor. This essentially means that the average busy
hour data rate is:
(3.19)
71
Bandwidth 5 MHz 10MHz 20 MHz
Peak L1 DL throughput per cell 37Mbit/s 75Mbit/s 150Mbit/s
Peak L1 UL throughput per cell 12Mbit/s 25Mbit/s 50Mbit/s
Table 3.5 The peak (UL&DL) throughout for different Bandwidth
The number of subscribers per site using this approach calculated as:
( )
(3.20)
The number of sites to satisfy the traffic demand requirement for the each subscriber calculated
as:
(3.21)
In the LTE network dimension the required sites number for a specific area should be chosen to
be the maximum number of sites obtained from coverage and capacity dimensioning calculations
to satisfy the demand traffic requirements; see figure 3.9
Figure 3.9 selections between coverage and capacity site result
72
3.3.1 Capacity and coverage optimization in LTE Networks:

Although, it is of primary interest to provide coverage to users during a roll-out, it is equally important to
enhance the capacity of the network during operation. As such, both coverage and capacity are considered
in the use case and supported by the SON function [13]. The objective of capacity and coverage
optimization is to provide optimal coverage and capacity for the radio network. A tradeoff between
capacity and coverage needs to be considered [14].
3.3.1.1 E-UTRAN Coverage holes with 2G/3G coverage
In this scenario, legacy systems, e.g. 2G/3G provide radio coverage together with E-UTRAN.
However, in the first deployment stage of E-UTRAN, unsuitable planning or error parameters
settings will lead to coverage holes in some area. In this scenario, there may be too many IRAT
HOs. The SON use case coverage and capacity optimization should enable to detect this kind of
problems on network coverage automatically. Another case similar with this is that coverage
problems exist between different frequencies in E-UTRAN, i.e. inter-frequency case. For simple
reasons, this case is also described here.
2G/3G/Different freq of LTE Coverage
Specific Freq
Coverage of LTE
Coverage holes
Figure 3.9 Coverage holes with 2G/3G coverage
3.3.1.2 E-UTRAN Coverage holes without any other radio coverage

In this scenario, there is no 2G/3G coverage except E-UTRAN. In the first deployment stage of E-
UTRAN, unsuitable planning or error parameters settings will lead to un-continuous coverage in
some area. That will lead to many drop calls because of bad coverage. The SON use case
coverage and capacity optimization should enable to detect this kind of problems on network
coverage automatically.
Radio Coverage
of E-UTRAN
Coverage holes
Figure 3.10 Coverage holes without any other radio coverage
73
3.3.1.3 E-UTRAN Coverage holes with isolated island cell coverage

In this scenario, the actual coverage area of an isolated island cell is smaller than the planned
isolated island cell area. The uncovered planned cell area is the coverage holes that need to be
detected and optimized by the coverage and capacity optimization.
Actual Isolated Island Cell

of E-UTRAN
Coverage holes Planned Isolated Island Cell of E-UTRAN Coverage holes
Figure 3.11 Coverage holes with isolated island cell coverage
3.3.1.4 E-UTRAN cells with too large coverage

In this scenario, the operator does a gradual network evolution using LTE cells in location where
higher capacity is needed. Here the actual LTE coverage is greater than the planned LTE
coverage. The overflow area is shown in figure 3.4. The problem with a too large coverage is that
the planned capacity may not be reached. As such, it is important to keep the coverage within the
planned area [13].
Actual LTE coverage
Planned LTE coverage
Overflow area Overflow area
Figure 3.4 Difference between actual and planned LTE coverage
74
3.3.2.1 Resolving Weak Coverage Problems

Analyze geographical environments and check the receive levels of adjacent eNBs.
Analyze the EIRP of each sector based on parameter configurations and ensure EIRPs
can reach maximum values if possible.
Increase pilot power. Adjust antenna azimuths and tilts, increase antenna height, and
use high-gain antennas.
Deploy new eNBs if coverage hole problems cannot be resolved by adjusting
antennas.
Increase coverage by adjacent eNBs to achieve large coverage overlapping between
two eNBs and ensure a moderate handover area.
Note: Increasing coverage may lead to co-channel and adjacent-channel interference.
Use RRUs, indoor distribution systems, leaky feeders, and directional antennas to
resolve the problem with blind spots in elevator shafts, tunnels, underground garages
or basements, and high buildings.
Analyze the impact of scenarios and terrains on coverage.
3.3.2.1 Resolving Cross Coverage Problems
Adjust antenna azimuths properly so that the direction of the main lobe slightly
oblique from the direction of a street. This reduces excessively far coverage by electric
waves because of reflection from buildings on two sides of the street.
Adjust antenna tilts or replace antennas with large-tilt antennas while ensuring proper
antenna azimuths. Tilt adjustment is the most effective approach to control coverage.
Tilts are classified into electrical tilts and mechanical tilts. Electrical tilts are
preferentially adjusted if possible.
Decrease the antenna height for a high site.
Decrease transmit power of carriers when cell performance is not affected [15].
75
References:
[1]http://wwwen.zte.com.cn/endata/magazine/ztecommunications/2011Year/no3/articles/201110/t
2011102.html
[2] Evolved cellular network planning and optimization for UMTS and LTE / editors, Ling yang
Song, Jia Shen
[3] Propagation Prediction Models Dieter J. Cichon 1, IBP PIETZSCH GmbH, German Thomas
Krner 1, E-Plus Mobilfunk GmbH, Germany
[4] Long Term Evolution (LTE) Radio Access Network Planning Guide Huawi
[5] Comparison of Coverage and Capacity of LTE-Advanced Networks at 700 MHz and 2.6 GHz
Daniel Y. Mitsutake Cueto, Luiz Alencar Reis da Silva Mello and Carlos V. Rodrguez R.
[6] Long Term Evolution Network Planning and Performance Measurement by EL-FEGHI
ZAKARIA, SULIMAN ZUBI and A.JAMIL H. ALGABROUN
[7] LTE Radio Network Planning: Modeling Approaches for the Case of Addis Ababa By
Bethlehem Seifu
[8] FDD-LTE Radio Network Planning( ZTE)
[9] Dimensioning of LTE Network Description of Models and Tool, Coverage and Capacity
Estimation of 3GPP Long Term Evolution radio interface by Abdul Basit, Syed
[10] L10A Radio Network Design Ericsson 2009 Ericsson 2009LTE
[11] LTE for UMTS-OFDMA and SC-FDMA based radio access / edited by Harri Holma, Antti
Toskala. 2009 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
[12] Mobile broadband with HSPA and LTE capacity and cost aspects Nokia Siemens
Network (NSN)
[13] 3GPP TS 32.522 V10.3.0
[14] LTE RPESS Radio Planning Capacity of Nokia Siemens Networks
[15] LTE RF Optimization Guide V1.0 Huawi
76
Chapter 4
Simulation
Results and Discussion
LTE Network Planning and Optimization Simulation an Results Discussion
4.1 Simulation
Simulation is a practical and scientific approach to analyze a complex system. In this project,
simulation is used to investigate the RAN nominal planning of LTE networks as it is done using Atoll
simulation environment. In our cases, the radio link budget calculation was simply done by using Excel
for its simplicity and its good results .
The LTE radio network planning simulation is intended to carry out the link budget calculation,
propagation modeling using the terrain model, coverage estimation and capacity evaluation.
4.1.1 Site Survey

The process of site survey is to identify the different environmental factors that directly or indirectly
affect the radio network planning process and as well to list out them as planning parameters. For this
project the Taiz City was considered as the area of planning and in this section we are going to list its
environmental factors.
Taiz is one of the biggest governments in Yemen it lay in the southern part of Yemen it includes the
largest number of population which is about 3.6 million it has a variety of terrains its contains a lot of
mountains ,flat places and also coasts .
In our project we chose the capital of Taiz " Taiz City " which includes the most urban part of the
government. The chosen area is about 118,09 km2 with a population of 556900 which is distributed into
three regions with different densities as illustrated in the following Table 4.1
Region Name Region 1 Region 2 Region 3

Area Type Urban Suburban Rural
Area Size (km2) 8,058 36,965 49,877
Populations 267312 189346 100242
Subscribers 37423.68 26508.44 14033.88
No of Sites * 14 16 13
Site Range (km) * 0.543 1.0969 1.403
Intersites Distance(km) 0.8145 1.6454 2.104
*
Cell Area (km2) * 0.192 0.770 1.279
Table 4.1 : Regions of Planning
4.2 Coverage and Capacity Planning

After collecting the information about the area of planning which was mainly given by [2] . and was
calculated using Excel based tool from NSN as shown in Figure 4.1, 4.2 and 4.3.
*This Information is based in NSN Excel based tool explained later
87
Simulation an Results Discussion LTE Network Planning and Optimization
4.2.1 Planning Parameters

The parameters listed in the Table 4.2 is the inputs to the NSN Excel based tool and was chosen
carefully according to the type of terrain and city type i.e urban , suburban etc..
Parameter DL UL
Frequency 2100 MHZ
Bandwidth 20 MHZ
Duplex FDD
Propagation Model Cost-Hata
Frequency reuse 1
Scheduling Proportional Fair
MIMO Configuration 2x2 MIMO 1x2 MIMO
Tx Power 43 dB 23 dBm
Rx Antenna Gain 18 dBi 0 dB
Body loss 0 dB 0 dB
Feeder Loss 0.5 2.4 dB
Noise Figure 7 dB
Throughput 1 Mbps 384 kbps
Table 4.2 : Planning Parameters
4.2.2 Propagation Model

As we mentioned earlier in chapter 3 that propagation model is very important for calculating cell
range and there are many of them with different properties but we chose *Cost231/ 2 slope (Cost Hata)
model because it can be applied in Taiz and can be used for frequency band that we aim to work on.
The parameters related to the model is listed in Table 4.3 .
eNB Antenna Height (m) 30

UE Height (m) 1,5
Frequency (MHZ) 2100
Penetration Loss (dB) 17 (Urban) , 12 (Suburban) , 10 (Rural)
Table 4.3 : Propagation Model Inputs
*2-slope mean that cell range is higher than slope 1
87
4.2.3 Dimensioning Tool (v 2.3.1)

Dimensioning tool is an Excel based tool which is designed by Nokia Simense Network (NSN)
Dimensioning tool comprises of two main parts presented as Link Budget and 'Site Count' sheets. The Dimensioning
Tool (methods and parameters) follows RL10 and RL15TD Releases. The tool consist of nine excel
workbooks as shown in Figure 4.1.
Figure 4.1 : Dimensioning Tool Sheets
Instructions: General tool info

Link Budget (LiBu):
o Calculates the cell area based on the Path Loss for the different clutter types
Cell Capacity:
o Calculates the average cell throughput for downlink and uplink based also in LiBu parameters
and outputs ( i.e. ISD)
Traffic Model: Traffic data is modelled in this worksheet and used in the site count sheet
Site Count:
o Site count with respect to coverage, capacity and traffic dimensioning
o Uses as inputs the outputs of the link budget, the cell capacity and the traffic model
worksheets
Defaults: Worksheet containing all the default values defined for the Link Budget
Parameters: System specific parameters (not to be modified by user) plus other parameters used in the
Link Budget calculations
VoIP: A part of RL20. VoIP related parameters (not to be modified by user)
Doc History: Information about released versions
78
4.2.4 Link Budget Calculation

After entering inputs parameters into the sheet of link budget we get the results shown in the Figure 4.2 as
an outputs which include maximum path loss and Coverage parameters like cell range and site number.
Scenario 1
Link Budget Calculation FDD
for Long Term Evolution
notepad field
Provided by NWS LTE RA E2E Mgmt SA NE
Limiting uplink 384 kbps;
2TX/2RX at eNB, feederless site: 0.4dB
jumper loss & no need for TMA
DL UL
Default Set Default Set [RL10] LTE2600 - Uplink 384 kbps
Operating Band (MHz) 2100
General Flexi RF Unit 20W - Flexi RF Module
Parameters UE Power Class Class 3
Channel Bandwidth (MHz) 20
Tx Power per Antenna (dBm) 43.0 23.0
Antenna Gain (dBi) 18.0 0.0
Feeder Loss (dB) 0.5 2.4
Transmitting
Body Loss (dB) - 0.0
End
TMA Insertion Loss (dB) 0.5 -
Total Tx Power Increase (dB) 3.0 -
User EIRP (dBm) 63.0 23.0
TMA - 0.5
Feeder Loss (dB) - 0.0
Receiving Antenna Gain (dBi) 0.0 18.0
End Noise Figure (dB) 7.0 2.0
Body Loss (dB) 0.0 -
Additional Gains (dB) 0.0 0.0
Total Number of PRBs per TTI 100
Cyclic Prefix Normal Normal
Number of OFDM Symbols per Subframe 14 14
Reference Signal 9.52% 13.14%
Primary Synchronization Signal (PSS) 0.09% -
System
Secondary Synchronization Signal (SSS) 0.09% -
Overhead
PBCH / PRACH 0.16% 0.60%
PDCCH (incl. PCFICH, PHICH) / PUCCH 19.05% 8.00%
- / PUSCH UCI - 0.61%
Additional Overhead 0.00% 0.00%
Total System Overhead 28.90% 22.35%
Modulation and Coding Scheme 2-QPSK 5-QPSK
Service Type Data
Cell Edge User Throughput (kbps 1024 384
Capacity
Residual BLER / Number of Transmissions rBLER=10% (1Tr) rBLER=10% (1Tr)
Number of PRBs per User 26 5
Channel Usage per TTI 26% 5%
78
Transport Block Size for PDSCH/PUSCH (bit/TTI) 1160 424

Effective Coding Rate 0.19 0.32
Channel Model Enhanced Pedestrian A 5 Hz
Antenna Configuration 2Tx-2Rx 1Tx-2Rx
Proportional
FDPS Type Fairness -
Number of Users per TTI (Loaded Cell) 3 18
FDPS Gain (dB) 2.56 -
HARQ Gain (dB) 0.00 0.00
Required SINR @ BLER10% (dB) -3.52 0.99
Coding Rate Offset (dB) 0.43 0.27
Required SINR at Cell Edge (dB) -5.65 1.25
Maximum SINR at Cell Edge (dB) -0.03 -
Channel
Cell Load 50.00 50.00
50% 50%
Method for Interference Margin Formula Simulation
Interference Margin [Formula/Simulation] (dB) 0.64 1.81
Interference Margin [User Defined] (dB) 2.50 1.80
Number of Received Subcarriers (dB) 30.8 17.8
Thermal Noise Density (dBm/Hz) -174
Subcarrier Bandwidth (kHz) 15
Noise Power per Subcarrier (dBm) -132.17
Receiver Sensitivity (dBm) -100.03 -111.14
Maximum Allowable Path Loss (dB) 162.40 150.33
(clutter not considered)
Deployment Class Mature
Dense
Clutter Type Urban Urban Suburban Rural
Maximum Allowable Path Loss (dB) 150.33

(clutter not considered)
BTS Antenna Height (m) 30.0 30.0 30.0 30.0
MS Antenna Height (m) 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Average Penetration Loss (dB) 22.0 17.0 12.0 10.0
Standard Deviation Outdoor (dB) 9.0 8.0 8.0 7.0
Standard Deviation of Penetration
Propagation Loss (dB) 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
Combined Standard Deviation (dB) 9.0 8.0 8.0 7.0
Location Probability 847 837 837 733

Cell Area Probability 94.0% 94.0% 94.0% 90.0%
Cell Edge Probability 84.7% 83.7% 83.7% 73.3%
Log Normal Fading Margin (dB) 9.2 7.9 7.9 4.4
Gain Against Shadowing (dB) 2.8 2.4 2.4 1.7
Maximum Allowable Path Loss
(dB) 121.91 127.87 132.87 137.68
(clutter considered)
78
Cost 231 / Cost 231 / Cost 231 / Cost 231 /

Propagation Model two slope two slope two slope two slope
Intercept Point (w/o clutter

correction) (dB) 138.51 138.51 138.46 138.46
Cost 231
Slope 1 (dB) 35.22 35.22 35.22 35.22
Slope 2 (dB) 43.35 43.35 43.35 43.35
Clutter Correction Factor (dB) 3.00 0.00 -12.43 -32.80
Intercept Point (w/o clutter
correction) (dB) 141.65 141.65 141.60 141.60
User Slope 1 (dB) 35.22 35.22 35.22 35.22
Defined
Slope 2 (dB) 44.11 44.11 44.11 44.11
Clutter Correction Factor (dB) 3.00 0.00 -13.14 -34.09
Cell Range (km) 0.353 0.568 1.564 8.110

Site Layout 3-sector antenna_BW<=90
Number of Cells per Site 3

Coverage
Site Count Cell Area (km2) 0.081 0.210 1.590 42.748
Site Area (km2) 0.243 0.630 4.770 128.245
Inter Site Distance (km) 0.530 0.852 2.346 12.164
Deployment area (km2) 0.000 8.058 36.965 49.877
Site Count 0 13 8 1
Figure 4.3 : Dim Tool (Link Budget )
78
4.2.5 Traffic Model

It includes some standard parameters about the services i.e Voip , Streaming , High Speed Internet ,
Mobile Internet Access and Circuit switching .The main output of this sheet is the total data volumes
for downlink and uplink . Figure 4.3 illustrate this parameters
Traffic Model
for Long Term Evolution
Provided by NWS LTE RA E2E Mgmt SA NE 2014
Downlink Data Volume (MB) 26.5117
Uplink Data Volume (MB) 26.5117
Format Link Quantity (per Busy Hour)
Subscription Rate (kbps) 1024
Overbooking Factor 25
Flat Rate off
do not remove this row off
Avg. Data Volume (MB) 18.4320
Subscription Rate (kbps) 256
Flat Rate Overbooking Factor 25
off
do not remove this row off
Call Attemps 1
Call Duration (s) 90
Data Rate (kbps) 30.4
VoIP both
Service Activity 0.5
do not remove this row both
Call Duration (s) 500
Streaming both
Data Volume (MB) 7.727
Www Protocol Overhead 10%
both
+Email+VPN do not remove this row both
Data Volume (MB) 2.36
Www Protocol Overhead 10%
both
+Email+VPN do not remove this row both
Traffic (Erl) 1
CS-like
both Service Activity 0.5
format
Figure 4.3 : Traffic Sheet
78
4.2.6 Sites Count
In this sheet Capacity planning is performed using the inputs parameters which are total number of
population and expected subscribers as percentage from the total population numbers ..
Its also includes the distribution of users into three regions of working area.
The main outputs of this sheet is number of sites according to the capacity planning process and after
that it compare between the number of sites in both capacity and coverage planning and choose the
maximum one and also predicated DL and UL throughput per eNB for the three regions of working
area as shown in Figure 4.4.
Network Dimensioning
for Long Term Evolution Phase Description
Provided by NWS LTE RA E2E Mgmt SA NE 2014
Population 556900
Phase Penetration Rate 14%
LTE Subscribers 77966
Urban 8.054
Area Size Suburban 36.965
(sqkm) Rural 49.877
Total Planning Area 76.895
Urban 48%
Geographical
Suburban 34%
Subscriber
Distribution Rural 18%
Total 100%
Urban 37423.68
Number of
Suburban 26508.44
Subscribers
Rural 14033.88
Traffic Model NSN Traffic Model - Voice&Data
NSN TM Avg. Data Volume per Subscriber per BH (MB) 8.7450
Import Avg. Data Volume per Subscriber per BH (MB) 26.5117
User Def. Avg. Data Volume per Subscriber per BH (MB) 11.1000
DL Avg. Data Rate per Subscriber (kbps) 19.4
Total Offered Urban 727.27
DL Traffc Suburban 515.15
(Mbps) Rural 272.73
NSN Traffic Model - Voice&Data
NSN TM Avg. Data Volume per Subscriber per BH (MB) 2.0337
Import Avg. Data Volume per Subscriber per BH (MB) 26.5117
User Def. Avg. Data Volume per Subscriber per BH (MB) 11.1000
UL Avg. Data Rate per Subscriber (kbps) 4.5
Total Offered Urban 169.13
UL Traffc Suburban 119.80
(Mbps) Rural 63.42
DL Urban 53.074
Site Capacity Suburban 36.283
78
(Mbps) Rural 25.161

Dense Urban 27.647
UL
Urban 24.824
Site Capacity
(Mbps) Suburban 15.807
Rural 5.151
Urban 14
#Sites
Suburban 15
(Capacity DL)
Rural 11
Urban 7
#Sites
Suburban 8
(Capacity UL)
Rural 13
Dense Urban 0
#Sites Urban 13
(Coverage) Suburban 8
Rural 1
#Sites coverage limited
capacity limited
Urban 14
Suburban 15
Rural 13
DL Urban 51.948
Throughput Suburban 34.343
per eNB
(Mbps/site) Rural 20.979
UL Urban 12.081
Throughput Suburban 7.987
per eNB
(Mbps/site) Rural 4.879
Figure 4.4 : Sites Count Sheet
4.2.7 Summary of calculation

From the coverage planning calculation we get that sites number as 14 , 8 and 1 for region 1, region 2
and region 3 respectively on the other hand we got from capacity planning 14 , 15 and 13 for region 1
, region 2 and region 3 respectively. So we chose the largest number as it will satisfy the requirements
of both type of planning .so the sites will be distributed among regions as determined before and the
location of each was set using Hexagonal tool that exist in Atoll for each region and considering
intersite distance for each region.and the names of sites and their positions are listed in Table 4.5
According to output of the tool the expected throughput for DL for region 1 is 52 Mbps / site , for
region 2 is 35 Mbps /site and for region 3 is 21 Mbps /site . While the expected throughput for UL for
region 1 is 12 Mbps , for region 2 is 8 Mbps and for region 3 is 4.8 Mbps.
78
Name Longitude Latitude Altitude (m) Region number

Alaskary 441'55.89"E 1334'14.32"N [1422] Region 1
Algomhory 441'9.97"E 1334'14.79"N [1374] Region 1
Aljahmaliah 441'33.33"E 1333'59.26"N [1470] Region 1
Alkurimy 440'20.3"E 1334'39.05"N [1284] Region 1
Almwasalt26 441'6.94"E 1334'36.24"N [1323] Region 1
Alredhwan 441'32.3"E 1334'56.08"N [1299] Region 1
Alshuhadaa Stedume 441'31.88"E 1334'27.89"N [1368] Region 1
Altahreer 440'44.5"E 1334'28.81"N [1277] Region 1
Freedom sequre 441'8.28"E 1335'9.5"N [1254] Region 1
Kalabh 441'33.67"E 1335'17.37"N [1322] Region 1
Old City 440'20.63"E 1334'15.21"N [1336] Region 1
Osaiferah 440'44.24"E 1335'22.9"N [1243] Region 1
Salakhana 440'43.67"E 1334'55.53"N [1272] Region 1
Airport 4358'7.97"E 1335'42.1"N [1139] Region 2
aldahy1 4359'22.72"E 1334'42.35"N [1323] Region 2
Aldahy2 4359'31.77"E 1334'16.18"N [1377] Region 2
Alhassip Post 4359'49.26"E 1334'34.27"N [1313] Region 2
Alhawban 1 442'52.82"E 1335'27.44"N [1226] Region 2
Almasanaa 1 446'28.57"E 1337'49.5"N [1394] Region 2
Almassanaa 2 447'29.72"E 1338'13.81"N [1428] Region 2
Almogaliah 441'7.42"E 1333'47.44"N [1508] Region 2
Alnoor City 4359'3"E 1335'11.31"N [1242] Region 2
Alqasser 441'57.77"E 1334'42.32"N [1332] Region 2
Alrawdhah 441'8.3"E 1335'38.11"N [1262] Region 2
Alsteen1 440'51.51"E 1336'14.49"N [1200] Region 2
Amn Markizy 441'53.66"E 1335'12.24"N [1280] Region 2
Cairo castle 440'46.07"E 1334'2.33"N [1549] Region 2
Kalabh 2 441'48.87"E 1335'43.47"N [1240] Region 2
Maweh 448'11.01"E 1339'21.43"N [1406] Region 2
Salah 442'19.88"E 1334'5.3"N [1435] Region 2
Sinah 4359'56.12"E 1334'11.89"N [1387] Region 2
Taizz University 4358'49.44"E 1334'28.75"N [1244] Region 2
Thabat 441'52.68"E 1333'45.66"N [1529] Region 2
Wady Alkadhy 440'19.11"E 1335'24.89"N [1281] region 2
Abdullazeez city 447'16.04"E 1339'53.36"N [1415] Region 3
Aden Road 446'22.94"E 1336'13.79"N [1373] Region 3
Alberarh 4359'49.77"E 1335'37.79"N [1218] Region 3
Almaslakh 4357'13.21"E 1335'10.85"N [1160] Region 3
Alshaqep 442'42.65"E 1336'15.58"N [1287] Region 3
Mafrak Aden 445'27.58"E 1336'46.79"N [1345] Region 3
Makha Road 1 4356'18.17"E 1335'41.64"N [1069] Region 3
Okakah 4358'8.24"E 1334'40.1"N [1178] Region 3
Table 4.5 : Sites Names and Positions
78
Traffic Map of Planning Area
Figure 4.5 : Traffic Map of Planning Area

According to the information taken from [] the Regions' details is shown in the Figure 4.6
(a)
(b)
(C)
Figure 4.6 : User distribution in each region
(a) Region 1 (b) Region 2 (c) Region 3
77
4.3 Users Categories

There are two types of users business and standard users and different types of services and
properties as shown in figure 4.7.
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.7 : Types of Users (a) Business user (b) Standard user
4.3.1 Mobility Categories
In simulation process a lot of parameters must be taken into account . One of this this parameters is
mobility we have for different kind of mobility as shown in the Figure 4.8
Figure 4.8 : Mobility Types
77
4.4 Atoll Overview
Atoll is a 64-bit multi-technology wireless network design and

optimization platform that supports wireless operators throughout
the network lifecycle, from initial design to densification and
optimization.
Figure 4.9 : Forsk logo
Atoll 3.2 includes integrated single RAN multiple RAT network design capabilities for both 3GPP
(GSM/UMTS/LTE) and 3GPP2 (CDMA/LTE) technology streams. It provides operators and vendors
with a powerful native 64-bit framework for designing and optimizing current and future integrated
multi-technology networks. Atoll 3.2 supports the latest technology advances such as HetNets and
small cells.
Atolls integration and automation features help operators smoothly automate planning and
optimization processes through flexible scripting and SOA-based mechanisms. Atoll supports a wide
range of implementation scenarios, from standalone to enterprise-wide server-based configurations.
With 6000 active licences installed with 300+ customers in 100 countries, Atoll has become the
industry standard for radio network planning and optimization.
4.4.1 LTE in Atoll
In 2008, Atoll was the first LTE network planning software

available on the market. Atoll is being used by a number of the
largest LTE operators worldwide. Atoll 3.2 is a comprehensive
framework for operators who need to plan evolution towards
LTE and LTE-Advanced. It allows planning and analyzing
integrated GSM/UMTS/LTE and CDMA2000/LTE networks.
Figure 4.10 : Atoll 3.2 symbol
Atoll 3.2 includes unified multi-technology GSM/UMTS/LTE (3GPP) and CDMA/LTE (3GPP2)
traffic models, Monte Carlo simulators and ACP (Automatic Cell Planning) module, as well as support
for the latest technology trends such as HetNets and small cells.
4.4.1.1 Network Modelling
Support of all E-UTRA frequency bands and carrier configurations

Comprehensive support of FD- and TD-LTE
Support for multi-layer HetNet deployment scenarios
Support of intra- and inter-band carrier aggregation
Support of multiple modulation types and coding schemes
MIMO: transmit/receive diversity, SU-MIMO, MU-MIMO, adaptive MIMO switching (AMS)
Beamforming smart antenna modelling
78
4.4.1.2 Traffic Modelling
Modelling of voice and data services with different QCIs

Modelling of UE categories
Multi-service 2D & 3D traffic demand maps generated from multiple sources: vector, raster,
and live traffic data
Fixed subscriber traffic modelling
4.4.1.3 Simulation and Analysis
LTE Monte Carlo simulator including power control, IoT control and advanced RRM and
scheduling algorithms
Support of carrier aggregation and multi-layer (HetNet) traffic balancing
Support of frequency-domain as well as time-domain inter-cell interference coordination
(ICIC): FFR, SFR, eICIC, etc.
Generation of prediction plots, based on simulation results or on user-defined cell load figures
including:
- Cell and network coverage analysis
- Effective service area analysis
- Uplink and downlink interference analysis
- Uplink and downlink bearer coverage predictions
- Uplink and downlink throughput coverage predictions
- Uplink and downlink quality indicator prediction plot
- Aggregate throughput prediction plot
- Physical cell ID, PSS ID, SSS ID collision plot
Network capacity planning considering S1 interface (backhaul) constraints
4.4.1.4 Neighbour Planning
Manual and automatic neighbour planning

Inter-frequency and intra-frequency neighbor planning
4.4.1.5 Multi-RAT Network Planning

Integrated planning and optimisation for 3GPP (GSM/UMTS/LTE) and 3GPP2 (CDMA/LTE)
technologies:
- Unified network databases with site and antenna sharing
- Unified multi-service traffic model
- Combined Monte Carlo simulator
- Simultaneous display and analysis of network layers
Inter-technology handover modelling
Inter-technology interference analysis
4.4.1.6 Automatic Frequency Planning - AFP (option)
Generation, import, edition, storage, and use of interference matrices

User-definable constraints and editable cost function
Allocation of carriers and fractional frequency planning (FFP)
78
Automatic physical cell ID planning considering PSS, SSS, RS, UL DMRS, and PCFICH
collisions
Automatic PRACH RSI planning
4.4.1.7 Automatic Cell Planning - ACP (option)
Automatic optimisation of network parameters to increase coverage & capacity

Site selection and activation for greenfield and densification scenarios
Antenna selection & parameter optimisation (height, azimuth & tilt)
4.4.1.8 Automatic Site Positionning - ASP (option)
Automatically creation of new site locations according to surface-wise, traffic-oriented and

population-based coverage objectives
Site deployment in multiple zones (urban, suburban, rural etc.), along roads and railways
Intelligent implementation plan with the selection of the best sites to deploy [3].
Digital Map of Taiz ( DTM )
Figure 4.11 : Digital map of Taiz

78
.Clutter Classes of Taiz
Figure 4.12 : Clutter Classes of Taiz
Ortho Map of Taiz
Figure 4.13 : Ortho Map of Taiz
78
Vector Map
The vectors map involves Vectors:
Highway
Inland water
Main road
River
Runway
Secondary road
Street
And the vector map of Taiz is shown in Figure 4.14
Figure 4.14 : Vector map of Taizz
After importing the maps into the Atoll program we started by selecting the Area of planning which
was chosen according to the distribution of population in the map and we ignored the empty places
where the probability of users existence is very small (approaches zero) and the final area is shown in
the Figure 4.15.
78
Figure 4.15 : Area of Planning
Area after adding the sites and transmitters which was calculated previously in section 4.2.7 and by
entering the longitude and latitude of each site we get the following figure for area and sites.
Figure 4.16 : Area with sites and transmitters
78
Coverage prediction by Signal level (DL)
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.17 : (a) Coverage prediction by Signal level (b) Histogram
78
Coverage prediction by transmitters (DL)
Figure 4.18 : Coverage prediction by transmitter (DL)
Overlapping Zone
Figure 4.19 : Overlapping Zones
78
Effective Signal Analysis
Figure 4.20 : Effective Signal analysis
Coverage by C/(I+N) level (DL)
Figure 4.21 : Coverage by C/(I+N) Level (DL)
77
Coverage by C/(I+N) Level (UL)
Figure 4.22 : Coverage by C/(I+N) Level (UL)
Coverage by throughput (DL)
Figure 4.23 : Coverage by throughput (DL)
77
4.5 Monte Carlo Simulation

4.5.1 What is Monte Carlo simulation?
Monte Carlo simulation is a computerized mathematical technique that allows people to account for
risk in quantitative analysis and decision making. The technique is used by professionals in such widely
disparate fields as finance, project management, energy, manufacturing, engineering, research and
development, insurance, oil & gas, transportation, and the environment.
Monte Carlo simulation furnishes the decision-maker with a range of possible outcomes and the
probabilities they will occur for any choice of action.. It shows the extreme possibilitiesthe outcomes
of going for broke and for the most conservative decisionalong with all possible consequences for
middle-of-the-road decisions.
The technique was first used by scientists working on the atom bomb; it was named for Monte Carlo,
the Monaco resort town renowned for its casinos. Since its introduction in World War II, Monte Carlo
simulation has been used to model a variety of physical and conceptual systems.
4.5.2 LTE Traffic Simulation Algorithm

Figure 4.23 shows the LTE simulation algorithm. The simulation process in LTE consists of the
following steps:
1. Mobile Generation and Distribution
Simulations require traffic data, such as traffic maps (raster, vector, or live traffic data) and subscriber
lists. Atoll generates a user distribution for each simulation using a Monte Carlo algorithm. This user
distribution is based on the traffic data input and is weighted by a Poisson distribution.
Each mobile generated during the simulations is assigned a service, a mobility type, and a terminal
according to the user profile assigned to it. A transmission status is determined according to the activity
probabilities. The transmission status is an important output of the simulation as it has a direct impact
on the next step of the simulation process, i.e., the radio resource management (RRM), and has an
impact on the interference level in the network.
The geographical location of each mobile is determined randomly for the mobiles generated based on
the traffic data from traffic maps. The mobiles generated based on the traffic data from subscriber lists
are located on the subscriber locations.
2. Best Server Determination

3. Downlink Calculations
The downlink calculations include the calculation of downlink reference signal, SS, PBCH, PDSCH,
and PDCCH C/(I+N), determination of the best available bearer for the PDSCH C/(I+N), allocation of
resources (RRM), and calculation of user throughputs.
Enhanced inter-cell interference coordination (eICIC or time-domain ICIC) is performed on the
downlink if ABS patterns have been defined for cells. Interference calculation is based on the collisions
between normal and blank subframes used by the different cells. Frequency-domain inter-cell
888
interference coordination is performed on the downlink if the cell supports Static DL ICIC.
Interference calculation is based on the probabilities of collision between the cell-center and cell-edge
resources used by the different cells.
4. Uplink Calculations
The uplink calculations include the calculation of PUSCH & PUCCH C/(I+N), determination of the
best available bearer for the PUSCH & PUCCH C/(I+N), uplink power control and uplink bandwidth
allocation, resource allocation (RRM), update of uplink noise rise values for cells, and calculation of
user throughputs.
Enhanced inter-cell interference coordination (eICIC or time-domain ICIC) is performed on the uplink
if ABS patterns have been defined for cells. Interference calculation is based on the collisions between
normal and blank subframes used by the different cells. Frequency-domain inter-cell interference
coordination is performed on the uplink if the cell supports Static UL ICIC. Interference calculation is
based on the probabilities of collision between the cell-centre and cell-edge resources used by the
different cells.
During uplink noise rise control, if the maximum uplink noise rise is higher than the actual noise rise
for a cell, the maximum PUSCH C/(I+N) of its neighbour cells is increased by the difference. This
allows the users served by the neighbour cells to transmit at higher powers, i.e., they are allowed to
create more interference. If the maximum uplink noise rise is less than the actual noise rise for a cell,
the maximum PUSCH C/(I+N) of its neighbour cells is decreased by the difference. This causes the
users served by the neighbour cells to transmit at lower powers, i.e., they are forced to create less
interference. This can also lead to an increase or decrease in the number of users served by the
neighbouring cells in the uplink.
5. Radio Resource Management and Cell Load Calculation
Atoll uses an intelligent scheduling algorithm to perform radio resource management. The scheduling
algorithm is explained in detail in the Technical Reference Guide. The scheduler:
a. Determines the total amount of resources in each cell. The amounts of cell resources, specially at
cell-edges, depend on the cells ABS pattern as well as on the number of cells cell-edge resource
blocks defined for Static DL inter-cell interference coordination in the cells frame configuration.
b. Selects the first N users from the users generated in the first step, where N is the Max number of
users defined in the cell properties.
c. Sorts the users in decreasing order by service priority.
d. Allocates the resources required to satisfy the minimum throughput demands of the users starting
from the first user (with the highest priority service) to the last user.
e. If resources still remain in the resource pool after this allocation, allocates resources to the users
with maximum throughput demands according to the used scheduling algorithm [4].
888
Figure 4.24 : LTE Simulation Algorithm
4.5.3 Simulation Cases

To improve the simulation results we repeated the simulation process for three cases with varying input
user as 10 % , 20 % and 30 % of total users.
888
Area of Planning After performing Monte Carlo Simulation
Figure 4.25 : Monte Carlo Simulation

4.6 Results and notifications
As mentioned before we will express each results with respect to the three cases to illustrate the
change in the simulation output parameters with different loads percentage . each case is represented
using unique color as shown in Figure 4.26 to Figure 4.37
Peak RC Cumulated Throughput (DL) (kbps)

70000
60000
50000
40000
30000
20000
10000
0
Wady Alkadhy
Osaiferah
Aden Road
Alsteen4
Alsteen3
Alsteen2
Alsteen1
Alaskary
Salakhana
Alqasser
Aldahy2
Mafrak Aden
Amn Markizy
Alkurimy
Alhassip Post
Alberarh
Kalabh 2
Altahreer
Kalabh
Aljahmaliah
Algomhory
Sinah
Okakah
Alshaqep
Abdullazeez city
Thabat
Airport
Salah
Maweh
Freedom
Cairo castle
Alredhwan
Almasanaa 1
Old City
aldahy1
Alshuhadaa
Almwasalt26
Alhawban 3
Alhawban 2
Alhawban 1
Almogaliah
Makha Road 4
Makha Road 3
Makha Road 2
Makha Road 1
Taizz University
Alrawdhah
Almassanaa 2
Almaslakh
Alnoor City
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput (DL) (kbps) for 30% of total users
Figure 4.26 : Peak RC Cumulated Throughput (DL) (kbps)
888
Wady Alkadhy Wady Alkadhy
Thabat Thabat
Taizz University Taizz University
Sinah Sinah
Salakhana Salakhana
Salah Salah
Osaiferah Osaiferah
Old City Old City
Okakah Okakah
Maweh Maweh
Makha Road 4 Makha Road 4
Mafrak Aden
Connection Success Rate (%)

Mafrak Aden
Kalabh 2 Kalabh 2
LTE Network Planning and Optimization
Kalabh Kalabh
Freedom Freedom
Cairo castle Cairo castle
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput (UL)
20% of total users

30% of total users
Amn Markizy Amn Markizy
Altahreer Altahreer
Alsteen4 Alsteen4
Alsteen3 Alsteen3
Alsteen2 Alsteen2
Alsteen1 Alsteen1
888
Alshuhadaa Alshuhadaa
Alshaqep Alshaqep
Alredhwan Alredhwan
Alrawdhah Alrawdhah
Alqasser Alqasser
Alnoor City Alnoor City
Almwasalt26 Almwasalt26
Almogaliah Almogaliah
Almassanaa 2
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput (UL) (kbps)for
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput (UL) (kbps) for
Almassanaa 2 Almaslakh
Almaslakh
Figure 4.28 : Connection Success Rate (%)

Almasanaa 1
Connection Success Rate (%) for30% of total users

Almasanaa 1
Connection Success Rate (%) for 10% of total users

Connection Success Rate (%)for 20% of total users
Alkurimy Alkurimy
Aljahmaliah Aljahmaliah
Alhawban 3
Alhawban 3 Alhawban 2
Alhawban 1 Alhassip Post
Alhassip Post Algomhory
Figure 4.27 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput (UL)
Algomhory Aldahy2
Aldahy2 aldahy1
aldahy1 Alberarh
Alberarh Alaskary
Alaskary Airport
Airport Aden Road
Aden Road Abdullazeez city
Abdullazeez city
0
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
5000
Simulation an Results Discussion
10000
15000
20000
25000
Wady Alkadhy
Thabat Wady Alkadhy
Taizz University Thabat
Sinah Taizz University
Salakhana Sinah
Salah Salakhana
Osaiferah Salah
Old City Osaiferah
Okakah Old City
Maweh Okakah
Makha Road 4 Maweh

Mafrak Aden Makha Road 1
Kalabh 2 Mafrak Aden
Kalabh Kalabh 2
Freedom Kalabh
Cairo castle Freedom
Amn Markizy Cairo castle
Altahreer Amn Markizy
Alsteen4 Altahreer
Alsteen3 Alsteen4
Alsteen2 Alsteen3
Alsteen1 Alsteen2
Alshuhadaa Alsteen1
888
Alshaqep Alshuhadaa
Alredhwan Alshaqep
Alrawdhah Alredhwan
Alqasser Alrawdhah
Alnoor City Alqasser
Almwasalt26 Alnoor City
Almogaliah Almwasalt26
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput High Speed Internet (UL)

Almassanaa 2 Almogaliah
Almaslakh Almassanaa 2
Almasanaa 1 Almaslakh
Almasanaa 1
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput High Speed Internet (DL) kbps
Alkurimy Alkurimy
Alhassip Post Alhassip Post
Algomhory Algomhory
Aldahy2 Aldahy2
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput High Speed Internet (UL) (kbps) for 10% of total users
aldahy1
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput High Speed Internet (DL) (kbps) for 10% of total users
aldahy1
Alberarh Alberarh
Figure 4.30 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput High Speed Internet (UL)
Alaskary Alaskary
Figure 4.29 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput High Speed Internet (DL) kbps
Airport Airport
Aden Road Aden Road
Abdullazeez city Abdullazeez city
0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
5000
10000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Mobile Internet Access (DL)
40000
35000
30000
25000
20000
15000
10000
5000
0
Abdullazeez city
Almogaliah
Alberarh
Alaskary
Alrawdhah
Salakhana
Alqasser
Alsteen4
Alsteen3
Alsteen2
Alsteen1
Alkurimy
Alhassip Post
Aldahy2
Osaiferah
Kalabh 2
Amn Markizy
Altahreer
Aljahmaliah
Sinah
Okakah
Mafrak Aden
Kalabh
Alshaqep
Thabat
Salah
Cairo castle
Almasanaa 1
Airport
Alhawban 2
Alhawban 1
Old City
Maweh
Freedom
Alredhwan
Algomhory
aldahy1
Alshuhadaa
Almwasalt26
Alhawban 3
Wady Alkadhy
Makha Road 4
Makha Road 3
Almaslakh
Makha Road 2
Makha Road 1
Alnoor City
Almassanaa 2
Aden Road
Taizz University
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Mobile Internet Access (DL) (kbps) for 30% of total users
Figure 4.31 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Mobile Internet Access (DL)
kbps
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Mobile Internet Access (UL)
9000
8000
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Amn Markizy
Aljahmaliah
Alshaqep
Almwasalt26
Airport
Alsteen4
Alsteen3
Alsteen2
Alsteen1
Salakhana
Alqasser
Alkurimy
Aldahy2
Alaskary
Osaiferah
Alhassip Post
Algomhory
Alberarh
Kalabh 2
Kalabh
Altahreer
Almasanaa 1
Sinah
Salah
Okakah
Mafrak Aden
Maweh
Freedom
Cairo castle
Alshuhadaa
Wady Alkadhy
Thabat
Alredhwan
Alhawban 3
Alhawban 2
Alhawban 1
Abdullazeez city
Old City
Makha Road 1
aldahy1
Almogaliah
Almassanaa 2
Makha Road 4
Makha Road 3
Makha Road 2
Taizz University
Alrawdhah
Almaslakh
Aden Road
Alnoor City
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Mobile Internet Access (UL) (kbps) for 30% of total users
Figure 4.32 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Mobile Internet Access (UL) kbps
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Wady Alkadhy
Wady Alkadhy Thabat
Thabat Taizz University
Taizz University Sinah
Sinah Salakhana
Salakhana Salah
Salah Osaiferah
Osaiferah Old City
Old City Okakah
Okakah Maweh
Maweh Makha Road 4

Makha Road 1 Mafrak Aden
Mafrak Aden Kalabh 2
Kalabh 2 Kalabh
Kalabh Freedom
Freedom Cairo castle
Cairo castle Amn Markizy
Amn Markizy Altahreer
Altahreer Alsteen4
Alsteen4 Alsteen3
Alsteen3 Alsteen2
Alsteen2 Alsteen1
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Alsteen1 Alshuhadaa
Alshuhadaa Alshaqep
Alshaqep Alredhwan
Alredhwan Alrawdhah
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Video Conferencing (UL)

Alrawdhah Alqasser
Alqasser Alnoor City
Alnoor City Almwasalt26
Almwasalt26 Almogaliah
Almogaliah Almassanaa 2
Almassanaa 2 Almaslakh
Almaslakh Almasanaa 1
Almasanaa 1 Alkurimy
Alkurimy Aljahmaliah
Aljahmaliah Alhawban 3
Alhawban 1 Alhassip Post
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Video Conferencing (UL) kbps
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Video Conferencing (UL) kbps
Alhassip Post Algomhory

Algomhory Aldahy2
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Video Conferencing (DL) (kbps) for 10% of total users
Aldahy2 aldahy1
Alberarh
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Video Conferencing (UL) (kbps) for 10% of total users
aldahy1 Alaskary
Alberarh Airport
Alaskary Aden Road
Figure 4.33 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Video Conferencing (DL) (kbps)
Airport Abdullazeez city
Figure 4.34 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput Video Conferencing (UL) kbps
Aden Road
0
Abdullazeez city
200
400
600
800
0
1000
200
400
600
800
1000
Wady Alkadhy
Wady Alkadhy Thabat
Thabat Taizz University
Taizz University Sinah
Sinah Salakhana
Salakhana Salah
Salah Osaiferah
Osaiferah Old City
Old City Okakah
Okakah Maweh
Maweh Makha Road 4
Makha Road 1 Mafrak Aden
Mafrak Aden Kalabh 2
Kalabh 2 Kalabh
Kalabh Freedom
Freedom Cairo castle
Cairo castle Amn Markizy
Amn Markizy
Altahreer Altahreer
Alsteen4 Alsteen4
Alsteen3 Alsteen3
Alsteen2 Alsteen2
Alsteen1 Alsteen1
Peak RLC Cumulated Through VOIP (DL)
Alshuhadaa
887
Alshuhadaa
Alshaqep Alshaqep
Alredhwan Alredhwan
Alrawdhah Alrawdhah
Alqasser Alqasser
Alnoor City Alnoor City
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput VOIP (UL) kbps

Almwasalt26 Almwasalt26
Almogaliah Almogaliah
Almassanaa 2 Almassanaa 2
Almaslakh Almaslakh
Almasanaa 1 Almasanaa 1
Alkurimy Alkurimy
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput VoIP (DL) (kbps) for 10% of total users
Alhassip Post Alhassip Post
Figure 4.36 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput VOIP (UL) kbps

Figure 4.35 : Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput VOIP (DL) kbps
Algomhory Algomhory
Peak RLC Cumulated Throughput VoIP (UL) (kbps) for 10% of total users
Aldahy2 Aldahy2
aldahy1 aldahy1
Alberarh Alberarh
Alaskary Alaskary
Airport Airport
Aden Road Aden Road
Abdullazeez city Abdullazeez city
0
0
500
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
Services Distribution for Different active user percentage and the throughput that was achieved for each
services as percentage from the total throughput in each case.
3% 10 % of total Users (DL) 10% of total Users (UL)

1%
2% 15%
44% 39%
52%
44%
(a)
a20 % of total Users (DL)a 20a% of total Users (UL)a
1% 4%
3% 16%
38%
40%
55% 43%
(B)
30 % of total Users (DL) 30% of total Users (UL)
4%
1%
2% 16%
41% 37%
54%
45%
(C)
High Speed Internet
Mobile Internet Access
Video Conferencing
VoIP
Figure 4.37 : Services Distributions with different Traffic loads

A(a) 10 % (b) 20 % (C) 30 % of total users
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4.6.1 Result Commentary and Conclusion

As can be seen from the previous figures which describe the resulting throughput for different sites and
services. We notice that the throughput is varied from region to another and from service to another
which is due to traffic load, user distribution and user category in each region.
Region No Region 1 Region 2 Region 3

User Percentage 10 % 20 % 30 % 10 % 20 % 30 % 10 % 20 % 30 %
Peak RLC DL 264841 476620 686075 204417 365445 537519 83508 141875 208009
Throughput (Mbps)
Peak RLC UL 66102 132944 197677 38087 77271 109160 15401 26953 41101
Throughput (Mbps)
Table 4.6 : Total peak RLC Cumulated Throughput
700000
600000
500000
400000
300000
Peak RLC Throughput DL (Mbps)
200000
Peak RLC Throughput UL (Mbps)
100000
0
30 % 20 % 10 % 30 % 20 % 10 % 30 % 20 % 10 %
of of of of of of of of of
users users users users users users users users users
Regoin 3 Regoin 2 Region 1
Figure 4.38 : Total throughput in each region with different user percentage
In each region sites appears to have less throughput than its neighbors in the same region and that is
because the simulation algorithm is used to randomize the load and distribute the users into regions
according to the traffic map and with different percentage each iteration and that may also vary the
simulation results each time for each site.
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4.6.2 Future Work

Future work may include studying the relation of LTE with old systems such as GSM and
CDMA and some parameters like handover and roaming .
Another point of future work can include specifying LTE Advance as a Case study and its
comparison to the LTE.
References
[1] Li, Xi.Radio Access Network Dimensioning for 3G UMTS. China : University of Bremen, 2009.
[2] Taiz Information Center http://www.taizgov.com/new/
[3] http://www.forsk.com/
[4] Forsk Atoll help
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Taiz University

Faculty of Engineering and IT

Dr\ Mahdi Qubati

Adnan Saeed Ahmed Kaid

Hassan wazea Hassan ali

Haithem Abdu Saif Esmaeel

Mahmoud Abdullah Mohammed sadeq

Waseem Mohammed Abdulsalam

Younis Taher Kaid Ahmed

1.1. Statement of the Problem

1.4. Scope and Limitation

1.5. History of mobile telecommunication system

1.5.2. The second generation (2G) systems

Figure 1.1Wireless evolution 1990-2011 and beyond

1.6. Long Term Evolution (LTE) Definition:

1.7.2. Increasing the System Capacity

Figure 1.4 Shannon capacity of a communication system, in bandwidths of 5, 10 and

1.7.3. Additional Motivations

Service category Current environment LTE environment

Content for which users pay

Table 1.1 the services and applications of LTE

Figure 2.1 EPC and LTE under the umbrella of EPS.

2.1.1. User Equipment (UE) Architecture

Figure 2.2 Modular architecture of a UE.

Maximum number of DL- Maximum number of bits

Maximum number of bits of Support for Approximate

2.1.2. Evolved-UTRAN (E_UTRAN) Architecture

Recovery functions that allow re-establishment of radio connections after physical

Figure 2.4 EPS network elements

Mobility Management Entity (MME( :

The S-GW (Serving Gateway):

Figure 2.5 Architecture of LTE for a roaming mobile.

2.1.6. Numbering, Addressing and Identication

Tracking Area Identities

Figure 2.8 Temporary identities used by the mobile.

2.2. LTE Protocol Architecture

Figure 2.9 LTE Protocol Stack

2.2.1.1. NAS Layer

4. Add the RLC header to the PDUs.

Figure 2.13 OFDM Signal Represented In Frequency And Time

In OFDM, the subcarriers are

Figure 2.14 - Creating The Time-Domain Waveform Of An SC-FDMA Symbol

Figure 2.15 - Baseband Frequency And Shifted DFT Representations Of An SC-FDMA

Modulation Format OFDMA SC-FDMA

TABLE 2.3: ANALYSIS OF OFDMA AND SC-FDMA AT DIFFERENT BANDWIDTHS

Table 2.4 - LTE Physical Signals

Table 2.5 - LTE Physical Channels

Figure 2.17 General Outline of MIMO system

LTE MIMO basics

Figure 2.18 inter cell interference in the cell edge

2.2.4.5.1. ICIC Concept

Figure 2.19 using ICIC to avoid interference in the cell edge

2.2.4.5.2. Interference Information used in ICIC

Figure 2.20 conventional frequency planning (a) reuse of 1 (b) reuse of 3

Fractional Frequency Reuse (FFR)

Figure 2.21: Partial Frequency Reuse with Full Isolation (PFR-FI)

2. Soft Frequency Reuse (SFR)

3. Soft Fractional Frequency Reuse (SFFR)

Figure 2.23: Soft Fractional Frequency Reuse (SFFR)

2.3. LTE vs. WIMAX

figure 2.24. peak data rates of LTE and WiMAX in DL and UL

[2] An introduction to LTE: LTE, LTE-advanced , SAE and 4G mobile communications /

3.1 Dimensioning of LTE Network:

Figure 3.1 the input and output to LTE dimensioning tool