Carbon dioxide

CO2 redirects here. For other uses, see CO2 (disam- global warming. Carbon dioxide also causes ocean acid-
biguation). ication because it dissolves in water to form carbonic
acid.[7]
Carbon dioxide (chemical formula CO2 ) is a colorless
and odorless gas that is vital to life on Earth. This nat-
urally occurring chemical compound is made up of a 1 Background
carbon atom covalently double bonded to two oxygen
atoms. Carbon dioxide exists in Earths atmosphere as a
trace gas at a concentration of about 0.04 percent (400
ppm) by volume.[3] Natural sources include volcanoes,
hot springs and geysers, and it is freed from carbonate
rocks by dissolution in water and acids. Because car-
bon dioxide is soluble in water, it occurs naturally in
groundwater, rivers and lakes, in ice caps and glaciers and
also in seawater. It is present in deposits of petroleum and
natural gas.[4]
Atmospheric carbon dioxide is the primary source of
carbon in life on Earth and its concentration in Earths
pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian
was regulated by photosynthetic organisms and geologi-
cal phenomena. As part of the carbon cycle, plants, algae,
and cyanobacteria use light energy to photosynthesize
carbohydrate from carbon dioxide and water, with oxy-
gen produced as a waste product.[5]
Carbon dioxide (CO2 ) is produced by all aerobic organ-
isms when they metabolize carbohydrates and lipids to Crystal structure of dry ice
produce energy by respiration.[6] It is returned to water
via the gills of sh and to the air via the lungs of air- Carbon dioxide was the rst gas to be described as a dis-
breathing land animals, including humans. Carbon diox- crete substance. In about 1640,[8] the Flemish chemist
ide is produced during the processes of decay of organic Jan Baptist van Helmont observed that when he burned
materials and the fermentation of sugars in bread, beer charcoal in a closed vessel, the mass of the resulting ash
and winemaking. It is produced by combustion of wood was much less than that of the original charcoal. His in-
and other organic materials and fossil fuels such as coal, terpretation was that the rest of the charcoal had been
peat, petroleum and natural gas. transmuted into an invisible substance he termed a gas
or wild spirit (spiritus sylvestre).[9]
It is a versatile industrial material, used, for example, as
an inert gas in welding and re extinguishers, as a pres- The properties of carbon dioxide were studied more thor-
surizing gas in air guns and oil recovery, as a chemical oughly in the 1750s by the Scottish physician Joseph
feedstock and in liquid form as a solvent in decaeina- Black. He found that limestone (calcium carbonate)
tion of coee and supercritical drying. It is added to could be heated or treated with acids to yield a gas he
drinking water and carbonated beverages including beer called xed air. He observed that the xed air was
and sparkling wine to add eervescence. The frozen solid denser than air and supported neither ame nor ani-
form of CO2 , known as "dry ice" is used as a refrigerant mal life. Black also found that when bubbled through
and as an abrasive in dry-ice blasting. limewater (a saturated aqueous solution of calcium hy-
droxide), it would precipitate calcium carbonate. He used
Carbon dioxide is a signicant greenhouse gas. Since
this phenomenon to illustrate that carbon dioxide is pro-
the Industrial Revolution, anthropogenic emissions - in-
duced by animal respiration and microbial fermentation.
cluding the burning of carbon-based fossil fuels and land
In 1772, English chemist Joseph Priestley published a pa-
use changes (primarily deforestation) - have rapidly in-
per entitled Impregnating Water with Fixed Air in which
creased its concentration in the atmosphere, leading to
he described a process of dripping sulfuric acid (or oil of

1
2 2 CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

vitriol as Priestley knew it) on chalk in order to produce 3 (carbonic acid), which is a weak acid since its ionization
carbon dioxide, and forcing the gas to dissolve by agitat- in water is incomplete.
ing a bowl of water in contact with the gas.[10]
Carbon dioxide was rst liqueed (at elevated pressures) CO
in 1823 by Humphry Davy and Michael Faraday.[11] The 2+H
earliest description of solid carbon dioxide was given by 2O H
Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier, who in 1835 opened a pres- 2CO
surized container of liquid carbon dioxide, only to nd 3
that the cooling produced by the rapid evaporation of the
liquid yielded a snow of solid CO2 .[12][13] The hydration equilibrium constant of carbonic acid is
[H2 CO3 ]
Kh = [CO 2 (aq)]
= 1.70 103 (at 25 C). Hence, the
majority of the carbon dioxide is not converted into car-
2 Chemical and physical properties bonic acid, but remains as CO2 molecules, not aecting
the pH.
2.1 Structure and bonding The relative concentrations of CO
2, H
See also: Molecular orbital diagram Carbon dioxide 2CO
The carbon dioxide molecule is linear and 3, and the deprotonated forms HCO
3 (bicarbonate) and CO2
3(carbonate) depend on the pH. As shown in a Bjerrum
plot, in neutral or slightly alkaline water (pH > 6.5), the
bicarbonate form predominates (>50%) becoming the
most prevalent (>95%) at the pH of seawater. In very al-
kaline water (pH > 10.4), the predominant (>50%) form
is carbonate. The oceans, being mildly alkaline with typ-
ical pH = 8.28.5, contain about 120 mg of bicarbonate
per liter.
Being diprotic, carbonic acid has two acid dissociation
O C O O C O
constants, the rst one for the dissociation into the bicar-
bonate (also called hydrogen carbonate) ion (HCO3 ):
O C O O C O
H2 CO3 HCO3 + H+
K = 2.5104 mol/L; pK = 3.6 at 25 C.[14]
Stretching and bending oscillations of the CO2 carbon dioxide
molecule. Upper left: symmetric stretching. Upper right: an-
This is the true rst acid dissociation constant, dened as
tisymmetric stretching. Lower line: degenerate pair of bending [HCO ][H+ ]
Ka1 = [H23CO3 ] , where the denominator includes only
modes.
covalently bound H2 CO3 and does not include hydrated
CO2 (aq). The much smaller and often-quoted value near
centrosymmetric. The two C=O bonds are equiva-
4.16107 is an apparent value calculated on the (incor-
lent and are short (116.3 pm), consistent with double
rect) assumption that all dissolved CO2 is present as car-
bonding.[14] Since it is centrosymmetric, the molecule [HCO +
3 ][H ]
has no electrical dipole. Consequently, only two vi- bonic acid, so that Ka1 (apparent) = [H2 CO3 ]+[CO2 (aq)]
brational bands are observed in the IR spectrum an . Since most of the dissolved CO2 remains as CO2
antisymmetric stretching mode at 2349 cm1 and a molecules, K(apparent) has a much larger denominator
degenerate pair of bending modes at 667 cm1 . There is and a much smaller value than the true K.[16]
also a symmetric stretching mode at 1388 cm1 which is The bicarbonate ion is an amphoteric species that can act
only observed in the Raman spectrum.[15] as an acid or as a base, depending on pH of the solution.
At high pH, it dissociates signicantly into the carbonate
ion (CO3 2 ):
2.2 In aqueous solution
See also: Carbonic acid HCO3 CO3 2 + H+
K = 4.691011 mol/L; pK = 10.329
Carbon dioxide is soluble in water, in which it reversibly
forms H In organisms carbonic acid production is catalysed by the
2CO enzyme, carbonic anhydrase.
 3

2.3 Chemical reactions of CO2

CO2 is a weak electrophile. Its reaction with basic water
illustrates this property, in which case hydroxide is the
nucleophile. Other nucleophiles react as well. For ex-
ample, carbanions as provided by Grignard reagents and
organolithium compounds react with CO2 to give car-
boxylates:

MR + CO2 RCO2 M
where M = Li or MgBr and R = alkyl or aryl.

In metal carbon dioxide complexes, CO2 serves as a lig-

and, which can facilitate the conversion of CO2 to other
chemicals.[17]
The reduction of CO2 to CO is ordinarily a dicult and Sample of solid carbon dioxide or dry ice pellets
slow reaction:

CO2 + 2 e + 2H+ CO + H2 O mean sea level pressure), the gas deposits directly to a
solid at temperatures below 78.5 C (109.3 F; 194.7
The redox potential for this reaction near pH 7 is about K) and the solid sublimes directly to a gas above 78.5
0.53 V versus the standard hydrogen electrode. The C. In its solid state, carbon dioxide is commonly called
nickel-containing enzyme carbon monoxide dehydroge- dry ice.
nase catalyses this process.[18] Liquid carbon dioxide forms only at pressures above 5.1
atm; the triple point of carbon dioxide is about 518 kPa at
56.6 C (see phase diagram at left). The critical point is
2.4 Physical properties 7.38 MPa at 31.1 C.[19][20] Another form of solid carbon
dioxide observed at high pressure is an amorphous glass-
For more details on this topic, see Carbon dioxide data.
like solid.[21] This form of glass, called carbonia, is pro-
Carbon dioxide is colorless. At low concentrations, the
duced by supercooling heated CO2 at extreme pressure
(4048 GPa or about 400,000 atmospheres) in a diamond
anvil. This discovery conrmed the theory that carbon
10,000
dioxide could exist in a glass state similar to other mem-
bers of its elemental family, like silicon (silica glass) and
solid
germanium dioxide. Unlike silica and germania glasses,
1,000 supercritical however, carbonia glass is not stable at normal pressures
uid
and reverts to gas when pressure is released.
liquid At temperatures and pressures above the critical point,
pressure
P (bar)

100
carbon dioxide behaves as a supercritical uid known as
critical point
supercritical carbon dioxide.
10
gas
triple point

1
3 Isolation and production
200 250 300 350 400
temperature
T (K) Carbon dioxide can be obtained by distillation from air,
but the method is inecient. Industrially, carbon diox-
Carbon dioxide pressure-temperature phase diagram showing the ide is predominantly an unrecovered waste product, pro-
triple point and critical point of carbon dioxide duced by several methods which may be practiced at var-
ious scales.[22]
gas is odorless. At higher concentrations it has a sharp, The combustion of all carbon-based fuels, such as
acidic odor. At standard temperature and pressure, the methane (natural gas), petroleum distillates (gasoline,
density of carbon dioxide is around 1.98 kg/m3 , about diesel, kerosene, propane), coal, wood and generic or-
1.67 times that of air. ganic matter produces carbon dioxide and, except in the
Carbon dioxide has no liquid state at pressures below 5.1 case of pure carbon, water. As an example, the chemical
standard atmospheres (520 kPa). At 1 atmosphere (near reaction between methane and oxygen:
4 4 APPLICATIONS

CH C
4+ 2 O 6H
2 CO 12O
2+ 2 H 6 2 CO
2O 2+ 2 C
2H
It is produced by thermal decomposition of limestone, 5OH
CaCO
3 by heating (calcining) at about 850 C (1,560 F), in the All aerobic organisms produce CO
manufacture of quicklime (calcium oxide, CaO), a com- 2 when they oxidize carbohydrates, fatty acids, and pro-
pound that has many industrial uses: teins. The large number of reactions involved are exceed-
ingly complex and not described easily. Refer to (cellular
CaCO respiration, anaerobic respiration and photosynthesis).
3 CaO + CO The equation for the respiration of glucose and other
2 monosaccharides is:

Iron is reduced from its oxides with coke in a blast fur- C

nace, producing pig iron and carbon dioxide:[23] 6H
12O
Carbon dioxide is a byproduct of the industrial produc-
6+6O
tion of hydrogen by steam reforming and ammonia syn-
2 6 CO
thesis. These processes begin with the reaction of water
2+6H
and natural gas (mainly methane).[24]
2O
Acids liberate CO
2 from most metal carbonates. Consequently, it may be Photoautotrophs (i.e. plants and cyanobacteria) use the
obtained directly from natural carbon dioxide springs, energy contained in sunlight to photosynthesize simple
where it is produced by the action of acidied wa- sugars from CO
ter on limestone or dolomite. The reaction between 2 absorbed from the air and water:
hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate (limestone or
chalk) is shown below:
n CO
2+nH
CaCO
2O (CH
3+ 2 HCl CaCl
2O)
2+ H
n+nO
2CO
2
3

Carbon dioxide comprises about 40-45% of the gas that

The carbonic acid (H
emanates from decomposition in landlls (termed land-
2CO
ll gas). Most of the remaining 50-55% is methane.[25]
3) then decomposes to water and CO
2:

H
4 Applications
2CO
3 CO Carbon dioxide is used by the food industry, the oil in-
2+ H dustry, and the chemical industry.[22] The compound has
2O varied commercial uses but one of its greatest use as a
chemical is in the production of carbonated beverages; it
Such reactions are accompanied by foaming or bubbling, provides the sparkle in carbonated beverages such as soda
or both, as the gas is released. They have widespread uses water.
in industry because they can be used to neutralize waste
acid streams.
4.1 Precursor to chemicals
Carbon dioxide is a by-product of the fermentation of
sugar in the brewing of beer, whisky and other alcoholic In the chemical industry, carbon dioxide is mainly con-
beverages and in the production of bioethanol. Yeast me- sumed as an ingredient in the production of urea, with
tabolizes sugar to produce CO a smaller fraction being used to produce methanol and a
2 and ethanol, also known as alcohol, as follows: range of other products,[26] such as metal carbonates and
4.3 Inert gas 5

dispensing taps on the bar using pressurized carbon diox-

ide, sometimes mixed with nitrogen.

4.2.2 Wine making

Carbon dioxide in the form of dry ice is often used

in the wine making process to cool down clusters of
grapes quickly after picking to help prevent spontaneous
fermentation by wild yeast. The main advantage of using
dry ice over regular water ice is that it cools the grapes
without adding any additional water that may decrease the
sugar concentration in the grape must, and therefore also
Carbon dioxide bubbles in a soft drink. decrease the alcohol concentration in the nished wine.
Dry ice is used during the cold soak phase of the wine
bicarbonates. Some carboxylic acid derivatives such as making process to keep grapes cool. The carbon dioxide
sodium salicylate are prepared using CO2 by the Kolbe- gas that results from the sublimation of the dry ice tends
Schmitt reaction.[27] to settle to the bottom of tanks because it is denser than
air. The settled carbon dioxide gas creates a hypoxic en-
In addition to conventional processes using CO2 for
vironment which helps to prevent bacteria from growing
chemical production, electrochemical methods are also
on the grapes until it is time to start the fermentation with
being explored at a research level. In particular, the use
the desired strain of yeast.
of renewable energy for production of fuels from CO2
(such as methanol) is attractive as this could result in fu- Carbon dioxide is also used to create a hypoxic environ-
els that could be easily transported and used within con- ment for carbonic maceration, the process used to pro-
ventional combustion technologies but have no net CO2 duce Beaujolais wine.
emissions.[28] Carbon dioxide is sometimes used to top up wine bottles
or other storage vessels such as barrels to prevent oxida-
tion, though it has the problem that it can dissolve into the
4.2 Foods wine, making a previously still wine slightly zzy. For this
reason, other gases such as nitrogen or argon are preferred
Carbon dioxide is a food additive used as a propellant and for this process by professional wine makers.
acidity regulator in the food industry. It is approved for
usage in the EU[29] (listed as E number E290), US[30] and
Australia and New Zealand[31] (listed by its INS number 4.3 Inert gas
290).
A candy called Pop Rocks is pressurized with carbon It is one of the most commonly used compressed gases for
dioxide gas at about 4 x 106 Pa (40 bar, 580 psi). When pneumatic (pressurized gas) systems in portable pressure
placed in the mouth, it dissolves (just like other hard tools. Carbon dioxide is also used as an atmosphere for
candy) and releases the gas bubbles with an audible pop. welding, although in the welding arc, it reacts to oxidize
most metals. Use in the automotive industry is common
Leavening agents cause dough to rise by producing car-
despite signicant evidence that welds made in carbon
bon dioxide. Bakers yeast produces carbon dioxide by
dioxide are more brittle than those made in more inert
fermentation of sugars within the dough, while chemical
atmospheres, and that such weld joints deteriorate over
leaveners such as baking powder and baking soda release
time because of the formation of carbonic acid. It is used
carbon dioxide when heated or if exposed to acids.
as a welding gas primarily because it is much less expen-
sive than more inert gases such as argon or helium. When
4.2.1 Beverages used for MIG welding, CO2 use is sometimes referred to
as MAG welding, for Metal Active Gas, as CO2 can react
Carbon dioxide is used to produce carbonated soft drinks at these high temperatures. It tends to produce a hotter
and soda water. Traditionally, the carbonation of beer puddle than truly inert atmospheres, improving the ow
and sparkling wine came about through natural fermenta- characteristics. Although, this may be due to atmospheric
tion, but many manufacturers carbonate these drinks with reactions occurring at the puddle site. This is usually the
carbon dioxide recovered from the fermentation process. opposite of the desired eect when welding, as it tends to
In the case of bottled and kegged beer, the most common embrittle the site, but may not be a problem for general
method used is carbonation with recycled carbon diox- mild steel welding, where ultimate ductility is not a major
ide. With the exception of British Real Ale, draught beer concern.
is usually transferred from kegs in a cold room or cellar to It is used in many consumer products that require pres-
6 4 APPLICATIONS

surized gas because it is inexpensive and nonammable, caeine from coee. Carbon dioxide has attracted atten-
and because it undergoes a phase transition from gas to tion in the pharmaceutical and other chemical processing
liquid at room temperature at an attainable pressure of ap- industries as a less toxic alternative to more traditional
proximately 60 bar (870 psi, 59 atm), allowing far more solvents such as organochlorides. It is used by some dry
carbon dioxide to t in a given container than otherwise cleaners for this reason (see green chemistry). It is used
would. Life jackets often contain canisters of pressured in the preparation of some aerogels because of the prop-
carbon dioxide for quick ination. Aluminium capsules erties of supercritical carbon dioxide.
of CO2 are also sold as supplies of compressed gas for
airguns, paintball markers, inating bicycle tires, and for
making carbonated water. Rapid vaporization of liquid
carbon dioxide is used for blasting in coal mines. High 4.6 Agricultural and biological applica-
concentrations of carbon dioxide can also be used to kill tions
pests. Liquid carbon dioxide is used in supercritical dry-
ing of some food products and technological materials, Plants require carbon dioxide to conduct photosynthesis.
in the preparation of specimens for scanning electron mi- The atmospheres of greenhouses may (if of large size,
croscopy and in the decaeination of coee beans. must) be enriched with additional CO2 to sustain and
increase the rate of plant growth.[34][35] At very high
concentrations (100 times atmospheric concentration, or
4.4 Fire extinguisher greater), carbon dioxide can be toxic to animal life, so
raising the concentration to 10,000 ppm (1%) or higher
Carbon dioxide can be used to extinguish ames by ood- for several hours will eliminate pests such as whiteies
ing the environment around the ame with the gas. It does and spider mites in a greenhouse.[36]
not itself react to extinguish the ame, but starves the
ame of oxygen by displacing it. Some re extinguish- In medicine, up to 5% carbon dioxide (130 times atmo-
ers, especially those designed for electrical res, contain spheric concentration) is added to oxygen for stimulation
liquid carbon dioxide under pressure. Carbon dioxide ex- of breathing after apnea and to stabilize the O
tinguishers work well on small ammable liquid and elec- 2/CO
trical res, but not on ordinary combustible res, because 2 balance in blood.
although it excludes oxygen, it does not cool the burn- It has been proposed that carbon dioxide from power gen-
ing substances signicantly and when the carbon diox- eration be bubbled into ponds to stimulate growth of algae
ide disperses they are free to catch re upon exposure to that could then be converted into biodiesel fuel.[37]
atmospheric oxygen. Their desirability in electrical re
stems from the fact that, unlike water or other chemical
based methods, Carbon dioxide will not cause short cir-
cuits, leading to even more damage to equipment. Be- 4.7 Oil recovery
cause it is a gas, it is also easy to dispense large amounts
of the gas automatically in IT infrastructure rooms, where Carbon dioxide is used in enhanced oil recovery where
the re itself might be hard to reach with more immedi- it is injected into or adjacent to producing oil wells, usu-
ate methods because it is behind rack doors and inside ally under supercritical conditions, when it becomes mis-
of cases. Carbon dioxide has also been widely used as cible with the oil. This approach can increase original oil
an extinguishing agent in xed re protection systems for recovery by reducing residual oil saturation by between
local application of specic hazards and total ooding of 7 per cent to 23 per cent additional to primary extrac-
a protected space.[32] International Maritime Organiza- tion.[38] It acts as both a pressurizing agent and, when
tion standards also recognize carbon dioxide systems for dissolved into the underground crude oil, signicantly re-
re protection of ship holds and engine rooms. Carbon duces its viscosity, and changing surface chemistry en-
dioxide based re protection systems have been linked to abling the oil to ow more rapidly through the reservoir
several deaths, because it can cause suocation in suf- to the removal well.[39] In mature oil elds, extensive pipe
ciently high concentrations. A review of CO2 systems networks are used to carry the carbon dioxide to the in-
identied 51 incidents between 1975 and the date of the jection points.
report, causing 72 deaths and 145 injuries.[33]

4.5 Supercritical CO2 as solvent 4.8 Bio transformation into fuel

See also: Supercritical carbon dioxide Researchers have genetically modied a strain of the
cyanobacterium Synechococcus elongatus to produce the
Liquid carbon dioxide is a good solvent for many fuels isobutyraldehyde and isobutanol from CO2 using
lipophilic organic compounds and is used to remove photosynthesis.[40]
4.11 Minor uses 7

Temperature

100 MPa
0K 50 K 100 K 150 K 200 K 250 K 300 K 350 K 400 K 450 K 500 K 550 K 600 K
Water critical point
647 K (374 C)
650 K
1 kbar 4.11 Minor uses
22.064 MPa
LIQUID SUPERCRITICAL CO2
10 MPa CO2 100 bar
CO2 critical point
304.25 K (31.1 C)
Pressure

CO2 triple point

216.55 K (-56.6 C) 7.39 MPa
1 MPa 518 kPa Water freezing 10 bar
point at 1 atm
SOLID CO2
(DRY ICE) GASEOUS 273.15 K (0 C)
CO2 101.325 kPa
100 kPa 1 bar
CO2 sublimation Water boiling
point at 1 atm LIQUID point at 1 atm
194.65 K (-78.5 C) WATER 373.15 K (100 C)
101.325 kPa 101.325 kPa
10 kPa 100 mbar

SOLID WATER GASEOUS WATER

(WATER ICE) (STEAM)
1 kPa 10 mbar
Water triple point
273.16 K (0.01 C)
611.657 Pa
100 Pa 1 mbar
-250 C -200 C -150 C -100 C -50 C 0 C 50 C 100 C 150 C 200 C 250 C 300 C 350 C

Comparison of phase diagrams of carbon dioxide (red) and wa-

ter (blue) as a log-lin chart with phase transitions points at 1 at-
mosphere

A carbon dioxide laser.

4.9 Refrigerant
Carbon dioxide is the lasing medium in a carbon dioxide
Liquid and solid carbon dioxide are important laser, which is one of the earliest type of lasers.
refrigerants, especially in the food industry, where Carbon dioxide can be used as a means of controlling the
they are employed during the transportation and storage pH of swimming pools, by continuously adding gas to the
of ice cream and other frozen foods. Solid carbon dioxide water, thus keeping the pH from rising. Among the ad-
is called dry ice and is used for small shipments where vantages of this is the avoidance of handling (more haz-
refrigeration equipment is not practical. Solid carbon ardous) acids. Similarly, it is also used in the maintaining
dioxide is always below 78.5 C at regular atmospheric reef aquaria, where it is commonly used in calcium reac-
pressure, regardless of the air temperature. tors to temporarily lower the pH of water being passed
Liquid carbon dioxide (industry nomenclature R744 or over calcium carbonate in order to allow the calcium car-
R-744) was used as a refrigerant prior to the discovery bonate to dissolve into the water more freely where it is
of R-12 and may enjoy a renaissance due to the fact that used by some corals to build their skeleton.
R134a contributes to climate change. Its physical prop- Used as the primary coolant in the British advanced gas-
erties are highly favorable for cooling, refrigeration, and cooled reactor for nuclear power generation.
heating purposes, having a high volumetric cooling ca-
pacity. Due to the need to operate at pressures of up to Carbon dioxide induction is commonly used for the eu-
130 bar (1880 psi), CO2 systems require highly resistant thanasia of laboratory research animals. Methods to
components that have already been developed for mass administer CO2 include placing animals directly into a
production in many sectors. In automobile air condition- closed, prelled chamber containing CO2 , or exposure
ing, in more than 90% of all driving conditions for lat- to a gradually increasing concentration of CO2 . In 2013,
itudes higher than 50, R744 operates more eciently the American Veterinary Medical Association issued new
than systems using R134a. Its environmental advan- guidelines for carbon dioxide induction, stating that a dis-
tages (GWP of 1, non-ozone depleting, non-toxic, non- placement rate of 10% to 30% of the gas chamber vol-
ammable) could make it the future working uid to re- ume per minute is optimal for the humane euthanization
[44]
place current HFCs in cars, supermarkets, and heat pump of small rodents.
water heaters, among others. Coca-Cola has elded CO2 - Carbon dioxide is also used in several related cleaning and
based beverage coolers and the U.S. Army is interested surface preparation techniques, and in Paintball Tanks.
in CO2 refrigeration and heating technology.[41][42]
The global automobile industry is expected to decide on
the next-generation refrigerant in car air conditioning. 5 In Earths atmosphere
CO2 is one discussed option.(see Sustainable automotive
air conditioning) Main articles: Carbon dioxide in Earths atmosphere and
Carbon cycle
Carbon dioxide in Earths atmosphere is a trace gas, cur-
rently (early 2016) having an average concentration of
4.10 Coal bed methane recovery 402 parts per million by volume[3][45][46] (or 611 parts per
million by mass). Atmospheric concentrations of carbon
In enhanced coal bed methane recovery, carbon dioxide dioxide uctuate slightly with the seasons, falling during
would be pumped into the coal seam to displace methane, the Northern Hemisphere spring and summer as plants
as opposed to current methods which primarily rely on the consume the gas and rising during northern autumn and
removal of water (to reduce pressure) to make the coal winter as plants go dormant or die and decay. Concen-
seam release its trapped methane.[43] trations also vary on a regional basis, most strongly near
8 5 IN EARTHS ATMOSPHERE

Monthly mean CO2concentration

Mauna Loa 1958 - 2016
tional frequencies (see the section Structure and bond-
3
Seasonal variation ing above). This causes carbon dioxide to warm the sur-
CO2fraction in dry air ( mol/mol)
Departure from yearly average 2
face and lower atmosphere while cooling the upper atmo-
1 sphere. Increases in atmospheric concentrations of CO2
390
0 and other long-lived greenhouse gases such as methane,
-1 nitrous oxide and ozone have correspondingly strength-
ened their absorption and emission of infrared radiation,
CO2fraction in dry air ( mol/mol)

-2

-3

Jan Apr Jul Oct

causing the rise in average global temperature since the
Month
360 mid-20th century. Carbon dioxide is of greatest concern
because it exerts a larger overall warming inuence than
all of these other gases combined and because it has a long
atmospheric lifetime (hundreds to thousands of years).
330

1960 1980 2000

Year
Data : NOAA/P. Tans

The Keeling Curve of atmospheric CO2 concentrations measured

at Mauna Loa Observatory

the ground with much smaller variations aloft. In urban

areas concentrations are generally higher[47] and indoors
they can reach 10 times background levels. CO2 in Earth's atmosphere if half of global-warming emissions
are not absorbed.[53][54][55][56]
(NASA computer simulation).

Not only do increasing carbon dioxide concentrations

lead to increases in global surface temperature, but in-
creasing global temperatures also cause increasing con-
centrations of carbon dioxide. This produces a positive
feedback for changes induced by other processes such as
orbital cycles.[57] Five hundred million years ago the car-
bon dioxide concentration was 20 times greater than to-
day, decreasing to 45 times during the Jurassic period
and then slowly declining with a particularly swift reduc-
tion occurring 49 million years ago.[58][59]
Local concentrations of carbon dioxide can reach high
values near strong sources, especially those that are iso-
Yearly increase of atmospheric CO2 : In the 1960s, the average lated by surrounding terrain. At the Bossoleto hot spring
annual increase was 37% of the 20002007 average.[48] near Rapolano Terme in Tuscany, Italy, situated in a
bowl-shaped depression about 100 m (330 ft) in diam-
The concentration of carbon dioxide has risen due eter, concentrations of CO2 rise to above 75% overnight,
to human activities.[49] Combustion of fossil fuels and sucient to kill insects and small animals. After sun-
deforestation have caused the atmospheric concentration rise the gas is dispersed by convection during the day.[60]
of carbon dioxide to increase by about 43% since the be- High concentrations of CO2 produced by disturbance of
ginning of the age of industrialization.[50] Most carbon deep lake water saturated with CO2 are thought to have
dioxide from human activities is released from burning caused 37 fatalities at Lake Monoun, Cameroon in 1984
coal and other fossil fuels. Other human activities, includ- and 1700 casualties at Lake Nyos, Cameroon in 1986.[61]
ing deforestation, biomass burning, and cement produc- Human-made carbon dioxide (CO2 ) continues to in-
tion also produce carbon dioxide. Human activities emit crease above levels not seen in hundreds of thousands
about 29 billion tons of carbon dioxide per year, while of years. Currently, about half of the carbon dioxide
volcanoes emit between 0.2 and 0.3 billion tons.[51][52] released from the burning of fossil fuels remains in the
Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas, absorbing and emit- atmosphere and is not absorbed by vegetation and the
ting infrared radiation at its two infrared-active vibra- oceans.[53][54][55][56]
 9

6 In the oceans cess known as ocean acidication. A growing number

of studies have demonstrated adverse impacts on marine
organisms, including:
Main article: Carbon cycle

Carbon dioxide dissolves in the ocean to form carbonic The rate at which reef-building corals produce their
acid (H2 CO3 ), bicarbonate (HCO3 ) and carbonate skeletons decreases, while production of numerous
(CO3 2 ). There is about fty times as much carbon dis- varieties of jellysh increases.
solved in the oceans as exists in the atmosphere. The
oceans act as an enormous carbon sink, and have taken
up about a third of CO2 emitted by human activity.[62] The ability of marine algae and free-swimming zoo-
plankton to maintain protective shells is reduced.
As the concentration of carbon dioxide increases in
the atmosphere, the increased uptake of carbon diox-
ide into the oceans is causing a measurable decrease in The survival of larval marine species, including
the pH of the oceans, which is referred to as ocean commercial sh and shellsh, is reduced.
acidication. This reduction in pH aects biologi-
cal systems in the oceans, primarily oceanic calcifying
organisms. These eects span the food chain from Also, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
autotrophs to heterotrophs and include organisms such (IPCC) writes in their Climate Change 2007: Synthesis
as coccolithophores, corals, foraminifera, echinoderms, Report:[79]
crustaceans and mollusks. Under normal conditions, cal- The uptake of anthropogenic carbon since 1750 has led
cium carbonate is stable in surface waters since the car- to the ocean becoming more acidic with an average de-
bonate ion is at supersaturating concentrations. How- crease in pH of 0.1 units. Increasing atmospheric CO2
ever, as ocean pH falls, so does the concentration concentrations lead to further acidication ... While the
of this ion, and when carbonate becomes undersatu- eects of observed ocean acidication on the marine bio-
rated, structures made of calcium carbonate are vulner- sphere are as yet undocumented, the progressive acidi-
able to dissolution.[63] Corals,[64][65][66] coccolithophore cation of oceans is expected to have negative impacts on
algae,[67][68][69][70] coralline algae,[71] foraminifera,[72] marine shell-forming organisms (e.g. corals) and their de-
shellsh[73] and pteropods[74] experience reduced calci- pendent species.
cation or enhanced dissolution when exposed to elevated Some marine calcifying organisms (including coral reefs)
CO have been singled out by major research agencies, in-
2. cluding NOAA, OSPAR commission, NANOOS and the
Gas solubility decreases as the temperature of water IPCC, because their most current research shows that
increases (except when both pressure exceeds 300 bar ocean acidication
[80]
should be expected to impact them
and temperature exceeds 393 K, only found near deep negatively.
geothermal vents)[75] and therefore the rate of uptake Carbon dioxide is also introduced into the oceans through
from the atmosphere decreases as ocean temperatures hydrothermal vents. The Champagne hydrothermal vent,
rise. found at the Northwest Eifuku volcano at Marianas
Most of the CO2 taken up by the ocean, which is about Trench Marine National Monument, produces almost
30% of the total released into the atmosphere,[76] forms pure liquid carbon
[81]
dioxide, one of only two known sites
carbonic acid in equilibrium with bicarbonate. Some of in the world.
these chemical species are consumed by photosynthetic
organisms that remove carbon from the cycle. Increased
CO2 in the atmosphere has led to decreasing alkalinity
of seawater, and there is concern that this may adversely 7 Biological role
aect organisms living in the water. In particular, with
decreasing alkalinity, the availability of carbonates for Carbon dioxide is an end product of cellular respiration
forming shells decreases,[77] although theres evidence of in organisms that obtain energy by breaking down sug-
increased shell production by certain species under in- ars, fats and amino acids with oxygen as part of their
creased CO2 content.[78] metabolism. This includes all plants, algae and animals
NOAA states in their May 2008 State of the science fact and aerobic fungi and bacteria. In vertebrates, the car-
sheet for ocean acidication" that: bon dioxide travels in the blood from the bodys tissues
The oceans have absorbed about 50% of the carbon to the skin (e.g., amphibians) or the gills (e.g., sh), from
dioxide (CO2 ) released from the burning of fossil fuels, where it dissolves in the water, or to the lungs from where
resulting in chemical reactions that lower ocean pH. This it is exhaled. During active photosynthesis, plants can ab-
has caused an increase in hydrogen ion (acidity) of about sorb more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere than they
30% since the start of the industrial age through a pro- release in respiration.
10
Overview of photosynthesis and respiration. Carbon dioxide (at
right), together with water, form oxygen and organic compounds
(at left) by photosynthesis, which can be respired to water and
(CO2 ).
ADP
ATP
ATP
ADP
NADPH
NADP+
Figure 2. Overview of the Calvin cycle and carbon xation
7.1 Photosynthesis and carbon xation
Carbon xation is a biochemical process by which atmo-
spheric carbon dioxide is incorporated by plants, algae
and (cyanobacteria) into energy-rich organic molecules
such as glucose, thus creating their own food by
photosynthesis. Photosynthesis uses carbon dioxide and
water to produce sugars from which other organic com-
pounds can be constructed, and oxygen is produced as a
by-product.
Ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase, com-
monly abbreviated to RuBisCO, is the enzyme involved
7 BIOLOGICAL ROLE
in the rst major step of carbon xation, the production
of two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate from CO2 and
ribulose bisphosphate, as shown in the diagram at left.
RuBisCO is thought to be the single most abundant pro-
tein on Earth.[82]
Phototrophs use the products of their photosynthesis
as internal food sources and as raw material for the
biosynthesis of more complex organic molecules, such
as polysaccharides, nucleic acids and proteins. These
are used for their own growth, and also as the basis of
the food chains and webs that feed other organisms, in-
cluding animals such as ourselves. Some important pho-
totrophs, the coccolithophores synthesise hard calcium
carbonate scales.[83] A globally signicant species of coc-
colithophore is Emiliania huxleyi whose calcite scales
have formed the basis of many sedimentary rocks such as
limestone, where what was previously atmospheric car-
bon can remain xed for geological timescales.
Plants can grow as much as 50 percent faster in concen-
trations of 1,000 ppm CO2 when compared with ambient
conditions, though this assumes no change in climate and
no limitation on other nutrients.[84] Elevated CO2 levels
cause increased growth reected in the harvestable yield
of crops, with wheat, rice and soybean all showing in-
creases in yield of 1214% under elevated CO2 in FACE
experiments.[85][86]
Increased atmospheric CO2 concentrations result in fewer
stomata developing on plants[87] which leads to reduced
water usage and increased water-use eciency.[88] Stud-
ies using FACE have shown that CO2 enrichment leads
to decreased concentrations of micronutrients in crop
plants.[89] This may have knock-on eects on other parts
of ecosystems as herbivores will need to eat more food to
gain the same amount of protein.[90]
The concentration of secondary metabolites such as
phenylpropanoids and avonoids can also be altered in
plants exposed to high concentrations of CO2 .[91][92]
Plants also emit CO2 during respiration, and so the ma-
jority of plants and algae, which use C3 photosynthesis,
are only net absorbers during the day. Though a growing
forest will absorb many tons of CO2 each year, a mature
forest will produce as much CO2 from respiration and
decomposition of dead specimens (e.g., fallen branches)
as is used in photosynthesis in growing plants.[93] Con-
trary to the long-standing view that they are carbon neu-
tral, mature forests can continue to accumulate carbon[94]
and remain valuable carbon sinks, helping to maintain
the carbon balance of Earths atmosphere. Additionally,
and crucially to life on earth, photosynthesis by phyto-
plankton consumes dissolved CO2 in the upper ocean
and thereby promotes the absorption of CO2 from the
atmosphere.[95]
7.2 Toxicity 11

7.2 Toxicity that 2.0 percent inspired concentrations could be used

for closed air spaces (e.g. a submarine) since the adap-
See also: Carbon dioxide poisoning tation is physiological and reversible, as decrement in
Carbon dioxide content in fresh air (averaged between performance or in normal physical activity does not hap-
pen at this level of exposure for ve days.[100][101] Yet,
Main symptoms of other studies show a decrease in cognitive function even
Carbon dioxide toxicity at much lower levels.[102][103] Also, with ongoing respi-
Visual Central ratory acidosis, adaptation or compensatory mechanisms
Volume %
in air - Dimmed - Drowsiness will be unable to reverse such condition.
sight - Mild narcosis
- 1% - Dizziness
- 3% Auditory - Confusion
- 5% - Reduced - Headache 7.2.1 Below 1%
- 8% hearing - Unconsciousness
There are few studies of the health eects of long-term
Skin continuous CO2 exposure on humans and animals at lev-
- Sweating
Respiratory els below 1% and there is potentially a signicant risk to
- Shortness humans in the near future with rising atmospheric CO2
of breath Heart
levels associated with climate change.[104] Occupational
- Increased
heart rate CO2 exposure limits have been set in the United States
Muscular and blood at 0.5% (5000 ppm) for an eight-hour period.[105] At
- Tremor pressure
this CO2 concentration, International Space Station crew
experienced headaches, lethargy, mental slowness, emo-
Main symptoms of carbon dioxide toxicity, by increasing volume tional irritation, and sleep disruption.[106] Studies in ani-
percent in air.[96]
mals at 0.5% CO2 have demonstrated kidney calcication
and bone loss after eight weeks of exposure.[107] A study
sea-level and 10 kPa level, i.e., about 30 km (19 mi) al- of humans exposed in 2.5 hour sessions demonstrated sig-
titude) varies between 0.036% (360 ppm) and 0.041% nicant eects on cognitive abilities at concentrations as
(410 ppm), depending on the location.[97] low as 0.1% (1000ppm) CO2 likely due to CO2 induced
CO2 is an asphyxiant gas and not classied as toxic or increases in cerebral blood ow.[102] Another study ob-
harmful in accordance with Globally Harmonized Sys- served a decline in basic activity level and information
tem of Classication and Labelling of Chemicals stan- usage at 1000 ppm, when compared to 500 ppm.[103]
dards of United Nations Economic Commission for Eu-
rope by using the OECD Guidelines for the Testing of
7.2.2 Ventilation
Chemicals. In concentrations up to 1% (10,000 ppm), it
will make some people feel drowsy and give the lungs a Poor ventilation is one of the main causes of excessive
stuy feeling.[96] Concentrations of 7% to 10% (70,000 CO2 concentrations in closed spaces. Carbon dioxide dif-
to 100,000 ppm) may cause suocation, even in the ferential above outdoor concentrations at steady state con-
presence of sucient oxygen, manifesting as dizziness,
ditions (when the occupancy and ventilation system oper-
headache, visual and hearing dysfunction, and uncon- ation are suciently long that CO2 concentration has sta-
sciousness within a few minutes to an hour.[98] The phys-
bilized) are sometimes used to estimate ventilation rates
iological eects of acute carbon dioxide exposure are per person. Higher CO2 concentrations are associated
grouped together under the term hypercapnia, a subset
with occupant health, comfort and performance degra-
of asphyxiation. dation. ASHRAE Standard 62.12007 ventilation rates
Because it is heavier than air, in locations where the may result in indoor levels up to 2,100 ppm above ambi-
gas seeps from the ground (due to sub-surface volcanic ent outdoor conditions. Thus if the outdoor concentration
or geothermal activity) in relatively high concentrations, is 400 ppm, indoor concentrations may reach 2,500 ppm
without the dispersing eects of wind, it can collect in with ventilation rates that meet this industry consensus
sheltered/pocketed locations below average ground level, standard. Concentrations in poorly ventilated spaces can
causing animals located therein to be suocated. Car- be found even higher than this (range of 3,000 or 4,000).
rion feeders attracted to the carcasses are then also killed. Miners, who are particularly vulnerable to gas expo-
Children have been killed in the same way near the city sure due to an insucient ventilation, referred to mix-
of Goma by CO2 emissions from the nearby volcano Mt. tures of carbon dioxide and nitrogen as "blackdamp,
Nyiragongo.[99] The Swahili term for this phenomenon is choke damp or stythe. Before more eective tech-
'mazuku'. nologies were developed, miners would frequently moni-
Adaptation to increased concentrations of CO2 occurs tor for dangerous levels of blackdamp and other gases in
in humans, including modied breathing and kidney bi- mine shafts by bringing a caged canary with them as they
carbonate production, in order to balance the eects of worked. The canary is more sensitive to asphyxiant gases
blood acidication (acidosis). Several studies suggested than humans, and as it became unconscious would stop
12 8 SEE ALSO

singing and fall o its perch. The Davy lamp could also 7.3.3 Regulation of respiration
detect high levels of blackdamp (which sinks, and collects
near the oor) by burning less brightly, while methane, Carbon dioxide is one of the mediators of local
another suocating gas and explosion risk, would make autoregulation of blood supply. If its concentration is
the lamp burn more brightly. high, the capillaries expand to allow a greater blood ow
to that tissue.
Bicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH. A
7.3 Human physiology persons breathing rate inuences the level of CO2 in
their blood. Breathing that is too slow or shallow causes
7.3.1 Content respiratory acidosis, while breathing that is too rapid leads
to hyperventilation, which can cause respiratory alkalosis.
The body produces approximately 2.3 pounds (1.0 kg) of
carbon dioxide per day per person,[108] containing 0.63 Although the body requires oxygen for metabolism,
pounds (290 g) of carbon. In humans, this carbon dioxide low oxygen levels normally do not stimulate breathing.
is carried through the venous system and is breathed out Rather, breathing is stimulated by higher carbon dioxide
through the lungs, resulting in lower concentrations in the levels. As a result, breathing low-pressure air or a gas
arteries. The carbon dioxide content of the blood is often mixture with no oxygen at all (such as pure nitrogen) can
given as the partial pressure, which is the pressure which lead to loss of consciousness without ever experiencing
carbon dioxide would have had if it alone occupied the air hunger. This is especially perilous for high-altitude
volume.[109] ghter pilots. It is also why ight attendants instruct pas-
sengers, in case of loss of cabin pressure, to apply the
In humans, the carbon dioxide contents are as follows: oxygen mask to themselves rst before helping others;
otherwise, one risks losing consciousness.[112]
The respiratory centers try to maintain an arterial CO2
pressure of 40 mm Hg. With intentional hyperventila-
tion, the CO2 content of arterial blood may be lowered to
7.3.2 Transport in the blood 1020 mm Hg (the oxygen content of the blood is little
aected), and the respiratory drive is diminished. This
CO2 is carried in blood in three dierent ways. (The ex- is why one can hold ones breath longer after hyperven-
act percentages vary depending whether it is arterial or tilating than without hyperventilating. This carries the
venous blood). risk that unconsciousness may result before the need to
breathe becomes overwhelming, which is why hyperven-
Most of it (about 70% to 80%) is converted to tilation is particularly dangerous before free diving.
bicarbonate ions HCO
3 by the enzyme carbonic anhydrase in the red blood
cells,[112] by the reaction CO2 + H2 O H2 CO3 8 See also
H+ + HCO
3. Acidosis
5% 10% is dissolved in the plasma[112] Alkalosis

5% 10% is bound to hemoglobin as carbamino Arterial blood gas

compounds[112]
Bosch reaction

Hemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule in red Bottled gas

blood cells, carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide. Carbogen
However, the CO2 bound to hemoglobin does not bind
to the same site as oxygen. Instead, it combines with the Carbon dioxide sensor
N-terminal groups on the four globin chains. However,
because of allosteric eects on the hemoglobin molecule, Carbon sequestration
the binding of CO2 decreases the amount of oxygen that Chemical equilibrium
is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen. The de-
creased binding to carbon dioxide in the blood due to in- EcoCute as refrigerants
creased oxygen levels is known as the Haldane Eect, and
is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the Emission standards
tissues to the lungs. Conversely, a rise in the partial pres- Indoor_air_quality
sure of CO2 or a lower pH will cause ooading of oxygen
from hemoglobin, which is known as the Bohr Eect. Kaya identity

Lake Kivu
List of least carbon ecient power stations
List of countries by carbon dioxide emissions
Meromictic lake
pCO2
pH
pKa
Sabatier reaction
Gilbert Plass (early work on CO2 and climate
change)
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10 Further reading
Seppanen, Fisk and Mendell, Association of Ven-
tilation Rates and CO2 Concentrations with Health
and Other Responses in Commercial and Institu-
tional Buildings, Indoor Air 1999.
Shendell, Prill, Fisk, Apte1, Blake & Faulkner, As-
sociations between classroom CO2 concentrations
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door Air 2004.
Soentgen, Jens, Hot air: The science and politics of
CO2. In: Global Environment, Vol 7, March 2014,
pp. 134171.

11 External links
International Chemical Safety Card 0021
CID {{{1}}} from PubChem
18 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

12 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

12.1 Text
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Martin451, AreYouWastingMyTime, Leafyplant, CanOfWorms, Igorgotgame, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Optigan13, Nuance 4, UnitedState-
12.2 Images 19

sian, Henryodell, Cormac Bracken, Maxim, BigDunc, Dirkbb, Sarc37, Mcattell, Mattv200669, Peskasker, Peterpressure, Enviroboy, Edge-
worthMcIntyre, MajorHazard, Thorthorthorthor, Spinningspark, Dmcq, Jumbonium, AlleborgoBot, Quantpole, Tinujohnmathews, Yak-
sar, Avrau, Hunterme2, Hannahgrace2013, Pmicka, Geelhoed~enwiki, Cckchang, Prove it 69, Demmy, Nick1234569, Wakto, Danno161,
Copana2002, Drake144, SieBot, Calliopejen1, Tlinna~enwiki, Allan Ames, Scarian, Euryalus, Platinumbuddha, AMalstrom13, Caltas,
Eagleal, Stlchickenwings, Cwkmail, VS 78, Jason Patton, The way, the truth, and the light, Arda Xi, Toddst1, Radon210, Rockoutxxjade,
Tom Worthington, Prestonmag, Evaluist, Oxymoron83, Ioverka, JerzyTarasiuk, Harry-, KoshVorlon, Lightmouse, Rynosaur, DrumCar-
ton, Grunkhead, Spamsara, Taggard, HAL(Old), Lolerman0123456789, TX55, Spartan-James, Schoenl, Andrew4tehwin, Anyeverybody,
Ascidian, Pinkadelica, Dolphin51, Nergaal, DRTllbrg, Denisarona, Chem-awb, Kanonkas, Manawyddan, Atif.t2, Twinsday, De728631,
Elassint, ClueBot, Sixgun000, Paul Taylor, Phoenix-wiki, The Thing That Should Not Be, IceUnshattered, Techdawg667, Jlglex, Ianpb,
Klueless, Mild Bill Hiccup, Agentfred, Regibox, AirdishStraus, Nerdstain, Nursebhayes, CounterVandalismBot, Niceguyedc, Neverquick,
Namazu-tron, Redchasteen, DragonBot, LeoFrank, Playa0238, Excirial, Srmatte, Alexbot, Jusdafax, Calimo, CodyGY, LordFopping-
ton, Winston365, BakuMatt, Shinkolobwe, NuclearWarfare, Cenarium, Peter.C, Jotterbot, Germancapi, Cp3000oc, 4light~enwiki, Stain-
less316, Ryeryeryecrush222, Hunmanby, BOTarate, La Pianista, Thingg, Aitias, TheRoShow, Plasmic Physics, Versus22, KennyMacD,
SoxBot III, Goodvac, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, ClanCC, Trefork, DumZiBoT, Crazy Boris with a red beard, I'm-sofa-king-yo-moma,
BarretB, Ryan587, XLinkBot, Hseo, Pichpich, Nathan Johnson, Burningview, Stickee, Groudon185, Jovianeye, Greenport, FellGleaming,
1cliord1, Avoided, Aboofaheem, Rabbits rats, SilvonenBot, Rigby27, Philidor4, Derangedsoren, MystBot, Lemchesvej, Aligirl3, Sami
Lab, Ethan kee, Freestyle-69, HexaChord, Iranway, CalumH93, Wyatt915, Xp54321, Roentgenium111, Willking1979, C6541, Some jerk
on the Internet, DOI bot, Tcncv, Richguy77, Betterusername, Mkubiske, Otisjimmy1, Friginator, DougsTech, Aukland, Ronhjones, Tutter-
Mouse, Tarien~enwiki, D0762, Jackmcnicol, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluernutter, Kuoadamkuo5, Ka Faraq Gatri, Skyezx, ProperFraction,
Protonk, Jreconomy, Chzz, Debresser, Maddox1, 5 albert square, Lightscamarasavetheworld, Tahmmo, New Image Uploader 929, Mil-
lie123, 84user, Numbo3-bot, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Kiril Simeonovski, Nuberger13, Qemist, , Gail, TeH nOmInAtOr, Xxxx00, AGeor-
gas, Bartledan, Thomas Yeardly, Ale66, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Ptbotgourou, Superdirt21, CheMoBot,
II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Avoidours, KamikazeBot, , All811, Eric-Wester, Raimundo Pastor, Firetech117, Backslash Forward-
slash, DiverDave, AnomieBOT, Shootbamboo, Ice teeth, Casforty, Jim1138, IRP, Dwayne, Shock Brigade Harvester Boris, Cormorant
80, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Ulric1313, EnglishEd, Flewis, Mr largenose, Materialscientist, Celtis123, Citation bot, OllieFury, Zan-
deravia, Maxis ftw, Roux-HG, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Gsmgm, Xqbot, Irmagicman, Intelati, Capricorn42, Nasnema, Guest98989, Shosh-
nebut, Br77rino, BritishWatcher, IForgotToEatBreakFast, AbigailAbernathy, Srich32977, Wikipersonae, Isorhythmic, Enders Shadow Snr,
Thebluerhino, GrouchoBot, Abce2, Frosted14, Corruptcopper, Qwasqwasqwas, Under22Entreprenuer, Mark Schierbecker, RibotBOT,
Chris.urs-o, Bellerophon, Cktt13, Whitewolf1679, Brutaldeluxe, Mcnichst, Doulos Christos, Joaquin008, Mike Dill~enwiki, Immibis,
Samwb123, IanKDavis, Energee5, Tjb26, Jacabite, Throat Slicer, RetiredWikipedian789, Nixn, Captainhigley, FrescoBot, Qurozon,
Tenaciously, Minataurus, Pepper, Nepomuk 3, Krj373, Mbcannell, Recognizance, Idyllic press, Fyou34, Tekmeme, HJ Mitchell, Egaeus
Gracchus, Luee, Citation bot 1, DigbyDalton, Amplitude101, Nirmos, Kopiersperre, Mehrsethi, ArnaudContet, Pinethicket, Eyrryds,
Jonesey95, Rushbugled13, Dankd, Hariehkr, Xhmikos, Serols, SpaceFlight89, Toasterboy98, Fumitol, Wejer, Delorme, TobeBot, Trappist
the monk, Cowcharge, Ticklewickleukulele, Jordgette, Lionslayer, Dienomight, Michael9422, Vrenator, MrX, Darsie42, Steferbal, David
Hedlund, Reaper Eternal, Rosalieroxx, Diannaa, Msusa9, Jynto, Stroppolo, Carlosp123, Marie Poise, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Aniten21, Mean
as custard, TjBot, Uncleiroh13, Eichermacher, Jackehammond, FetchcommsAWB, NerdyScienceDude, TGCP, Giorgiogp2, EmausBot,
John of Reading, Orphan Wiki, Medentain, Clark lysne, Katherine, Lorast, Super48paul, Racerx11, Bencbartlett, SlmMdlSch, BruceSwan-
son, Drcniall, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, RIS cody, Wikipelli, Dcirovic, K6ka, Oceans and oceans, Werieth, Barthandelus, Jonathando24,
Allforrous, Bottycall911, , Kyle0001010, Armonhammer, Pyro721, Cline92, EWikist, Wayne Slam, Tlk221, Rcsprinter123,
Zindroo, JoeSperrazza, GeorgeBarnick, IGeMiNix, Dkevanko, Turjan, Alborzagros, Ceeabraham, Donner60, Pjdevaneyjr, Drewsky328,
9Questions, Petomiro, Whoop whoop pull up, Louisajb, Will Beback Auto, ClueBot NG, Thebombzen, Ishfaq Khan8, Samwell Pinkus,
Krazeh.koala.killer, Ayhorse, Movses-bot, Dghjfdjgsdhjfshdjsuh, Hiperfelix, Frietjes, Wgitihm, ScottSteiner, Cbacc, Castncoot, Wrip11,
Rezabot, Widr, Antiqueight, Milford2802, RuneyT, Jth567, Restenl, SoonYeI, Lfkj7fh, Sheens Korner, Helpful Pixie Bot, Lolm8, John-
SRoberts99, Gob Lofa, Bibcode Bot, WNYY98, Keephallow, BG19bot, D1u2d3e4, NewsAndEventsGuy, Moradmandali, Living and
Loving, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, Mark Arsten, Solong2go, Exercisephys, Queen of Awesome, Shyguy76767, Meli12367, Urbanoc, Hari-
zotoh9, MrBill3, Thats the fact Jack, Mezman98, Blonder1, Glacialfox, Roymcdo, Klilidiplomus, Minitech.me, Howdearuare, Rutebega,
Nitrobutane, TheUnnamedNewbie, Puppiesarecool, Billdayton, Jakdwak, Comfr, EricEnfermero, Dave jeremiah, BattyBot, LegacyOf-
Valor, HueSatLum, Mancockmike, Pratyya Ghosh, Mdann52, Tauronmaikar, Th4n3r, Jimw338, Psjk2106, Eschwartz93, Arcandam, Pha-
ranomeum, MadGuy7023, Iamozy, Ahmadkhoda98, BrightStarSky, Dexbot, Tm13599p, Mysterious Whisper, JZNIOSH, TwoTwoHello,
Lugia2453, Graphium, EatIcecream2, Sriharsh1234, Snippy the heavily-templated snail, Jo-Jo Eumerus, Mmitchell10, Hepzzz, Hillbilly-
holiday, Jio90, Epicgenius, Samwizeskumgie, Babycino.bc, FamAD123, Grabonj, Sdoust, Nugget dude, DavidLeighEllis, CensoredScribe,
EPIX Recon, Epix Hockey Player, A Certain Lack of Grandeur, Enderchestfrantic, Ginsuloft, Ramendoctor, PierreFG5, XXX8906, Dude-
WithAFeud, Hardhitter11, Ekisbares, AWR+AWR+AWR, Crow, Connor20018, FrB.TG, Jessieunderhill, AlondraE.IFCP, Rabdill, Cogi-
toErgoSum14, Monkbot, Horseless Headman, Octalz, Amortias, Urmom00, 3primetime3, HMSLavender, KH-1, Valeg96, Crystallizedcar-
bon, Jgalt88, Spudnik42, Jodielavery, Tootertheturtle, Littletimtheboy, BoS bailey4life, Tetra quark, Kerry M. Chase, Emily Temple-Wood
(NIOSH), JJJ10p, Timothyjosephwood, KasparBot, Cheetahsnook, Hipopoishere, JJMC89, Hot Shoppes, CAPTAIN RAJU, Kaleb099,
Tkaehfdl1234, AmateurPharmacologist, Latosh Boris, CLCStudent, Sailormanenzo, I Study I Do, 12joawif, H.dryad, InternetArchiveBot,
4lextintor, LarryFitzzz, JJMC89 bot, TerpeneOtto, Gbetee, Nobody0001, Bear-rings, Target360YT, PZGrim, Marcpanu, Markus Niel-
bock, BroekhuysenT, An2y3, FritzJer, Bender the Bot, Rosalinda Shairlands, Timothy Robinson12345, Minee, SbAsh, Lrkebodilsen
kran, Carlos Danger, Ya boi6969, Jakeg06, Sarah 803, Therealgeorgebeckett, Thewarriorreturns, Savoix, AC 2013, Larrydouglas222,
Xdoomdog, Gregjaco95, Panda Man12345 and Anonymous: 2151

12.2 Images
File:Auto-and_heterotrophs.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/61/Auto-and_heterotrophs.png License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Images used:
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Alpha-D-glucose-3D-balls.png' class='image'><img alt='' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Alpha-D-glucose-3D-balls.png/108px-Alpha-D-glucose-3D-balls.png'
width='108' height='120' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Alpha-D-glucose-3D-balls.
png/163px-Alpha-D-glucose-3D-balls.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/
Alpha-D-glucose-3D-balls.png/217px-Alpha-D-glucose-3D-balls.png 2x' data-le-width='994' data-le-height='1100' /></a>
20 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Glucose
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Animaldiversity.jpg' class='image'><img alt='' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Animaldiversity.jpg/120px-Animaldiversity.jpg' width='120' height='72'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Animaldiversity.jpg/180px-Animaldiversity.jpg 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Animaldiversity.jpg/240px-Animaldiversity.jpg 2x' data-le-
width='1079' data-le-height='648' /></a>

Animals
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Carbon-dioxide-3D-vdW.svg' class='image'><img alt='' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Carbon-dioxide-3D-vdW.svg/120px-Carbon-dioxide-3D-vdW.svg.png'
width='120' height='79' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Carbon-dioxide-3D-vdW.
svg/180px-Carbon-dioxide-3D-vdW.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/
Carbon-dioxide-3D-vdW.svg/240px-Carbon-dioxide-3D-vdW.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1100' data-le-height='723'
/></a>

Carbon dioxide
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:D-glucose-chain-3D-balls.png' class='image'><img alt='' src='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/D-glucose-chain-3D-balls.png/120px-D-glucose-chain-3D-balls.png'
width='120' height='67' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/D-glucose-chain-3D-balls.
png/180px-D-glucose-chain-3D-balls.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/
D-glucose-chain-3D-balls.png/240px-D-glucose-chain-3D-balls.png 2x' data-le-width='1100' data-le-height='611' /></a>

Glucose (open form)

<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Dioxygen-3D-vdW.png' class='image'><img alt='' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Dioxygen-3D-vdW.png/120px-Dioxygen-3D-vdW.png' width='120' height='89'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Dioxygen-3D-vdW.png/180px-Dioxygen-3D-vdW.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Dioxygen-3D-vdW.png/240px-Dioxygen-3D-vdW.png 2x'
data-le-width='1100' data-le-height='813' /></a>

Oxygen
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Diversity_of_plants.png' class='image'><img alt='' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Diversity_of_plants.png/120px-Diversity_of_plants.png' width='120' height='81'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Diversity_of_plants.png/180px-Diversity_of_plants.png
1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Diversity_of_plants.png/240px-Diversity_of_plants.png 2x'
data-le-width='453' data-le-height='304' /></a>

Plants
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fungi_collage.jpg' class='image'><img alt='' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Fungi_collage.jpg/120px-Fungi_collage.jpg' width='120' height='104'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Fungi_collage.jpg/180px-Fungi_collage.jpg 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Fungi_collage.jpg/240px-Fungi_collage.jpg 2x' data-le-
width='1220' data-le-height='1062' /></a>

Fungi
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Starch_helix.jpg' class='image'><img alt='' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Starch_helix.jpg/35px-Starch_helix.jpg' width='35' height='120' srcset='https:
//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Starch_helix.jpg/52px-Starch_helix.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Starch_helix.jpg/69px-Starch_helix.jpg 2x' data-le-width='247' data-le-height='850'
/></a>

Starch
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Water_molecule_3D.svg' class='image'><img alt='' src='https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Water_molecule_3D.svg/120px-Water_molecule_3D.svg.png' width='120' height='103'
srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Water_molecule_3D.svg/180px-Water_molecule_3D.svg.
png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Water_molecule_3D.svg/240px-Water_molecule_3D.
svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1100' data-le-height='945' /></a>

Water
<a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Anterior_view_of_female_upper_body,_retouched_-_transparent.png'
class='image'><img alt='' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Anterior_view_of_female_upper_
body%2C_retouched_-_transparent.png/103px-Anterior_view_of_female_upper_body%2C_retouched_-_transparent.png'
width='103' height='120' srcset='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Anterior_view_of_female_upper_
body%2C_retouched_-_transparent.png/155px-Anterior_view_of_female_upper_body%2C_retouched_-_transparent.png 1.5x,
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Anterior_view_of_female_upper_body%2C_retouched_-_
transparent.png/206px-Anterior_view_of_female_upper_body%2C_retouched_-_transparent.png 2x' data-le-width='1850'
data-le-height='2152' /></a>

Human
12.2 Images 21

File:Upper body front.png Original artist: Derivative by Mikael Hggstrm, using originals by Laghi l, BorgQueen, Benjah-bmm27, Rkitko,
Bobisbob, Jacek FH, Laghi L and Jynto
File:Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0f/
Buckminsterfullerene-perspective-3D-balls.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Benjah-bmm27
File:CO2_increase_rate.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/CO2_increase_rate.png License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: I created this image with help (numerical data only) from Dr. Pieter Tans (3 May 2008) Annual CO2 mole fraction
increase (ppm)" for 1959-2007, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Earth System Research Laboratory, Global Monitoring
Division (additional details; see also K.A. Masarie, P.P. Tans (1995) Extension and integration of atmospheric carbon dioxide data into a
globally consistent measurement record, J. Geopys. Research, vol. 100, 11593-11610.) Original artist: New Image Uploader 929 (talk)
File:Calvin-cycle4.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8e/Calvin-cycle4.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: Mike Jones
File:Carbon-dioxide-2D-dimensions.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/
Carbon-dioxide-2D-dimensions.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Alessio Damato
File:Carbon-dioxide-crystal-3D-vdW.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/64/
Carbon-dioxide-crystal-3D-vdW.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ben Mills
File:Carbon_Dioxide_Laser_At_The_Laser_Effects_Test_Facility.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/
e/e6/Carbon_Dioxide_Laser_At_The_Laser_Effects_Test_Facility.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: [2] Original artist: Un-
known<a href='https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q4233718' title='wikidata:Q4233718'><img alt='wikidata:Q4233718' src='https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/20px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png' width='20' height='11' srcset='https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/30px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Wikidata-logo.svg/40px-Wikidata-logo.svg.png 2x' data-le-width='1050' data-le-height='590'
/></a>
File:Carbon_dioxide_3D_ball.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/Carbon_dioxide_3D_ball.png Li-
cense: CC0 Contributors: This chemical image was created with Discovery Studio Visualizer. Original artist: Jynto (talk)
File:Carbon_dioxide_3D_spacefill.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Carbon_dioxide_3D_
spacefill.png License: CC0 Contributors: This chemical image was created with Discovery Studio Visualizer. Original artist: Jynto (talk)
File:Carbon_dioxide_pressure-temperature_phase_diagram.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/
Carbon_dioxide_pressure-temperature_phase_diagram.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Commons, Image:Carbon dioxide pressure-
temperature phase diagram.jpg Original artist:

Ben Finney
Mark Jacobs

File:Co2_vibrations.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/81/Co2_vibrations.svg License: CC BY 4.0 Con-

tributors: Own work Original artist: Markus Nielbock
File:Co2comp.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Co2comp.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Bkwan740
File:Comparison_carbon_dioxide_water_phase_diagrams.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/
Comparison_carbon_dioxide_water_phase_diagrams.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cmglee
File:Dry_Ice_Pellets_Subliming.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Dry_Ice_Pellets_Subliming.jpg
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Richard Wheeler (Zephyris) at
en.wikipedia
File:Ethanol-3D-balls.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/Ethanol-3D-balls.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Lock-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg License: CC0 Contributors: en:File:
Free-to-read_lock_75.svg Original artist: User:Trappist the monk
File:M15-162b-EarthAtmosphere-CarbonDioxide-FutureRoleInGlobalWarming-Simulation-20151109.jpg Source: https://
upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/M15-162b-EarthAtmosphere-CarbonDioxide-FutureRoleInGlobalWarming-Simulation-20151109.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images/earth/climate/20151109/m15-162b.jpg Original artist:
NASA/GSFC
File:Main_symptoms_of_carbon_dioxide_toxicity.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Main_
symptoms_of_carbon_dioxide_toxicity.svg License: Public domain Contributors: See above. All used images are in public domain.
Original artist: Mikael Hggstrm.
File:Mauna_Loa_CO2_monthly_mean_concentration.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c5/Mauna_
Loa_CO2_monthly_mean_concentration.svg License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work. Data from Dr. Pieter Tans, NOAA/ESRL
and Dr. Ralph Keeling, Scripps Institution of Oceanography. Original artist: Delorme
File:Nitrous-oxide-3D-balls.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/93/Nitrous-oxide-3D-balls.png License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ben Mills
File:Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Papapishu-Lab-icon-6.svg License:
CC0 Contributors: https://openclipart.org/user-detail/papapishu Original artist: papapishu
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
22 12 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0

Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:Soda_bubbles_macro.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Soda_bubbles_macro.jpg License: Pub-
lic domain Contributors: From en:Image:Soda bubbles macro.jpg Original artist: en:User:Spiff
File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Prol by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Prol
File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: This le was derived from Wiki letter w.svg: <a href='//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:
Wiki_letter_w.svg' class='image'><img alt='Wiki letter w.svg' src='https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_
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