c







c
  Ô


 
    

c


 
 When we smell a fragrant flower, are
we experiencing a sensation or a perception? In everyday language, the
terms "sensation" and "perception' are often used interchangeably.?

However, as you will soon see, they are very distinct, yet
complementary processes. In this section, we will discuss some
concepts central to the study of sensation and perception and then
move on to discuss vision and the perception of pain (it is not possible
in the scope of these notes to discuss all the senses).

3 c



 
?

censations?can be defined as?|



   
  |  |
 |
  | |
  | |

 he process is passive in the sense that we do not have to be
consciously engaging in a "sensing" process.Perception can be defined
as |

|


 


|      |

| |

  |   || |
 |




0 ?

@) censation occurs:?

a) sensory organs absorb energy from a

physical stimulus in the environment.?

b) sensory receptors convert this energy into

neural impulses and send them to the brain.
 ?

è) Perception follows:?

a) the brain organizes the information and

translates it into something meaningful.?

ÿ ÿ   

  
! "








 #   
!?

@)?celective Attention?- process of discriminating between

what is important & is irrelevant (ceems redundant:
selective-attention?), and is influenced by motivation.?

For example - students in class should focus on

what the teachers are saying and the
overheads being presented. ctudents walking
by the classroom may focus on people in the
room, who is the teacher, etc., and not the
same thing the students in the class.?

è)?Perceptual Expectancy - how we perceive the world is a

function of our past experiences, culture, and biological
makeup.For example, as an American, when I look at a
highway, I expect to see cars, trucks, etc, NO airplanes.
But someone from a different country with different
experiences and history may not have any idea what to
expect and thus be surprised when they see cars go driving
by.?

Another example - you may look at a painting and not really

understand the message the artist is trying to convey. But, if
someone tells you about it, you might begin to see things in
the painting that you were unable to see before.?

0

$3c3c%0

&? ''




[) Psychophysics can be defined as,|
|   


|
| |
 | 
 





?

In order to measure these events, psychologists use HREcHOLDc.?

@ ?
  -?a dividing line between what has detectable
energy and what does not.?

For example - many classrooms have automatic

light sensors. When people have not been in a
room for a while, the lights go out. However,
once someone walks into the room, the lights
go back on. For this to happen, the sensor has
a threshold for motion that must be crossed
before it turns the lights back on. co, dust
floating in the room should not make the lights
go on, but a person walking in should.?

è ?&

 
 ?-?the minimum amount of stimulus
intensity change needed to produce a noticeable change.?

the greater the intensity (ex., weight) of a

stimulus, the greater the change needed to
produce a noticeable change.?

For example, when you pick up a 5 lb weight,

and then a @ pound weight, you can feel a big
difference between the two. However, when you
pick up @ lbs, and then @ 5 lbs, it is much
more difficult to feel the difference.?

· ?c
 &  
 

'?-?detection of a stimulus involves some
decision making process as well as a sensory process. Additionally,
both sensory and decision making processes are influenced by many
more factors than just intensity.?

a) Noise - how much outside interference

exists.?
 b) [riterion - the level of assurance that you
decide must be met before you take action.
Involves higher mental processes. You set
criterion based on expectations and
consequences of inaccuracy.?

For example - at a party, you order

a pizza...you need to pay attention
so that you will be able to detect the
appropriate signal (doorbell),
especially since there is a lot of
noise at the party. But when you
first order the pizza, you know it
won't be there in è minutes, so you
don't really pay attention for the
doorbell. As the time for the pizza to
arrive approaches, however, your
criterion changes...you become
more focused on the doorbell and
less on extraneous noise.?

33 ?c3()3c3*?

A) the visual system works on sensing and perceiving light waves. Light
waves vary in their length and amplitude:?

a) wave length?(also referred to as frequency, since the

longer a wave, the less often/quickly it occurs)?-?affects color
perception (ex., red=approx 7 , yellow approx 6 )?

b) wave amplitude (this is the size/height of the wave)?-

?affects brightness perception.?

ÿ c

 ?

@) [ornea - the round, transparent area that allows light to

pass into the eye.?

è) Lens - the transparent structure that focuses light onto

the retina.?
·) Retina - inner membrane of the eye that receives
information about light using rods and cones. he
functioning of the retina is similar to the spinal cord - both
act as a highway for information to travel on.?

X   - opening at the center of the iris which controls the

amount of light entering the eye. Dilates and [onstricts.?

‰ %
 - many more rods (approximately @è

million) than cones (approx 6.4 million).?

a) cones - visual receptor cells that are

important in daylight vision and color vision.?

the cones work well in daylight, but

not in dim lighting. his is why it is
more difficult to see colors in low
light.?

most are located in the center of the

retina...called the FOVEA, which is
a tiny spot in the center of the retina
that contains ONLY cones...visual
acuity is best here.?

cO...when you need to focus on

something you attempt to bring the
image into the fovea.?

b) rods - visual receptor cells that are important

for night vision and peripheral vision.?

the rods are better for night vision

because they are much more
sensitive than cones.?

in addition, the rods are better for

peripheral vision because there are
many more on the periphery of the
retina. he cones are mostly in and
around the fovea but decrease as
you go out.?
 to see best at night, look just above
or below the object...this keeps the
image on the rods.?

% c 
3
% 
- we can see many colors, but only have · types of
cones that receive information about color. We have cones that pick up
light waves for red, green, and blue.?

% 
)
 
 :?

@) richromatic heory?-?this theory indicates that we can

receive · types of colors (red, green, and blue) and that the
cones vary the ratio of neural activity (Like a projection
.V.). he ratio of each each color to the other then
determines the exact color that we see.?

è) Opponent-Process heory -?color perception depends on

the reception of pairs of antagonist colors. Each receptor
can only work with one color at a time so the opponent color
in the pair is blocked out. Pairs = red-green, blue-yellow,
black- white (light-dark).?

Note: Most every Introductory Psychology book has a

demonstration on the Opponent-Process theory. Please
look for the one in your book and give it a try.?

&c%
+3c! People just assume that because we see

colors, that they actually exist in the world. In other words, that when
they see the color red, that red is a real, physical, tangible, "thing". But
is it, or is color just a matter of our perception? If we had different types
of nervous systems, we would see things differently (literally) and so
wouldn't we think those other things we saw were the real "things"?
Let's examine this question of perception a bit further.?

33  % 3*?

Much of our understanding of how and why we perceive things comes

from Gestalt Psychology?

For example - one of the most well known Gestalt principles is the Phi
Phenomenon, which is the illusion of movement from presenting stimuli
in rapid succession. When you see a cartoon or running [hristmas
lights, you see movement (although none actually exists) because of
this principle.?

A) Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organization?

@) figure-ground - this is the fundamental way we organize

visual perceptions. When we look at an object, we see that
object (figure) and the background (ground) on which it sits.
For example, when I see a picture of a friend, I see my
friends face (figure) and the beautiful cears brand backdrop
behind my friend (ground).?

è) simplicity/pragnanz (good form) - we group elements that

make a good form. However, the idea of "good form" is a
little vague and subjective. Most psychologists think good
form is what ever is easiest or most simple. For example,
what do you see here: : > )?

do you see a smiling face? here are simply · elements

from my keyboard next to each other, but it is "easy" to
organize the elements into a shape that we are familiar with.?

·) proximity - nearness=belongingness. Objects that are

close to each other in physical space are often perceived as
belonging together.?

4) similarity - do I really need to explain this one? As you

probably guessed, this one states that objects that are
similar are perceived as going together. For example, if I
ask you to group the following objects: (* * # * # # #) into
groups, you would probably place the asterisks and the
pound signs into distinct groups.?

5) continuity - we follow whatever direction we are led. Dots

in a smooth curve appear to go together more than jagged
angles. his principle really gets at just how lazy humans
are when it comes to perception.?

6) common fate - elements that move together tend to be

grouped together. For example, when you see geese flying
south for the winter, they often appear to be in a "V" shape.?
 7) closure - we tend to complete a form when it has gaps.?

??

B) Illusions - an incorrect perception caused by a distortion of visual

sensations.?

@) Muller-Luyer Illusion?

è) Reversible Figures - ambiguous sensory information that

creates more than @ good form. For example, the picture of
two faces looking toward each other that is also a vase. I
am sure most every Introductory Psychology book has this
example.?

·) Impossible Figures - objects that can be represented in

è-dimensional pictures but can not exist in ·-dimensional
space despite our perceptions. You know the artist, Escher
who draws the pictures like...the hands drawing each other,
the waterfall that goes down and stays level at the same
time, etc...?

??

[) HE PER[EPION OF PAIN?

Pain is an unpleasant yet important function for survival: warning

system (but not all pain is needed for survival).?

here are two different pathways to the brain on which pain can travel -
information brought from free nerve endings in the skin to the brain via
two different systems:?

@) fast pathways - registers localized pain (usually sharp

pain) and sends the information to the cortex in a fraction of
a second. EX. - cut your finger with a knife.?

è) slow pathways - sends information through the limbic

system which takes about @-è seconds longer than directly
to the cortex (longer lasting, aching/burning).?

Factors in Pain Perception?-?not an automatic result of stimulation:?

 @) expectations - research shown that our expectations
about how much something will hurt can effect our
perception.?

Melzack - indicated that believing that

something will be very painful helps us prepare
for it.?

For example - child birth: Lamaze method

falsely leads us to believe it won't be painful.
Maybe if we know it will be bad we can
adequately prepare to handle it.?

another example - placebo effect - if we believe

pain has stopped, it may.?

è) personality - people with negative types of personalities

often have more pain. E?

For example - a very uptight person may

experience muscle pains, back pains, etc.?

·) mood - bad moods, angry, unhappy, etc, can lead to the

experience of increased pain.?

For example - study manipulated moods of

subjects then asked them to complete
questionnaires of pain perception. hose in
negative mood group reported significantly
more pain than other subjects.?

co, it seems that our brains can regulate,

control, determine, and even produce pain.?

??

3c$ 03* % 3*?

@) Gate [ontrol heory?(Melzack & Walls, @
65) - incoming

pain must pass through a "gate" located in the spinal cord
which determines what information about pain will be sent
 to the brain. co, it can be opened to allow pain through or
closed to prevent pain from being perceived.?

he Gate - actually a neural network controlled by the brain.

Located in an area of the spinal cord called the cubstansia
Gelatinosa. here are two types of nerve fibers in this area:?

a) large - sends fast signals and can prevent

pain by closing the gate.?

b) small - sends slower signals which open the

gate. co - when pain occurs it is because the
large fibers are off and the small are on,
opening the gate.?

cince the gate is controlled by the brain, he

factors discussed earlier (expectations, mood,
personality) influence the functioning of the
gate.?

??

[ontradiction to Gate [ontrol heory:?

@) endorphins - the body's own pain killers (morphine-like). May explain

acupuncture, acupressure, pain tolerance during last two weeks of
pregnancy, etc.?

BU- endorphins may work with the gate control theory - maybe pain is
perceived, endorphins are released, so the brain no longer needs the
signals and closes the gate.?

??

PHANOM LIMBc?

ability to feel pain, pressure, temperature, and many other types of

sensations including pain in a limb that does not exist (either amputated
or born without).?

the feelings and the pain are sometimes so life-like that person attempts
to pick things up with phantom hand, step with phantom foot or leg, etc.
Often person feels phantom moving in perfect coordination with the rest
of the body - some report a missing arm extending outward at a

degree angle so they turn sideways when going through a doorway.?

may occur right after amputation or not until years later.?

often felt as part of the body (belonging to the rest of the body). EX. -
with a missing leg, some report having a phantom foot but not the rest
of the leg. ctill, the foot feels as though it is part of the body.?

Go to Phantom Limb Pages - includes case studies?

Explanations:?

@) the neuroma explanation - remaining nerves in the stump

grow into nodules (neuromas) at the end of the stump
continue to fire signals. cignals follow the same pathways
the brain as when the appendage existed.?

è) the spinal cord explanation - neurons in the spinal cord

that are no longer receiving information from the lost
appendage continue to send information to the brain.?

Problem - studies have shown that when areas

in the spinal cord are severed often feelings still
being perceived from areas that meet the spinal
cord in lower areas (below separation in spinal
cord).?

·) the brain explanation - signals in the somatosensory

circuits of the brain change when the limb is lost which
produce the phantom...the brain compensates for the loss
or altered signals. his has been expanded - brain contains
a network of fibers that not only respond to stimulation but
continually generates a pattern of impulses that indicate that
the body is intact and functioning. hus, the brain creates
the impression that the limb exists and is al right. his
system may be prewired.?

4) the hardwired explanation - we may have a biological

makeup to be born with all of our appendages. co, when we
 are born w/o one or lose one, the nerves are still there and
are still going to send the information.?

Please note that we can not cover ALL the senses in class so make
sure you read about taste, touch, hearing, and smell in the book.?

Muller-Lyer explained?

Although many theories exist for this illusion, there is no certain

explanation. One theory is based on eye movement. When the arrows
point inwards, our gaze rests inside the angles formed by the arrows.
When they point outwards, our eyes demarcate the entire perspective
and our gaze rests outside the angles. he outward pointing arrows
make the figure more open and so the horizontal line appears longer.

he illusion takes its name from Franz [arl Müller-Lyer (@57-@
@6),
who studied medicine in ctrasbourg and served as assistant director of
the city's psychiatric clinic. Müller-Lyer's main works were in the field of
sociology. He himself attempted to explain the illusion he had
discovered as follows: "the judgment not only takes the lines themselves
into consideration, but also, unintentionally, some part of the space on
either side." He published two articles on the illusion bearing his name.
('Optical Illusions' @
, and '[oncerning the heory of Optical Illusions:
on [ontrast and [onfluxion' @
6)

Favreau (@
77) studied a number of textbooks in which Müller-Lyer

presented and measured the figures. He noticed that in many cases, the
figure had been drawn the wrong way round so that the illusion
appeared more forceful!?