Topic 3.art - Scien.educ - Mgmet

CHAPTER 1
The Art and Science of Educational Management:

Genesis and Development in the Indian Perspective
Education in general, and higher education in particular, is an activity

in which the interests of the individuals and of the society are intimately
intertwined. It is a unique investment involving the present and the future.
Hence, naturally the concern of the educationist is to build a dynamic
society through a well recognised educational process. This demands an
understanding of the nature and direction of change per se. Future involves
uncertainty and educational systems in future will have to operate within an
increasingly uncertain and even more complex environment than at present.'
But future offers endless opportunities and possibilities, though agreement
about the shape of things to come is rarely achieved. All predilections apart,
its component parts and their inter-relations will be bewilderingly numerous.
The changing environment will require an educational system which is able
to re-organise itself into varied "states" so as to constantly adjust to changing
needs.' An innovative system, capable of adjusting to, and in fact, creating a
variety of "states," must have the ability to process a growing volume of
information with greater speed, efficiency and effectiveness. It is in this
context of education that the novel concept of Educational Management
acquires an increasingly greater significance and a much greater relevance.
Educational Management is considered a comparatively new

discipline. It has come from an old discipline-Educational Administration.
When schools were established, the need for their administration arose.
There must be someone to organise educational activity and to ensure that
Prepared by BeeHive Digital Concepts Cochin for Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam
educational goals are realised. By and by the state recognised the
importance of education of the citizen to preserve itself and it assumed
partial, if not total, responsibility and control of educational institutions. Laws

were passed and rules and regulations got formulated. As education moved
closer to politics, a well-organised hierarchy of positions, like the minister,
secretary, director, inspector and principal was also established. The higher
positions were concerned with policy-making and activity-prescribing and the
latter with policy executing and programme implementing. Thus the
institution of educational administration was established.

Gradually there developed a strong belief that educational
administration was not different from general administration and that the
elements of the latter could very well be applied to the former. The
educational administrative procedure was based upon the practices in
business and industry. In industry the manager is solely responsible for
carrying out the policies of the board of directors. In education, the principal
was made responsible to the Education Department for all the activities in his
institution. Under this system, there was no opportunity for participation in
the administrative process and there was n o question of sharing
responsibility. With the expansion of education, the inadequacies of such

educational administration became apparent. With the advancements in
educational theory and professional approach to education, there arose the

need for reorientation of educational administration with its own precise
techniques and procedures, which are technical and scientific in nature.

There is need for experimentation and research to arrive at correct findings
and conclusions instead of uncritical acceptance of opinions. There is also

the need for realising the limitations of such objective data and the
conclusions drawn therefrom to yield a clearer and better picture and
understanding of administrative problem^.^ All these resulted in the birth of a
new discipline, Educational Management, which is more scientific and

precise than Educational Administration. Since Educational Management is
the combination of two concepts education and management, this study
begins by defining the two concepts.
Education
The term 'Education' is derived from two Latin roots viz. "En meaning
"out of" and "duco" meaning "I l e a d or "draw out." Thus, education is a
process of drawing out the best in a man or a child.4
Gandhiji said "Education is the manifestation of perfection which is
already in a man or drawing out the best in a child."
The Webster's Dictionay clarifies-"Education is the action or process
of educating or of being educated at various stages where knowledge and
development result from an educational process."
The Dictionay of Education defines education "as the successful

learning of knowledge, skills and attitudes, where what is earned is
worthwhile to a learner and usually where it is learned in such a way that the
learner can express his own individuality through what he learns and can
subsequently apply it, adopt it flexibly, to situations and problems other than
those he considered learning it."
The Delors Commission of the UNESCO defines Education as "one of

the principal means available to foster a deeper and a more harmonious
form of human development and thereby to reduce poverty, exclusion.
ignorance, oppression and fear.""
'Education is the process of bringing desirable change into the
behaviour of human beings. It is also the process of acquiring knowledge and
habits through instruction or study. When learning is progressive towards
goals that have been established in accordance with a philosophy which has
been defined, and is understood by the learner, it is called E d ~ c a t i o n . ' ~
Management
'Management' is a comparatively new concept and is used in place of
'Administration'. This concept, which has been commonly used in business
organisation and industv is now widely used in other fields including
education. In simple terms 'Management' means "to get the work done."
Every educational institution has certain objectives. The head of the
institution needs to organise people, make use of resources in a systematic

and orderly way to accomplish the pronounced objectives of the institution.
Thus the primary task of the head of the institution-the manager is to get the
work done or to get the objectives accomplished in a pre-planned way.
This is what the concept of Management implies.
One of the most important human activities is managing. Ever since
people began forming groups to accomplish goals that they could not
achieve individually, managing has been essential to ensure the coordination
of individual efforts. As society began to rely more on group effort, and
organized groups became large, the task of managers rose in importance.

Management is the process of designing and maintaining an
environment in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently
accomplish selected aims.'
Management is an act of judicious use of means to accomplish

an end.'
Management is a process, a universal process by which an
organisation realises its objectives in a planned way?
In the words of Morel1 (1969), Management is that activity in an
organization, which consists in deciding upon the ends (goals) of an
organisation and the means by which the goals are to be effectively reached.''
Terry (1971) defines Management as a distinct process of planning,

organising, actualising, controlling, determining and accomplishing stated
objectives by the use of human beings and other resources."
The American Management Association defines Management in the
following words. 'Management is guiding human and physical resources into
dynamic organisation units which attain their objectives to the satisfaction of
those served and with a high degree of morale and sense of attainment on
the part of those rendering services."'
Educational Management
'Education' and 'Management' are large and complex concepts for
which many definitions are available in the international literature. But n o
single definition in either field commands the acceptance of all. They provide
a basis for thinking about the management of a college as an organisation
and the education of young people which colleges are intended to provide.
Educational Management is the process of learning values, attitudes,
information and skills to achieve desired relations between resources
and objectives.13
Educational Management is the process of relating resources to
objectives required in organisations, which explicitly exist to provide
education.14
The Management in Education means deciding the goals of an
educational institution and the activities to be conducted to achieve
these goals.''
'Educational Management' denotes all those activities involved in
running educational programmes. The field of management does not include
planning activities (which take place before) or actual education and
instruction activities (which belong to the field of pedagogy) but refers to
operations process p ~ s s i b l e . ' ~
Tony Bush and John Burnham in their attempt to define Educational
Management says about three components in the process-nomenclature,
pedigree and content. 'The fact that each of these is problematic does not in
any way diminish the academic management as an academic subject or
body of knowledge. . . . A potentially powerful synthesis of disciplines
applied to a specific context can also be regarded as parasitism, expediency

and pragmatism. . . . Educational management is concerned with the
internal operation of educational institutions. It is also concerned with
execution, planning, organizing and deploying. . . . The pedigree of
Educational Management might thus be seen as a continuing tension

between the context (political, economic and social) in which management
strategies and behaviours which are adopted in response to that context
and the commentary upon the arguments used to justify those strategies
and behaviours.'"
Politics
The term politics is derived from the Greek words 'polis,' meaning
the city. 'Politics,' therefore meant to an ancient Greek, the science of the
city-state or pertaining to the state and the government. Thus, in ancient
Greece, the science, which dealt with the state and government or with the
political activities of the community, was called 'p~litics."~
Today politics
refers to the art of government, the art of directing or guiding the policy of
the government towards a particular goal. In recent times, politics as the
theory of the state or of the government is almost fading away. Instead, the
concept of power has become central to the study of politics. Politics in this
study is viewed as a tool of power.
The Need for Management in Education
The educational system all over the world is undergoing tremendous

changes in structure, organisation, contents and objectives. This has resulted
in very recent years, in the development of a distinct branch of study known

as Educational Management. This concept of Management is now widely
used in place of Administration. With present day complexity involved in and

ever widening peripheral ramification of the educational system, in the
process of other system integration, the educational administration needs the
use of relevant management theories and techniques to succeed in the line.
In this fast growing hi-tech, digital world, if the educational system is to

become meaningful and challenging, it needs professionally trained and
experienced managerial personnel to cope with the changing context of
educational system and its adminiskation. The Kothari Commission (1964-66)
has advocated that, "Education is one instrument and one instrument only to
bring change in the society and it is through managing the education process
in general. The realisation of the country's aspirations involves changes in
the knowledge skills, interests and the values of the people as a whole
through the sound system of education. This is possible only through
Educational Management."1g
Educational institutions provide valued services to their students and
aim to meet customer needs and expectations. Responsible institutions
always care for customer satisfaction. There are various techniques to apprise
service quality. Institutions that care about quality and produce quality, have
identified the critical processes to generate a high level of customer
satisfa~tion.~~
This needs management tools. Hence, there is need for
management in education.
An institution is evaluated on the basis of its performance.
Performance in education occurs along three dimensions: (a) knowledge
(b) as a participating citizen to perform within the economy (c) able

participation in the cultural life of a society.21Since an educational institution
is focussed on performance and results, it needs a clear definition of its
mission and it also needs a system to accomplish that. The mission will
remain as its guiding principle. The chief task of the management is to see
that all resources are used completely to achieve this mission. The resources
must be used in such a way that it provides for better management of the
educational institution.
Educational institutions have certain objectives to achieve.
Management is the organisational process of formulating objectives,
amassing resources and ensuring that the objectives are actually achieved.
It is a continuous and steady process in which members of an organisation
fulfill their tasks efficiently through coordination and utilization of resources.
Hence, Management has application in Education too.
To Peter Drucker, Professor of Social Science and Business
Administration, USA, 'Management is what the modern world is all about,
and management is the central activity of modem society.'22 The modem
world, characterised by sophisticated life styles, a high standard of living,
heavy industries, advance communication facilities and modern educational
systems, is absolutely impossible without proper, systematic, methodical and

sophisticated management. The much talked-about 'gap' between the USA
and Western Europe is not a gap in science and technology, but a gap in
management, as Robert Mc Namara, a leading economist has pointed out.
As a matter of fact, there are no "advanced" and "backward" economies;
there are only well-managed and poorly managed ones, there are n o "good"
and "bad" companies; only well managed and poorly managed onesz3 The
same premises can be applied to education too. The success of any
educational institution is that of proper and effective management. In short, it
is management, which makes all the difference.
Management as a theory and Practice
'Management' can be studied as a theory and as a process. 'As a
theory, Educational management includes the knowledge, the art and the
principles relating to the management of an educational institution. As a
process it includes human relations, managing material, physical and
financial resources, planning, organising, decision-making, executing,
directing and controlling people and other resources for accomplishing the
desired objective^.'^^
Management of education has two aspects - Internal Management
and External Management. Internal management covers classroom
transaction, library services, building and other physical and material
resources, human relations, financial transactions etc. External management
covers relations with the community, government and other agencies and
persons connected with the establishment and functioning of the institutions.
Management of education is an area where cooperative human
endeavour plays an integral part. In this system of human enterprise the
head of the institution is the manager. He requires the wholehearted

cooperation of the teachers, students, parents and the public for the effective
management of the institution. Though the manager is aided and assisted by
the advanced technologies like computers, it is the human element which lies
behind all effective managements. Educational management emphasises
democratisation in policy formu lation, decision making, implementing and
bringing improvements in the system. Though a manager, he is considered

as one among the staff.
Educational Administration
lndia is a democratic country. We have decided to follow democray
as a form of government, which means that we should have democray not

only in the political field but it should permeate in economics, industry,
social life and education. One of the functions of a modem state as accepted
by political theorists is the promotion of education to preserve and improve
the state.
Education is a powerful instrument of social change, so India has
accepted it as a social responsibility. This responsibility can be effective only
when there is control. If education is fully controlled by government, it is
likely to be dominated by economic, political and other pressure groups. In a

democratic country like lndia, there should be safeguards against state
domination and absolutism. In a democratic set up, the final control should
rest with the people, who are the real source of power. This applies to all
aspects of education including policies, procedures, organisation and
administration.
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Administration to organized
adivity. This application of rational thinking givei rise to the science of
administration and a search for basic principles. Administration is concerned
with values because it must encompass goals, purposes, and choices among
alternatives. In matters of control and governance educational administration
becomes intimately involved with politics as it applies to policy making and
policy implementation. Administration, as viewed here, exists in
organizations, and thus is concerned with people. The administrator, as a
person, brings to the administrative act a view of human nature and a set of
values and adion patterns that can be labelled as administrative style.
Concerned with the task of administering different stages and types of
education of the people, educational administration aims at enabling the
society to realise the desired goals of education, designed to suit the genius
of the people. Indian educational administration is a powerful governmental

instrument for administering education and improving instruction. Education
plays a vital role in the matter of socialisation and culturisation of all the
developing individuals in any part of the world. The social significance of
education is obvious from the fad that social good is nothing but an
outcome of the socially efficient individuals.
Education is as old as man. In early days, when there was n o
structured educational system, he reacted with his environment and acquired
experiences. Gradually, he converted them to some broad principles of
conduct and passed them on to the next generation. The result was the birth
of informal education and it was acquired through actual living with the
elders. Life was simple and so was education. Later men organised
themselves into smaller communities and then to larger ones to satisfy their
physical and social needs. When life became complex, jobs also became
complex and education growing into a complex activity had to be
institutionalised. Then it was entrusted to a separate institution, the school.
The establishment of schools caused the need for their administration. The
need for someone to organise educational activity and to ensure educational
quality was also felt. Laws were passed for this purpose and rules and
regulations were also formulated. In early times the administrator was
generally independent of the state and named his successor. But when the
State gained control of education the senior-most teacher was appointed as

the administrator. 'Early in the history of educational administration,
operations were largely on a personal and practical basis. Men were selected
not because of their technical training, but rather because of their success
with the public, teachers and students'.25
In the early stages educational administration was considered an
ordinary job requiring the teacher's qualifications plus something more. This
'something more' was equated with experience, personality, capacity to
enforce discipline and loyalty. Gradually, various positions were introduced
and the people in those positions began to give the lead in educational
activities. Thus came into vogue the institution of educational administration.
With the passing of time, there developed a strong belief that
educational administration was not different from general administration and
that the procedures of the latter could v e y well be applied to the forrner.
This style of administration is autocratic with imposition from above. There is
also n o opportunity for participation in the administrative process and no
question of sharing responsibility with teachers, students and the public.
As education expanded with the rise in the number of educational
institutions, the limitations of the existing educational administration came to
the surface. It is now abundantly clear with the development of educational
t h e o y and professional literature that there is need for reorientation of
educational administration with its own precise techniques and procedures
which are technical and scientific in nature.26 With the growth of
Management as a distinct subject, administration became closer to
Management and consequently Management theories and functions came
applicable to administration.
Educational Administration Versus General Administration
'All administration is the same. When one looks at administration

from the standpoint of its purpose, its task, its situational milieu or its process,
one will find much that is common in the management of Business,
Government, Army, Education and other organ is at ion^.'^^ Every group
activity requires some sort of administration to organise and direct the

group's effort towards some previously decided goals. The common features
of all types of administration are that their scope extends to production of
goods and services of public utility, control of finances, recruitment, training

and placement of personnel, and coordination of all the forces and resources
in order to realise the goals. Educational administration includes most of the
general administrative functions such as appraisal of the organisational

purpose and co-ordination of all the forces; staffing, training, public relations,
community service, raising funds for institutions, maintenance of accounts

and a score of other things to achieve the
Despite these common features there are significant differences in the

administrative process.
1. The central purpose of industrial administration is t o produce and
distribute material goods to meet human needs. It is more profit
motive a n d less service motive. Whereas, educational administration
is a non-profit making enterprise. It is mainly welfare or sewice
oriented. It is a welfare enterprise.
..
11. Unlike business administration, educational administration deals with
men. The former is more or less rigid, static and mechanical, while the
latter is dynamic a n d pragmatic. Education is a human process v e y
much influenced and controlled by various factors a n d disciplines
without being any one of them. It has to look after the whole span of
man's life from "cradle to grave," its main concern being man's
continuous growth a n d inner development. T o other types of
administrations these are areas of least concern.
iii. Education is a powerful instrument of social change. National
development can be brought only through universal education. The
ve y survival of a democratic society is possible only through
education; as such education aims at cultural growth whereas,
business aims at material growth.

iv. The main concern of educational administration being people and
their welfare, the techniques of educational administration are mostly
persuasive while those in other kinds of administration are mostly

coercive, dictatorial and authoritative. Power, authority and control
are indispensable for all administration but in the case of education
these have to be exercised continuously in a thoroughly democratic
manner, whereas, in other types, the administrator can, and has to be,
authoritative quite frequently.29
v. Educational administration is different from other types of
administrations in staffing. The teaching staff of a college is more or less
equally qualified, sometimes more qualified than the administrator.
vi. Evaluation of results is an important part of all activity and it is the

function of administration to measure and evaluate the outcomes to
improve the activity. Education is also concerned with standards but
its efficiency does not lie in standardisation. The purpose of all
education at all levels varies from literacy to critical thinking,
intellectual leisure and facilitation of social mobility. Preparing and
standardising personality tests, interest and attitude inventories and
other psychological measuring tools is a complex and costly affair.
Apart from this, education is a long-term process and its results are not
available immediately and in a material form. But in business and
industry the end product is immediate. The results are objective,
material and outwardly clear.
vii. The educational administrator in a college has to perform two major
functions. Primarily, h e is the principal of the college, and secondarily
he is the administrator of the college. The Principal has to be an
educational statesman too. He has to work in the present with eyes in
future. The future development of his institution must be his priority.
He is not only to implement the educational policies framed by the
powers that be, but is expected to suggest the changes in the policies.
A general administrator is bound to plan and operate a programme
designed to implement certain policies. He has to work within the
given steel framework, without much freedom. Whereas, a n
educational administrator has the freedom for innovation and to walk
through the off-beat tracks.
Educational administration, though of recent origin is an important
area of study to be developed by trial-and error, as well as experimentation
and research. It is fast developing into a profession in its own right, because
it requires a certain standard of competence, additional professional training,

significant service to society, long hours of work and intellectual study of a
high order.30
Nature of Educational Administration
Educational administration is the management of educational
institutions with a view to fostering teaching and learning. It is a practical
field of operations and also a field of study. As a discipline of study,
Educational Administration developed only in the present centuy. It
emerged first at the Teacher's Training College of Columbia University and
was followed shortly by the graduate programme of Stanford University,
University of Chicago and other institutions in the USA.31 Since the 1950s,
educational administration has become a field of study in its own right. It is

an applied field which draws out its strategies, methods and techniques from
sociology, psychology, political science and other behavioural sciences.
With the beginning of 1970s a new era has emerged in the field of
educational administration. Vast changes have been taking place in all its
aspects both conceptual as well as operational. The whole concept and
nature of educational administration has radically changed in recent years
due to the impact of conceptual changes that took place in the fields of
educational philosophy, educational psychology, social psychology and
educational sociology. New terms, constructs and approaches are being
introduced and used at the conceptual level. Even the very nomenclature of
the field seems to be changing. In the place of educational administration,
the terms educational management and educational organization are
frequently being used. Terms such as administration, management and
organization are used very loosely in the field of educational administration.
Many use them synonymously, while others obsewe very fine distinction
between them. The subtle distinction between the terms administration,
management and organization has been highlighted below.
Management and organization
Management is a specialized activity required for the running of all
those social institutions, which are composed of a group of human beings.3z
In business and industry this activity is called management, in other fields it is
largely called administration. Organization refers to the structure or the form
of the organization, the vertical and horizontal lay-out of the power positions
in the organization. However, the term 'Organization' has been used,
occasionally, by some writers to refer to the process of management.
Administration and Management

These terms though used synonymously, have some differences in
certain fields. The phase of business enterprise which is concerned with the
overall determination of the major policies and objectives is, generally, called
administration. Management is the executive fundion that carries out the
administrative poliy laid down by administrators. Thus, in certain
organizations, including business organizations, administration is the policy
making sector of the organization. The management part consists of all those
functions and people who have to work for the achievement of the objedives
planned by the administrators. In an organization, where these two functions
remain separated, administration refers to the force which forms policies and
lays down objectives, while management is the force that leads, guides and
directs the organization in the materialisation of these goals. In the industrial
field policymaking is the administrative fundion and execution of the policy
is the management function. Management is often considered as a social
process. It is held responsible for the effective and economical planning and
regulation of the operations of the organization.
In theory, there exists a difference between management and
administration, but in practice, in most organizations this difference doesn't
exist. Quite often, these two terms are used interchangeably. In all other
fields except in indushy, administration and management are synonymous,
both mean the same. Both mean getting things done through people, both
imply coordination and supervision, both use knowledge and beliefs that
supply a broad basis for determining solutions to organizational problems.33
When it comes to actual practice, in most organizations it is not possible to

separate the administration and management processes. Many writers on
these topics do not consider it feasible and advisable to have this separation.
They consider Management as a term preferred in writing outside Education.
But in recent years educators have come to accept Management as a
desirable term.
0. Sheldon was, perhaps the first management expert who initiated the
controversy regarding the distinction between administration and management.
He regarded 'administration as that function of the industry which was

concerned with the determination of the corporate poliy, the coordination of
finance, production and distribution, the settlement of the structure of the
organization under the ultimate control of the executive? About management
he observed that it is that function of the industry which is concerned with the
execution of poliy within the limits set-up by administration and the
employment of the organization for the particular object before it. Spriegel,
another Management theoretician says that adm inisbation is the 'determinative
fundon' and management is the 'executive function .'
Literally 'ministration' means caring for someone or something. It
suggests doing things-useful, needful and helpful. The prefix 'ad' simply adds
emphasis to what is meant by ministration literally. Hence, administration
can be interpreted as a complex set of interrelated helping functions, serving

activities, caring responsibilities and facilitating operations. Educational
administration, when interpreted in this context would mean getting things
done through following and enforcing the rules and regulations in
educational organisations. It is instrumental in the realisation of goals,
policies and purposes of education. It is action-oriented in the sense that
to realise educational goals actions are initiated and controlled by
educational administration.
Educational administration may be conceived as a type of
organizational set-up by virtue of which administration of different branches
and stages of education is carried out efficiently and effectively to the
satisfaction and benefit of the public, striving to realise the national goals
set-up for the purpose and straining itself to foster international

understanding and c o ~ p e r a t i o n . ~ ~
Educational management can be looked at as the process which helps
through educational institutions for the development of human personality. It
is the process that aims at maintaining the educational institutions and
making them function effectively and efficiently. This is mainly the task of an
educational manager. An understanding of his roles and functions is an
integral part of this study.
Role and Functions of the Educational Manager
Maty Parker Follett defines 'Management as the art of getting things
done through people.' This definition stresses the fact that the managers
achieve organisational goals through others. This definition perceives
managers as organisational planners, organisers, leaders and controllers.
Every manager, from the teacher to the chief executive of a company has a
wider range of roles to move the organisation towards its declared objectives.
'Role' is behaviour patterns expected of an individual within a social unit.
For the purpose of managerial thinking, a 'role' is the behaviour pattern
expected of someone within a functional unit. The managers, in their task of

achieving their objectives play a series of interpersonal, informational and
decision-making roles.
Interpersonal ( Information Decisional

Roles , Roles
Figurehead Monitor
b
Leader Disseminator Disturbance hand Ier
Spokesman Resource allocator
Liaison Strategy maker
Source: Adaptation of 'The Nature of Managerial work' by Henry Mintzberg,

New York, Harper & Row, 1973.
1. Interpersonal Roles include:

1. The figurehead role: As the head of an organisation the manager has
to perform certain duties of a ceremonial nature. Eg, Inauguration of
teaching aids exhibition, arts festival, attending the wedding of a
teacher etc.
ii. Leader: The manager's actions which ensure smooth functioning of
the organisation constitute his role as a leader.
iii. Liaison role: This role deals with gathering information from
subordinates and through his network of contacts. This will help him
to assess, evaluate and alter his method of functioning. In an
educational institution, h e gets inforrnation from the staff, students
and the public. The processing of this inforrnation is a key part of the
Manager's job.
Information Roles include:

1. Monitor: As monitor, the manager is in constant contact with his
environment for information.
..
11. Disseminator: As disseminator he has to pass some information that
he has gathered to his subordinates.
iii. Spokesman: As the spokesman of his institution, his words are official
about it. He must give some information regarding his institution to
people outside his unit.
iv. Strategy maker: Having all the information, it is the manager's role
to decide the strategy for the institution. He takes decisions for it to
move forward.
Decisional Roles include:
1. Entrepreneur role: The manager must initiate change.
ii. Disturbance handler: The organisation will have occasional
disturbances. The manager must handle these effectively.
iii. Resource allocator: The manager decides the allocation of resources
in his organisation including his own time.
iv. Negotiator: The manager has the authority to commit organisational
resources towards productivity and only he has the information to
carry out important negotiation^.^^
Functions of an Educational Manager
The primary function of an educational manger is to ensure that the

goals of his organisation are clearly stated and understood. 'Purpose-
defining' is his central function. This must be followed by continuous
attention to review and revise goals.
The second major responsibility of education manager is the
acquisition of both human and material resources and the necessary
allocation of them to the defined goals and objectives. Just and equitable
distribution of resources is a major function of the manager, Designing an
effective and efficient arrangement of human and material resources
constitutes a critical responsibility of educational management, which
includes an obligation to integrate individuals with organisation and to match
their talents with the tasks so that the most effective mix of individual needs
and organisational purpose is achieved.37This responsibility coincides with
the organisation of technological resources. Along with this he also has the
responsibility to see that everything is going according to plan. This can be
found out by evaluation. Evaluative responsibility of the educational
manager means that he must design and implement an effective follow-up
and feedback system.
The Manager is responsible for the total organisational communication,
which includes both external and internal communication. He plays the role of
a 'gate-keeper' in controlling and influencing the flow of information. In the
communication jargon, a 'gate-keeper' is a person who decides what

channels will be used for the dissemination of information and what kind and
how much information may pass through those channels at any given time.
But sometimes the information they receive is too confidential to pass along,
so managers find themselves the possessors and entrusted keepers of a
store-house of information.
An Educational manager deals with human beings and it is his
function to develop people. Along with them he has to develop himself by
improving his skills and performance through self-evaluation. As Peter
Drucker, the celebrated management guru says, what a manager needs to
do, can b e learnt, but one quality cannot be learned or acquired, which he
must bring with him-it is character, and integrity.
Added to this the Educational Manager has the following important
functions: i) Planning, ii) Organising, iii) Decision making, iv) Leading and
v) Motivating.
1. Planning
Planning in education is a seminal activity as it forms the basis of all
programmes of quantitative and qualitative improvement in education. As a
democratic c o u n t y India is concerned with the social, political, economical,
cultural and educational development of the national life in a n orderly
manner. This can be materialised only by adopting techniques and
approaches of planning. Planning is the managerial process of deciding in
advance 'what' is to be done and 'how' it is to be done.38 By an educational
plan we mean the efforts on planned and deliberate systemic changes to be
brought about in the field of education for achieving targeted definite

objectives. Planning actually means the process of setting out in advance a
pattern of action to bring about overall changes as viewed by national
policies by the closest possible articulation of means and ends.
The Need for Planning
I. Planning is necessaly to ensure success of the enterprise. It makes
clear the goals and the means to achieve them and thus eliminates the
chances of failure, and ensures success of the activity.
ii. Effective planning saves time, effort and money. Because of the clear
objectives and strategies, it is a time-saving, effort-saving and a
m on ey-saving activity.
iii. Planning is a good method of solving problems. Through the best
utilisation of available resources, it checks wastage and failure and

contributes to the smoothness, ease and efficiency of the
administrative process.
iv. Planning is necessary to keep pace with the time. This is an age of
rapid and far-reaching changes in all spheres of life. Educational
process has to keep abreast of these changes and mould it
accordingly; otherwise it will become misfit for this age. Miller says, "in
reviewing the quality of any administrative agency, the analyst today
usually begins with these questions. What steps are taken to define the
purpose and objectives of the agency? Is there a plan of action? Is the
programme reviewed from time to time?"39These questions are clear
pointers and hence, the need for sound planning.
Characteristics of Educational Planning
With the growth of Management as a specialised field of study, the

science of educational planning has also tremendously grown. Following are
some of the most important characteristics of educational planning.
1. It is being realized more and more that decisions regarding changes
in the field of education must be well-planned. In view of the
well-thought-out objectives, one among them may be selected and
implemented. This choice of the best is made after considering the
discussions with many people at various levels.

..
ti. Planning should not be regarded as a single person's responsibility.
Rather, it should be considered a responsibility of all people
concemed with the desired change.

...
111. Modem educational planning stresses that the aims of a democratic
society shall be social and economical, concemed with the welfare of
all and not of some special interest groups. The expected needs of the
community and the needs of the students should be the broad frame
of reference to be used for educational planning.
iv. Cooperative planning, which includes the involvement of the
representatives of most of the concemed sectors of the society in the
process of planning is an important feature of modem educational
planning. .
v. Modem educational planning foresees future developments and
needed changes. This is done in advance so that proper facilities,
supporting media and required resources for implementing the
planned change can be secured.
vi. It also identifies educational problems and suggests suitable solutions.
Instead of suggesting temporary solutions to problems, modern
educational planning carefully and objectively collects data, interprets
and analyses inter-relationships between present and future needs and
suggests solutions to existing problems.
Principles of Modem Educational Planning
Many have attempted to enumerate the principles of good planning.
These principles should be followed for both national education plans as well
as annual institutional plans. Eugene Elliot a n d Earl Moisefo have laid down
the following principles of educational planning:-
1. Educational planning must be one aspect of general national
planning.
ii. Research is basic to planning.

...
111. Planning must be a continuous process.
iv. Planning should take into consideration resources and establish
conditions of work,
v. Planning must be realistic and practical.
vi. Planning must involve active and continuing participation of all
interested individuals a n d groups.
vii. Planning should utilize the services of specialists
viii. Planning should provide opportunity for all persons and groups to
understand and appreciate the plans.
ix. Planning should provide for continuous evaluation.
x. Planning should have opportunity for modification for further action.
Planning in the cycle of management activity
Planning constitutes an important position in management activity.

It is also a preliminary to decision making and implementations.
Cycle of management activity
Source LindaEUisonandBrentDavies, Education Managementforthe1990k

(Essex: Longman, 1991) p.32.
The cycle demonstrates that before specific activities may be planned

it is necessary to plan aims and objectives. Once these have been planned,
the means of achieving them, in terms of defined programmes and activities,

may be considered.
The educational system should create a planning cadre to 'undertake

all planning activities for the system, including the establishment of
educational goals, the development of educational programmes, reflecting

the goals, the identification of resources needed to implement programmes,
the allocation of physical and human resources in implementations, and
finally, the evaluation process, necessary to continued plan development?'
The planning team should consist of the financial planner, the curriculum
planner, the facilities planner and the evaluation specialists. The educational
programmes of the institution must be based on the outcomes derived from
the planning effort. It is the responsibility of the planning staff to suggest
changes and modifications and to evaluate the programme effectiveness.
The educational system must develop a planning capacity of its own and
should appoint specialists from the field to supplement and complement its
own staff. In this way, expert advice on particular problems can be made
available; at the same time local personnel can give continuity to the
planning process.
The era of planning into which we are now entering will demand for
greater capacity to conceive, to conceptualise and to compromise on the part
of the educational administrator. It will also provide a great opportunity to
contribute, to affect and to participate in the growth process.
2. Organising
Education is the process of deliberately guiding the development of
pupils by the communication and manipulation of knowledge. When an
educational organ isation is functionin g with this objective, each operational
level of the organisation, from the classroom teacher to the Board of control
must know what performance is expeded of them. At each operational level
we must formulate statements which specify expeded performance.
Organising is the mechanism through which objectives listed in a plan are

accomplished. In short, organisation is a man made system designed to
combine a complex of men, materials, machines and other resources into an
efficient, effective and variable enterpri~e.4~
According to Harold Koontz and Heinz Weihrich," organising is i) the
identification and classification of required activities. ii) the grouping of
activities necessay to attain objectives. iii) the assignment of each grouping
to a manager with the authority (delegation) necessaly to supervise it and
iv) the provision for coordination horizontally (on the same or similar
organizational level) and vertically in the organisation structure.

Organizational Goals
While organising is the mechanism through which goals set in a plan

are accomplished, organisation is the structure for that purpose.
Organisations are created to achieve the goals of society. They stand for the
function of societal goals and provide the agency for accomplishing the
desired performance. The main role of an organisation is to provide the
management control n ecessay to attain societal goals.
Many of the goals of education are product-oriented. In a democratic
society like ours, there is also a commitment to certain process-goals, based
on process-oriented values. There are two major organisational goals in a
democratic society. (a) Each learner is a unique person. Individual
differences must be taken into account when programmes are chalked out.
(b) Learning how'to learn may be as important as the learning itself.

Decentralisation of Authority
Decentralisation is a major element of organising, 'Decentralisation is

the tendency to disperse decision-making authority in an organised structure.
It requires careful selection of which decisions to push down into the
organisation structure and which to hold near the top, specific policy making
to guide the decision making, proper selection and training of people, and
adequate controls.44
3. Decision Making
In an educational institution most decisions are taken by groups i.e.,

by a number of different people at different points in time. Five factors in
group decision making can be either assets or liabilities to group
effectiveness. First, conflicting ideas within a group can promote both
creativity and innovation on the one hand and resentment and ill will on the
other hand. Effective leaders use differences to generate creative solutions,
suggesting a solution that incorporates both. Secondly, conflicts must be
converted into assets than liability. Thirdly, groups often take riskier decisions
than individuals do. Fourthly, in groups it takes prolonged time to reach a
decision. More manpower and time are involved in it. Finally, in order to
agree to the group decision, some individuals will have to alter their original
viewpoints.
Group Decision-Making Techniques
The very nature of an educational institution demands decision-

making both at individual and group levels. An understanding of the group
decision-making techniques will help all those involved in the educational
process to take decisions freely and firmly. The most common from of group
decision-making in a educational institution takes place in face to face
interacting groups. But there is a danger in this. The interacting groups often
pressurise individual members to toe their line of opinion. Several methods
like Brainstorming, the nominal group technique, electronic meetings and

committees have been suggested as ways to limit many of the problems
inherent in the traditional interacting group. This will help to improve the
educational atmosphere in the institutions.

i. Brainstorming: This is an important method for generating ideas. It
also ensures the participation of many in the decision making process.
Brainstorming also helps to overcome pressures on the people and to
get the feeling that they are heard.
.,
.,\,
SL
?,*I ;'
\\,v. , ' ;; ,
ii. Nominal Group ~ e c h n i ~ u e : \ $ h hmethod

a in.,,which
... the nominal
1,
-\---
-,
group limits discussion o r interperkon@-com@rrication

- .,... during the
decision making process. As in the traditional committee meeting, the
members are physically present and each member independently
writes down his or her ideas on the problem. This is followed by the
individual presentation of ideas. Each member presents a single idea
until all ideas have been presented and recorded. Then discussion
takes place. Each group member silently and independently ranks the
ideas. The idea that gets the highest aggregate ranking is selected as
the final decision.
iii. Electronic Meetings: In this method about fifty people sit around a
horse-shoe shaped table with a series of computer terminals. After the
presentation of issues, the participants type their responses on their
monitor. Individual responses as well as aggregate votes are displayed
on a projection screen in the room. The major advantages of
electronic meetings are anonymity, honesty, speed and wider
participation.
iv. Committees. A committee is a vely prevalent system in educational
institutions to pool the experience of different members and utilise
their efforts for problem solving and decision-making. Committees
also can serve as "incubators" for young teachers, teaching them to
think beyond the needs and concerns of their own work unit.45The
success of a committee depends upon its leadership. The leader is
chiefly responsible for the satisfactory completion of its assigned tasks,
and for his own leadership behaviour. The leader should make sure
that the committee works within its jurisdiction. The following tips will
be helpful in managing committee discussions effectively. (a) control
the aggressive ones. (b) draw out the silent ones. (c) protect the weak
ones. (d) encourage the clash of ideas (e) watch out for the
suggestion-squashing reflex (f) come to the senior most people last
and (g) close on a note of a~hievement.~~
4. Leading
The importance of leadership in management of any educational
organisation is vely crucial. Achievement of organizational goals very much
depends on how effectively leadership is exercised in the organisation. The
leaders of organisations can so change the work climate that all the
employees are motivated to work hard with the result that the goals are
achieved. When managers motivate subordinates, direct their activities,
select the most effective communication channel or resolve conflicts among
members, they are leading.47Educational leadership is that quality which
evokes from co-workers their vo luntay , active participation in assuming
responsibilities which contribute to growth in relationships, attitudes and
activities of the group.
It is clear from all these definitions that educational leadership has two
main aspects-the achievement of organizational goals and working with
people. These may be regarded as two attitudinal positions of leaders-
attitudes towards goals and attitudes towards people. The leader's
effectiveness is determined by these two sets of his attitudes.
Characteristics of Leadership
Educational leadership occupies a prominent place in government policy

making, both nationally and internationally. John Adair has identified five
distinguishing leadership characteristics. i ) gives direction, ii) offers inspiration,
iii) builds teamwork, iv) sets an example, v) gains acceptan~e.~~
Recent studies
on educational leadership points out that the characteristics of leadership are
having vision, mission and strategic direction.
Leadership is a vital factor in the effectiveness of schools and colleges.
When we analyse good schools and colleges it becomes clear that without
exception the most important single factor in the success of those schools
and colleges is the quality of leadership at the head. The definition of an
effective educational institution as 'one which responds to individual pupil

and staff needs and to the changing face of the community in which it is
placed:' highlights the importance of effective leadership of an institution.
The stress given there is very much on the inter-personal skills of the leader.
Leadership is to be found not in legal or procedural formalities but in the
person and the quality of their relationships with others. Leaders in
education are expected to a d both as agents of change and to maintain
day-to-day running of a stable institution.
The International School Improvement Programme (ISlP) has
recommended four major tasks for leadership in the improvement of
educational institutions.
1. Taking a long-term view.
..
11. Ensuring a corporate educational strategy agreed to by all involved.
.111.
..
Working towards integrating, the results of successful improvement
work on to the normal work of the school.
iv. The management of external relations, relating the school or college
to its wider environment.
The effective schools and colleges require a wider concept of
leadership. There are two types of leadership related to educational
institutions-transactional and transformational leadership. The transactional
leadership describes the contract made between leader and follower, the
former for ensuring good working conditions and the latter to work toward
the achievement of organizational goals. Such leadership cannot guarantee
sch ool/college improvement. Rather what is termed transformation a1
leadership ensuring the commitment of followers is required .. . leaders and
followers are united in pursuit of higher-level goals common to both. Both
want to become the best. Both want to shape the school in a new direction?'
Leadership can occur at a variety of levels in response to a variety of
situations and is not tied to possession of a formal organisations role. For the
improvement and effectiveness of educational institutions, all teachers must
be ready and willing to take up curriculum leadership responsibilities.
Leadership is the capacity to inspire fellowship, something which might
reasonably be an ambition and assumed function of all teachers, in relation
to their pupils and students.
5. Motivating
Managing needs the formation and maintenance of an environment in

which individuals work closely in groups towards the attainment of group
objectives. This duty of the manager cannot be done without knowing what
motivates his team. The building of motivating factors into organisational
roles, the staffing of these roles, and the entire process of leading people
must be built on a knowledge of rn~tivation.~~
The basic character of human behaviour is that it is goal-oriented. The
needs of the people motivate their adions which lead to the goal. The
primary task of managers is to get people to contribute activities, which will
help the institution achieve its mission and goals. No organisation can
progress without the commitment and integrity of its members. In order to
guide people in desired directions, the manager should know what leads
people to adion and what motivates them. Motivation is the art of helping
people to focus their minds and energies on doing their work as effectively as
Human motives are based on needs. Motivation involves a chain

reaction, which begins with needs. The needs give rise to wants, which cause
tensions or unfulfilled desires, which give rise to actions toward achieving
goals, which ultimately result in satisfying actions.
Needs-+K%Z-b Wants . Which cause .Tensions

I
Which give Actions Which result in -b Satisfaction

rise to
Need-want-satisfaction chain
Source: Harold Koontz and Heinz Weihrich, Ersentials of Management
(New Delhi: Tata McGraw Hill, 1998)p.319.
Motivation reflects wants, and motivators identify rewards or
incentives, that sharpen the drive to satisfy these wants. Motivators also act
as the means to unify the needs and to prioritise them. An educational
manager can do a lot to sharpen motives by creating an environment
favourable to certain drives. He must be concerned about motivators that
will lead people to perform effectively for the institution that employs them.
There are a number of theories of motivation, but the Hierarchy of
Needs-Theory put forth by the psychologist Abraham Maslow, has received
more attention than any other theoy. He classifies human needs in a
logical way. Maslow viewed human motivation as a hierarchy of five needs,
ranging from the most basic psychological needs to the highest needs for
self-actualization.=
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
In the opinion of Maslow, individuals will be motivated to fulfil

whichever need is 'prepotent' or most powerful at a given time. Individual's
current situation and recent experiences decide the prepotency of a need.
Starting with physical needs which are the most basic like food, shelter,
warmth etc. each need must be at least partially satisfied before the
individual desires to satisfy a need at the next higher level. Then comes
security or safety needs-to be free of physical danger and of the fear of losing
a job, property, food or shelter. Next in the hierarchy is the need to belong
and to be accepted by others. According to Maslow, once people begin to

satisfy their need to belong and be accepted, they want to be held in esteem
both by themselves and by others. This kind of need produces such satisfactions
as power, prestige, status and self-confidence. Educational managers can satisfy
esteem needs by providing challenging work assignments, giving perf o m ance
feedback, performance recognition and personal encouragement as well as
by involving subordinates in the goal-setting and decision making process.

Maslow regards the need for self-actualisation as the highest need in his
hierarchy. It is the desire to become what one is capable of becoming-to
maximise one's potential and to accomplish something. Educational
managers should generate in the staff and students the desire to make full
use of their potential, and train them to become what they are capable of.
After the study of the art and science of Educational Management, a

survey of its genesis and development in the Indian perspective is imperative.
Genesis and Development of Educational Administration and

Management in India
Education is part and parcel of civilization. If the civilization and the
culture of a race are to be preserved, it can be done only through education.
Learning has been an integral part of Indian tradition since time immemorial.
The history of university education in India goes long back in the ancient
times, even before the commencement of universities and colleges in Europe
during the medieval age.

Educational Administration cannot be studied as an isolated
discipline. Its historical growth cannot be studied singularly without reference
to the history of its nation concerned. Similarly, cultural background of the

nation and political vicissitudes have profound influence on the nature of
educational administrative The Educational Administration of the

modern type has only a short histoly in India. Its evolution has taken many
centuries to come into the present form. The history of Educational
Administration is closely associated with and moves parallel to the political
and educational history of the nation. It is also connected with our nationalist
movement and also the move for the Indianisation of educational
administration. When India became independent, its history became coupled
with the democratisation of educational organisational structures to suit the
fast changing national conditions.
Educational Administration in Ancient lndia
The present has its roots deeply embedded in the past. The refulgence
of the glorious past of India has not only illuminated the present but also
aroused faith in future. The glorious past of India owes much to the social,
cultural, economic factors as well as to the spirituality prevalent in the nation.
In the ancient period, all the political, economic and social currents
emanated from spiritualism. Even education was looked at as a spiritual

activity.
Education in lndia began as a spiritual and intellectual activity to satisfy
man's innate curiosity, during the primordial ages. It is usually said that the
methodology and organization of education in India originated during the
Vedic period. Education was an important component of the Vedas.
Education in 'Vedas' meant the learning of the pronunciation of vowels and
consonants correctly.55The education of those days were largely oral, the
teacher recited the 'Mantras' and the pupil was to learn them by heart.
Home was the child's first school and the family was his primary school.
No other country in the world can boast of a more ancient or more
powerful tradition of the love of knowledge than lndia. The main basis of
education in those days was vedic activity and hence life was very much
spiritual. Education in ancient lndia was totally free from any external control
like that ofthe state or government or any other statutory agencies or any
party politics. It was one of the royal duties t o see that the erudite pundits
persuaded their studies and imparted knowledge without any interference of

whatsoever nature. There were three agencies of education.
I. Gurukula: This was the residence of the teacher where the students
stayed during the period of their study. The primary duty of the
student was to serve the teacher and his family. The students were not
subjected to any external laws or regulations.
ii. Parishad: The parishads were bigger educational institutions, that can
b e compared to a college, where different teachers used to teach
different subjects.
iii. Sammelan: In this type of educational institutions scholars gathered at
one place for discussions, meetings, and competitions generally on the
invitation of the king.
The aim of Vedic education was sacred and lofty. It aimed at
providing full opportunity for the development of human traits to enable the
learners to get full opportunity to develop themselves and their innate
potential. Thus Vedic education aimed at character building, widening the
horizons of knowledge and material advancement. All these were done with
the least external intervention. The system was cleverly administered by the
Gurus themselves.
The Post-Vedic period
The post-Vedic period extends between 1400 BC and 600 BC or from
the end of Rigvedic period to the beginning of Buddhism and Jainism. With
the spread of vedic culture, the sacrificial rituals dominated and the Brahman
priests gained the highest position in the Indian society. The ritual system
and activities, with their practical knowledge, took the place of self-realisation
and meditation in the Brahmanic Age.
The Educational structure in the Brahman Age was, to a great extent,
only a refined and developed form of Vedic education. However, during this
age, various institutions, such as, Shakha, Charana, Parishad, Kul and Gotra
began to emerge at the various levels of education. Many famous ashrams or
monasteries came to be established. A notable feature of this period was the
determination of the syllabus according to the caste and ashrama system.
Mithila, named as Videh emerged as a prominent seat of Brahminical system
of education. From the 12thcentury to 15thcentuy, Mithila had been an
important centre of learning and culture. There, was also a Nyaya Vidyalaya.
The 'snatakas' (graduates) of Mithila were strictly examined and degrees
were given to successful candidates.
Education in the Brahmanic age stood upon the foundations of the
Vedic period. Students lived with the Gurus in the Gurukul. But there were
restrictions on Shudras, the lower caste in receiving education. Education in
this period became more comprehensive and was dominated by religion. In
this age, too, primacy was given to the study of the Vedas. Along with this
grammar, arithmetic, geometry, astrology, history, nyayas, philosophy, and
economics were also taught.
During the Brahmanic period, education came to be bound with
chains of formality. It was free and universal. It was also free from external
control, restraint and political parties. But it was fully dominated by religion.
Dr. R.K. Mukerji says:
Since the birth of the oldest Vedic poehy we find Indian literature for a
period of more than a thousand years bearing an exclusively religious
stamp. Even a thousand y e a s after the compilation of Wgveda'
religious ideas continued to inspire education. The main aim of
education was the propagation of religious ideas and principles."
The schools in those days were known as Ashrama schools. The
teachers were given complete freedom to organize and administer their
schools. The economic independence of the Ashrama schools were
maintained by liberal grants given to them by the ruling chieftains or the

wealthy members of the locality. The student inmates of the Ashrama schools
used to cultivate lands and to grow food for their needs. Thus the
organisational pattern of the Ashrama schools was of the autonomous type.
The administration of the school was the responsibility of the chief teacher-
Acharya. In reputed institutions, when the number of students increased a
single teacher was unable to handle them. Then, some assistant teachers or
upadhayas were there to help the Achaya. In order to maintain complete
autonomy in organization and administration, the ancient Hindus evolved a
system of Charans and Parishadsa5' During a later period, some of the
Ashrams developed into teacher colonies. In these colonies, the most learned
had certain powers of control. There are also many indications in the ancient
texts that ancient Hindus were able to organise big institutions like the
present day residential universities.
Education in ancient India was not under the control of the State. In
those days public education was not regarded as the duty of the state. There
was neither constraint nor taxation for providing education to the public.
Education had been, more or less governed by the religious doctrinaires. It

was a part of Dharma of the people-teachers as well as students. There had
been royal patronage in abundance, even though little of state interference is
discernible." A notable feature of the educational administration of those
days had been complete academic and administrative freedom enjoyed by
the educators. In ancient India, the State did not attempt to control
education and it was liberally subsidising it. The Kings were giving generous
grants to all institutions without trying to control their policy or curricula.
For many centuries there were n o organised educational institutions in
India. Hence, there was n o need for establishing an administrative
machinery of education. Educational institutions were managed by the chief
instructors themselves.
The Buddhist System of Education and its Administration

The Buddhist and the Muslim systems of education were the most
important systems in medieval India. During the Brahman period, ritualism
increased and a sense of aimlessness prevailed in society. Buddhism
emerged as a reaction to Vedic ritualism. Gautama Buddha revolted against
the prevalent brahmanical religion and he was against the rigid classification
according to varnas. The Buddhists began to establish educational
monasteriesviharas- in competition with the Vedic system of education. In
the beginning their institutions were open only to Buddhists, but gradually
they began to impart education to all classes of people. The Buddhists
imparted education in Sanghas or collective groups. The Buddhist Sangh
was parallel to the Gurukula of the Hindus. The Buddhist education and
learning centred round monasteries as Vedic education centred round the
sacrifice. All education, sacred as well as secular was in the hands of monks.
As in the Brahminical tradition, the Buddhist system also insisted the student
to live with the teacher. This was known as pabbaja according t o the
Buddhist tradition. The student was known as antevasin,o n e who lives out
of his home.
Compared to the Gurukula system, which developed around the

family of a single teacher, the Buddhist educational institutions were large
centres consisting of thousands of students and a number of teachers. Thus
Uhara or the Buddhist monastely was a federated educational institution on
the pattern of a modern university.59The curriculum of the Buddhist
universities was almost varied like the modem universities. This helped in
attrading students not only from all parts of India but also from abroad such
as China, Tibet and Korea. The history of education in the Buddha period is
coupled with the history of monasteries and Wharas because, there was no
independent educational institutions or centres, other than those religious
centres. The admissions into Buddhist monasteries were regulated more or
less similar to the rules and regulations observed by the Gurukulas as in the
Vedic period. Education had two levels during the Buddhist period-the
primay and higher level. There were many universities too. Among them the
most notable were Nalanda, Taxila, Ballabhi, Vikramshila, Odantpuri, Nadia
and Jagdalla.
In the Buddhist period there were no organised Gurukulas like that of
the Vedic period. The big and extensive monasteries were the backbone of
Buddhist education where thousands of monks lived together. The Buddhist
educational institutions were based on federal principles where small
Padasalas worked under the control of big groups of the Sanghs. Like Vedic
education the Buddhist education was mainly religious. Its primary aim was
to attain Nirvana. There was no provision for the education of common man
in the Buddhist Sanghs. But since they depended upon the endowment by
the public and the rulers, it was necessary for them to teach Buddhism to the
public. The educational institutions of the Buddhist period were managed on
the basis of democratic principle^.^' Celebrated scholars were appointed
Kulapati or the highest authority of the institution. The Manager in Chief of
th.e Buddhist universities was the Bbikshu Mahasfhavir. He was a kind of
Kulapati or the President. He was elected by all the other Bhikshus. The
criteria for election were learning, experience and purity of character. The
Kdapati had two committees appointed by the Sangh to advise him on
matters of importance. The first committee was like the present day
Academic Council, with responsibilities to advise the Kulapati on questions
of education and teaching. This committee gave advice o n matters of
admission, courses, and the work of teachers. This council managed the
libray too. It was assisted by other teachers and students according to
its requirements.
The other committee was responsible for general administration,
construction of new buildings, maintenance and management of the existing
buildings, proper arrangement of residence of the students in boarding
houses, food and clothing for all the Bhikshus and also general matters
concerning the Sangh. The directions for the daily working of the University
were given by the heads of the departments, appointed by the Sangh. They
had charge over the boarding houses too. The punishments for offences
were decided by the students themselves, thus the administration of the
universities went on well with the cooperation and the coordination of the
teachers and the students.
The Buddhist period was marked for the beginning of organised
educational institutions, which can be well compared with the universities of
the Medieval Europe. There was no state administrative machinely of
education to manage these institutions. All these clearly indicated that
corporate educational institutions were first evolved in ancient India, in
connection with the Buddhist monasteries.
Administration in the Medieval period
Education in the Medieval period is popularly known as Maktab
Madrasa system or Muslim system. This system aimed at making the
individual capable of earning for himself. According to Muslims the purpose
of education is the attainment of knowledge which is considered to be a
duty. The Prophet Muhammad himself has said: "To seek knowledge is a
duty for every Muslim and every Musalimah."
After the defeat of Prithviraj Chauhan, Mohammad Gori laid the
foundation of Muslim rule in Northern India. Many Muslim kings ruled over
India as the representative of the Slave, Tughlak, Sayyad, Lodhi and the
Mughal dynasties. Many of them were great patrons of learning and
literature. They established centres of learning in different parts of their

kingdom. Akbar was a great champion of education. His Court was adorned
with Nine Jewels. He tried to reorganise education and place it on a stronger
footing. Akbar wanted that Muslims and Hindus should receive education in
their own religions. Mathematics, Physiology, Medicine, Agriculture and
other traditional subjects were the essential parts of the curriculum. He had a
big palace library consisting of many precious books.
Education was organised in Maktabs and Madrasas. Primaty education
was given in Makfabs and higher education was given in Madrasas. During the
Muslim period education received great patronage of the state. They also
granted scholarships to many students. There was no university in Muslim
education. Since education had the mark of high religious orthodoxy, the
Hindus could not get much benefit out of it. The provision for education was
meant only for the middle and the upper class. There was n o means for
imparting education to the children of common people.
The Muslim prophets had urged their followers to preach and expand
their religion. Education was looked at a s a tool to propagate Islam. The
3 R's and the Koran were taught in MaMabs. After completing the education
in a Maktab, one could go to a Madrasa for higher education. The Madrasas
were granted land and villages by the Kings for their maintenance. They
used to receive other financial grants as well. The Madrasa was headed by a
scholar. The King never interfered in the administration of a Madrasa. The
Madrasas were extended financial assistance by rich people. There was no

special officer or department to supervise the work of Madrasas. For
awarding grants to the Maktabs and Madrasas, most of the Muslim rulers
appointed a special minister known as 'Sardar-usSadur'. But in lieu of
grants there was n o administrative control over these institutions.
The above analysis clearly shows that there arose no need of the
development of any kind of state administrative machiney of education
either in the ancient or in the medieval times, though a sort of state
interference had been noticed in the medieval ages. A state administrative
machiney of the modern type did not exist and education was self-
controlled. It was only in recent centuries when the State interfered in
education that there arose the need for an external controlling system to
ascertain that the funds were properly utilised and instructions were taken
care for.
Educational Administration under the East India Company

Educational administration in the true sense has its genesis and
development during the British period only. For a long time in the beginning
the administration of education was in the hands of foreigners. The policy of

the alien government had been mostly that of non-interference and
withdrawal from the active participation in spreading educational
programmes. Educational administration in those early days had only
controlling and supenrisory functions. Later other functions like enrolment,
recruitment of teachers, evaluation and guidance were also taken up.
Before the enhy of the foreign missionaries into India, there had been an
indigenous system of education prevalent in the counhy, covering both
elementary and higher states of education. It was purely a private initiative,
uncontrolled and unrestrained by any official agency. The organisation of
these institutions was entirely different from the present type of school
organisation and there was n o administrative organisation to supervise the
activities of these institutions. The famous British Historian Arther Howell
remarked: "Education in India under the British Government, was first
ignored, then violently and successfully opposed, then conducted on a
system now universally admitted to be erroneous and finally placed on its
present f ~ o t i n g . " ~ '
The administrative policy of the British in the field of education can
be conveniently divided into four main periods: (i) A period of
indifference (from the early days of the British rule till 1812) (ii) Introduction
of centralisation (1813-53) (iii) Extreme centralisation (1854-1919)
(iv) Provincial autonomy (1920-47).
1. The First Period; the Period of Indifference

The East India Company was established in 1599 by a few
Englishmen for the purpose of trading with India. In 1660 it obtained
permission from Queen Elizabeth for it. The Company that came for trade
gradually thought to establish its own empire in the country. In order to
achieve this goal, they began to mingle with Bengal politic.. Like all
commercial concerns, its main target was pecuniay gain by trade, and if
territorial acquisitions were made, it was more in the nature of investment of
capital than laying the foundation of an imperial dominance. After acquiring
the Diwani rights and the political grip over Bengal, they began to show
interest in education to prove that they were really interested in the welfare
of the people. Raj Narain Gupta writes in this context: "In the beginning, the
Court of Directors of the East India Company did not favour the spread of
education in India. They feared that the establishment of schools and
colleges would result in political awakening and unrest, and that the
unpleasant experience of American colonies may well be repeated in
India's rich land."
This is known as the period of indifference and non-interference. But
gradually the Hindu and Muslim scholars were patronised and to consolidate
their position by winning over the influential people, the company provided
for higher education and better administration to such people. Towards this
end, they started.colleges at Calcutta, Madras and Varanasi.
At the request of the upper class Muslims, the English started a
Madrasa in Calcutta to educate the Muslims and to win their favour. It
received full financial support from the company. The Madrasa was well
organised and efficiently administered. As it was also necessary to win the
support of the Hindus, the Company founded the Sanskrit College in
Benares in 1791. At first Maulavis were given charge of the Calcutta Madrasa
and Pundits that of the Sanskrit College. But when they failed to control
affairs, an English officer was also appointed at each of these places to keep
things in order.
The East India Company was not fully prepared to undertake total
responsibility for education, because in England, at that time the
Government was not responsible for running educational affairs. Moreover,
education was hardly looked upon as part of the administrator's duty. It was
regarded only as a private enterprise. They wanted to follow the British
policy here. When the policy changed in England due to public pressure, the
Company too had to change its policy of indifference and began to take
greater interest in education.
Earlier, in 1793, when the great British philanthropist, Mr. Wilberforce,
came out with a proposal to add two clauses to the Charter Act of that year for
sending school masters to India, the Court of Directors strongly opposed this
suggestion. One of the Directors stated: "We have lost America from our folly,
in having allowed the establishment of schools and colleges, and that it would
not do for us to repeat the same act of folly in regard to India, and that if
the natives required anything in the way of education, they must come to
England for it."62
In spite of this difference on the part of the state, a few individuals of

high official rank in the administration of India were not oblivious of the
moral and administrative necessity of spreading knowledge among the

people of India.
Role of Charles Grant

Charles Grant was an ordinary official of the Company, who came to
lndia in 1773. He closely studied the problems of India and after his return to
England wrote an essay entitled 'Observation.' In it he detailed the

deplorable condition of the Indian educational field. The description given in
the 'Observation' influenced the British Parliament and it took upon itself the
responsibility for education in India. Grant was of the opinion that the
medium of instruction should be the Indian language along with English as
well. He also opined that at first English teachers should be appointed and
later they might be replaced as able Indians were available. The British
Parliament gradually accepted the suggestions given by Grant and these
were implemented after 40 years when a Charter Act was published in 1813.
2. The Second Period (1813-53);
Introduction of Centralisation
The Company was not very keen in undertaking the educational
responsibility of the territories which they ruled. In the early stages of the
Company's rule, the territories acquired by it had been divided into three
Presidencies - Bengal, Bombay and Madras-each with a Governor General
and Council responsible to the Company in London. In 1773, through the
Regulating Act, the British Parliament made the Governor General of Bengal,
the Govemor General of all the three Presidencies. From 1773 onwards, the
control of the British Parliament also continued to grow and the renewal of the
Company's Charter in 1813 is an important landmark in the histoy of
educational administration of the British in India. The Charter of 1813 was
published mainly due to the efforts of Charles Grant. This Charter gave a new
direction to education. Therefore, Charles Grant is regarded as the Father of
Modem Education in India. The section 43 of this Charter declared:
It shalI be lawful for the Governor-General-in-Council to direct that
a sum of not less than one lakh of rupees in each year shall be set
apart and applied to the revival and improvement of literature, and
the encouragement of the learned natives of India, and for the
introduction and promotion of a knowledge of the sciences among
the inhabitants of the British territories in India.63
Now it became a responsibility of the Company to make
arrangements for education of the Indian people. The principal implication of
the above clause was that the company would create its own agency to
spend this amount of a lakh of rupees and try to educate the people of India
in a secular and conservative fashion as opposed to proselytising and
The Charter of 1813 may b e

revolutionary proposals of the missi~naries.~
regarded as the beginning of a new epoch in the history of public education
in India. Being the first legislative enactment on that behalf, it possesses
historical value and interest as the early policy of public instruction, as part of
the administration of the British rule.
In 1823, the Governor General's Council appointed a General
Committee of Public instruction for the Bengal Presidency. Later this
Committee was replaced by the Council of Education. This is the second
administrative structure of education initiated in the country by the Company.
By 1854 the Council of Education is said to have conducted fifteen
educational institutions incurring a total expenditure of Rs. 5,94,428 a year.

During the period from 1813 to 1833, education expanded due to the
responsibility taken up by the Company. Though the Company was asked to
spend at least one lakh rupees per year on education, it had not been given
any specific instruction on this issue. So the direction of education remained
uncertain during these 30 years due to the following reasons: i) It could not
be decided whether the medium of instruction should be English or Indian
languages. ii) Should education be provided to all, or should it be for a

selected few. iii) Should education be within the strict control of the
government or should it be run by some private enterprises. iv) The
Missionaries were tying to preach and spread Christianity in the garb of
educational expansion. Therefore, the Company had to decide whether t h e
missionaries should be given a free hand in their educational practices or
should the Company itself shoulder the total responsibility.
Though the Charter Act of 1813 made a provision for an annual grant
of a sum of not less than o n e lakh rupees for the promotion of learning in
India, it did not specify the methods and ways t o secure the objective. This
resulted in a controversy, which is known as the Anglicist-Orientalist
controversy. One group of officials of the Company like Munroe, the
Governor of Madras and Mount Elphinstome, the Governor of Bom bay,
wanted t o make Indian languages the medium of instruction. The second
group which included Warren Hastings and Minto wanted Sanskrit, Arabic
and Persian medium of instruction. There was also a third group which
consisted of some young Englishmen and Raja Ram Mohan Roy who
wanted t o make English the medium of instruction. T h e Christian

missionaries were in favour of English.
In 1833 the Charter Act of the Company was renewed and a

principle of great significance t o education was laid down, providing
employment to Indian youth under the Company. Education grant was also
raised to Rs. 10 lakh from Rs. 1 lakh. In the Governor General's Council a
fourth member, a Law Member was added.
Lord Macualay came to India as a Law Member of the Governor

General's Executive Council, during the time of the Anglicist-Orien talist
controversy. H e was appointed President of the General Committee on
Public Instruction by Lord William Bentick, the Governor General of India.

The government sought the advice of Macualay on clause 43 of the Charter
Act of 1813. H e presented his lengthy minute to Lord Bentick in 1835.
And this ended the controversy between the Anglicists and the Orientalists.
The main features of his Minutes were as follows:
1. The word 'Literature9 in the Charter Act of 1813 meant English
literature and not Sanskrit, Arabic or Persian.
..
11. The Indian scholar should gain knowledge of English Literature and
Western Philosophy.
iii. Macualay advocated English to be made the medium of instruction in
India. He said 'A single shelf of a good European Lbrary was worth
the whole native literature of India and Arabia.'
iv. He proposed to stop the grants to oriental institutions and save the
unnecessary expenditure. He stated that the British Government's
main aim was to spread European literature and Science among
Indians and so all the money granted for education should be spent
for that purpose.

Lord William Bentick accepted the arguments of Lord Macualay and a
Resolution was passed in 1835. It was the first declaration of the British
Government in the sphere of education in India. The resolution of March 7th,

1835, enforced the following changes in Indian education.
1. European literature and science will be propagated among the
Indians.
..
11. Funds will be used only for encouraging English education.
. a .
111. Future allocation of funds to oriental students and teachers will be
stopped.
iv. No funds will be available for printing of oriental works.
v. The medium of education will be English.
In 1844, Governor General Lord Hardinge enunciated a Resolution
which had great effect on the future acceptance of the western type of
education by the Indian youths. He stated that 'preference shall be given
in the selection of candidates for public employment to those who have
been educated in the institutions thus established by the G ~ v e r n r n e n t . ' ~ ~
Thus education in Govemment institutions became a passport to the
govemment jobs.
During this period, majority of educational institutions were under the
control of the General Department of the Govemment of India. The
company and the Governor General were formulating educational policies,
which was a sign of centralisation. Even financial control was centralised in

the Government of India. Through the Charter A d of 1833,the East India
Company's commercial monopoly ended, and it practically ceased to be a
commercial body. It centralised all financial control in the Govemment of
India. All the revenues of the country were described as imperial funds and
were credited to the Government of India and all expenditure could be met
only by the authority of that government. The Budgets were prepared by the
respective state governments, but these had to be sanctioned by the

Government of India. The state government had no power to incur
expenditure, however small, or create a humble post without obtaining the
prior approval of the Govemment of India. It was under these constraints
that the state had to execute their educational programmes.
3. The Third Period (1854-1919);The Period of Extreme

Centralisation
This period is known as a period of extreme centralisation. The
centralisation in the administrative policy culminated in appointing a
Secretary of State, responsible to the British Parliament. Its basic principle
was parliamentary control, operating through a Secretary of State, who in
turn operated through a Governor. The principle of centralisation in general
administration also guided the relationship between the Govemment of India
and Provincial governments in the field of education. Provincial
Governments remained as the agencies of the Central Govemment, and
were expected to submit proposals for educational legislations to the
Government of India for prior sanction.
The first authoritative declaration on the part of the British Parliament
about the educational policy to be followed in India was made during this
period. Wood's Educational Despatch of 1854 was a landmark in the
historical development of educational administration in India. It still forms the
charter of education in India. It recommended to the Govemment of India
for the improvement and far wider extension of education, both English and
vernacular. Its major recommendations were.
i. Abolition of former Provincial Boards and Councils of Education and

form the Department of Public Instruction in their place in the existing
provinces. The Department was to be in charge of an officer
designated as the Director of Public Instruction.
..
11. Institution of universities in the Presidency towns of Calcutta, Madras
and Bombay. The proposed Universities were to be administered by
their own Senates, consisting of a Chancellor, Vice-Chancellor and
Fellows, all to be nominated by Govemment.
iii. The establishment of institutions for training teachers for all classes of
sc~ools.
iv. The maintenance of the existing government colleges and schools and
the increase of their number when necessay.
v. Professional training in law, medicine and civil engineering should be
given under the direct control of Universities.
vi. It sympathised with the cause of women's and Muslim education and
insisted on a policy of strict neutrality.
vii. The introduction of grant-in-aid.

The Despatch provided a scheme, which tried to touch all aspects of
Indian education, right from the Primary to the University stage. It suggested
several measures not only for spreading mass education but also for
preserving and encouraging indigenous education. Through a scheme of
grant-in-aid, the Despatch proposed to leave education gradually to the
people, but at the same time it suggested that efficiency should be
maintained through proper State Control. It began a new era of organised
educational administration, defined the aim of Indian education, determined
Government's attitude towards religion, stressed mass education and
recognised the need for technical and women's education. The Despatch
organised the present Indian educational system and brought order out of
misdirected efforts.
According to the recommendations of the Woods Despatch
three Universities were founded at Calcutta Madras and Bombay. These

Universities we merely examining bodies and were of affiliating nature on the
pattern of the Lqndon University at that time. But a year later London
University gave up its affiliating character but the Indian Universities
continued to b e of the affiliating type.
57
Stanley's Despatch
In 1857 the First War of Indian Independence broke out. This ended
the governance of the Company, and the administration of India passed into
the hands of the British Crown. The regime of the Court of Directors ended
and the post of the Secretary of State for India was created. As soon as order
was restored, a new educational despatch emanated from Lord Stanley, the
first Secretary of State. It proposed to examine the educational developments

after 1854 and to see whether education had something to do with the event
of 1857.
The despatch did not make any change in the policy initiated by
Wood's despatch except in the field of elementq education. It further
observed that the grant-in-aid system hitherto in force, was not suitable for
providing primary education to the masses. The Despatch suggested that
Govemment should itself establish and run primary schools, and should, if
necessaly , levy a compulsoly local tax for defraying the educational expenses.
The Despatch resulted in increased interest of the British Parliament in
Indian education. The State expenditure on education continued increasing.
But there was extremely wasteful centralization of financial administration.
There was only one budget for the whole of India. All revenues were
received in the name of Govemment of India and all expenditure was
incurred with its sanction only. Thus the provincial governments had no
independent status and were nothing more than glorified district boards.
The financial policy gave them no incentive to collect more taxes or to spend
less, because the financial allocations were made by the Govemment of
India and the unspent balances returned to it lapsed at the end of the
financial year.
In 1870, Lord Mayo introduced a scheme of decentralization and he
transferred the control of some departments including education to provincial

governments and they were asked to meet all expenditure of these
departments form three sources, viz., (i) the receipts from these departments,
(ii) central grants, (iii) more taxation of a specified nature. In 1882-83, a
policy of contract grants through quinquennial settlements was introduced,

the system of cash allotments was completely stopped and the provincial
governments were given a specified share in some items of revenue. Thus
some sources of revenue were made entirely Central, some entirely
Provincial and the remaining were divided.
The Resolution of 1884 coupled with the Local Self-Government Acts
of 1883 to 1885 paved the way for a gradual devolution of the management
of government schools upon municipalities and district boards. In 1900 the
Secretary of State drew the attention of the Govemment of India to the
necessity for the continuance of government control, guidance and
assistance in higher education, and for the maintenance of a number of
government schools.
The minor and occasional central interest in education during the
period 1870-97 was followed by deep and sustained interest by the
Government of India. When Lord Curzon became the Governor General of
India, he was profoundly interested in education, and in February 1900 the
Govemment of Qdia published a resolution containing the following
passage:
The Government of India cannot consent to divest itself of the
responsibility that attaches both to its interest and its
prerogatives. If it is to lend the resources of the state to the
support of certain schools, it cannot abrogate its right to a
powerful voice in the determination of the course which is
there imparted?
In 1901 Cumon summoned a conference of the Directors of Public
lnstruction of the country at Simla to discuss the prevailing educational
situation. The summum bonum of these discussions though never published
was that: 'education should be expanded through private efforts and
expansion should be accompanied by control and quality.' Under Curzon,
the policy of state withdrawal was abandoned. The inspecting staff was
strengthened and a vigilant policy of inspection and supervision of private
schools was adopted in the place of the old policy of laissezfajre. To
strengthen the machinery for administration in the Government of India, a
Director General of Education-the first nucleus of the present Minishy of
Education was appointed in 1901. He was chiefly responsible for giving
advice to the Government of India in educational matters and also to
supervise, guide and coordinate the administration and academic affairs of
the provinces for this purpose.

Another outcome of the Simla Conference was the setting up of the
Indian Universities Commission of 1902, This Commission stressed the need
for reorganisation of universities and rejected the idea of setting up of new
universities. It recommended the improvement of the standard of matric and
higher education. The Indian Universities A d of 1904 was formulated on the
basis of these recommendations. This act regularised the constitution of the
governing bodies and tightened the control of the universities over their
affiliated colleges. On the main question of the control of education, it
accepted the devolution policy of the Commission of 1882, but laid stress on
the necessity for adequate safeguards. This Act of 1904 granted a systematic
form, and structure t o higher education in our nation. The University A d
1904 did not benefit higher education materially, but the fad remains
that the credit for initiating a university improvement campaign must go to
Lord Curzon.
In 1913, the Government of India issued another resolution o n
education. It surveyed the whole field of education from the Primary to
Higher education. It announced a policy of instituting teaching and
residential universities and urged the necessity for providing facilities for
research in evely branch of learning.
This was followed in 1917 by the appointment of the Calcutta
University Commission to tackle the question of higher education in Bengal,
a n d incidentally to give a lead to India as a whole. The report had two very
important impacts on higher education. In the first place, it gave great
impetus to the creation of new Universities in India. In the second place, the
movement for creating Boards of intermediate a n d high school examinations
began. And within a short period, secondaty education had been freed from
the domination by the university.
A p o t a b l e development that happened in the field of educational
administration during 1854-1919, was the transfer of education from the
Home Department to a new Department of Education. The post of the
Director-General of Education was absorbed into the new department
but the post was revived and redesignated in 1915 as the Educational
Commissioner.
Another remarkable feature of the period was the organisation of the
Indian Educational Sentice (IES) in 1896. All the higher posts in the
administrative line were reserved for them. It was through this Service that
the Government of India controlled the entire education. In 1924, on the
recommendation of the Lee Commission, the recruitment to this Service was
stopped and the Indianisation of superior sewices in education began in
India. Political agitations began in India and the Montagu-Chelmsford
Report was drawn up. Ultimately, an Act of Parliament was passed in 1919.
It marks the beginning of parliamentary Govemment in India.
Gokhale's Bills
Gokhale was the pioneer of compulsoy primay education in India.
He made strenuous efforts to get the principle of compulsoy primary
education accepted by the Govemment. In 1910 he moved a resolution in
the Imperial Legislative Council, which initiated a beginning for making
elementary education free and compulsoly throughout the country. Though
Gokhale withdrew the resolution on the assurance of the government, he
succeeded in gaining acceptance for two of his proposals-one for creating a
Department of Education and the other was for the publication of the yearly
reviews of educational progress in India. In 1913, the Govemment issued a
Resolution of Educational Policy, which laid down principles for the
expansion and improvement of primary education. It fannulated a policy
9
regarding Secondary English schools and it reviewed the whole question of
University Education.
In 1915, the post of Director General of Education, abolished in 1910

was changed to Education Commissioner. He was required to tour
extensively, to discuss the problems with local Governments and to advise
the educational departments in cases. A Central Bureau of Education was
also re-established to collect and disseminate information on education.
4. 'The Fourth Period (1920-47); The Period of Provincial Autonomy
The last period in the British era is called as the Period of Provincial
Autonomy, as there had been comparatively greater devolution of power to the
provincial authorities. The A d of 1919, which was the result of Montford
Reforms, introduced Dyarchy, a milestone towards provincial autonomy. Under
this system, the administration of a Province was divided into two halves-the
resewed and transferred. The Govemor, who was the head of the Provincial
Govemment was to administer the Resewed Departments with the help of the
Executive Council consisting of Govemment official members. They were
responsible to the Secretary of the State for Indian Affairs through the
Govemment of India. On the other hand, the Govemor was expected to
administer the Transferred Departments with the help of the ministers who were
responsible, not to the Secretary of State, but to the electorate of the province.
Subjects like education, agriculture, public health and local government were
transferred to the Governor who acted with his ministers who were responsible
to the electorate of the province and not to the Govemment of India. Thus
education, with small exceptions, became a provincial and transferred subject in
charge of an Indian Minister for the first time. This system of devolution of
authority from the Centre to the Provinces created some problems too. The
states became independent units and isolated from the Centre. Another
problem was the absence of Central interest and the stoppage of Central
assistance in all educational matters. The Govemment wen withdrew from its
function of coordinating provincial activities. The Act also deprived the
Govemment of India of the power of guiding or formulating an educational

policy for the whole counhy, and it was n o longer possible for it to ad as an
advisory and coordinating agency on problems of all India importance.67
This created a situation where there was a need for a coordinating
agency and the Central Advisory Board of Education (CABE) was
established in 1921. Its main function was to offer expert advice on
important educational matters referred to it. But two years later the Board
was abolished on economic grounds along with the Bureau of Education.
The Deparhnent of Education was amalgamated with that of Health and
Agriculture. However, there was considerable growth of Education
Departments in the provinces. Later the posts of Assistant Deputy Directors
of Public Instruction were created in several provinces.
In 1935, on the recommendation of the Hartog Committee, the
central Advisow Board of Education was revived. Later, on their
recommendation of CABE, the Bureau of Education was revived in 1937,
which was again reconstituted and strengthened in 1945.
On the recommendations of the Calcutta University Commission of
1917, the Boards of Seconday Education were constituted to control
Secondaly and Intermediate Education and thus they freed Secondary and
Intermediate Education from the dominance of the Universities.
The second milestone in the development of provincial autonomy was
the Government of India A d of 1935. This Act recognised the provinces for
rthe first time as separate entities, exercising executive and legislative powers
in their own field in their own right, free in normal circumstances from
Central control. The Act implemented in 1937, introduced complete
provincial autonomy and entrusted ministers of education with greater
power. The distinction between transferred and reserved subjects
disappeared and the ministers acquired full control over educational services.
The Act of 1935 provided for three lists of subjects. They were the Federal,
State and Concurrent Lists. Educational activities figured in the first two lists.
All matters regarding education, barring those that had been placed in the
Federal list were to be covered by the provinces. In the meantime, national
consciousness was fully aroused in the country and the people realised that
the progress of India depended mainly upon educational development. The
popular ministries exhibited greater interest in education and various new
schemes for educational reconstruction and development were launched.

In 1938, the National Planning Committee was constituted under the
Chairmanship of Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru to prepare plans for national
reconstruction in all walks of life including education. In 1944, the Sargeant
Report envisaged the Post-war Educational Developmental Plan in India,
which was the first official attempt to plan a national system of education
for India.
The Government's renewed interest in education was amply evident
in its decision to trifurcate the Department of Education, Health and
Agriculture, with effect from September 1, 1945, into three separate and
independent departments. The Department of Education was raised to the
status of a Ministry in 1947.
Educational Administration in the Missionary Period
The British is mainly responsible for the introduction of the modem
system of education in India, though its progress has been not much of the
British Government's responsibility. Three distinct agencies made efforts to
nourish it-the British officers, the Missionaries and the enlightened Indians.
Of the three agencies the activities of the Christian Missionaries were
pioneering. The Roman Catholic missionaries were the first group to come to
India. Their intention was to spread Christianity among Indians and to
establish a new religious empire. Mr. Allen has put forward two reasons why
the missionaries took up the cause of education. Firstly, that they could make
Indians understand their religious theories and principles better if they got
their education on Western lines. The second aim was to gain contact with
Indians through these institutions.
The Portuguese were the first Europeans who came to India and they
were the people who started modem system of education here. The main
centres of Portuguese activities were Goa, Daman, Diu, Ceylon, Chittagong
etc. They started primary schools in these places. Christian children were
given free education. In 1575they started the first degree college in Goa and
later St. Anne's College in Bandra. These institutions were administered
independently and managed by the Priests who were in charge of them.

The Portuguese experience in India attracted other Catholic
Congregations too like the Franciscans, Dominicians and Jesuits. These sects
established new kinds of Institutions. (i) Primary schools attached to churches
and missionary institutions where Portuguese and Latin languages were
taught . ( ii ) Vocational schools where technical and agricultural education,
along with traditional education was given. (iii) Jesuit Colleges for higher
education. (iv)Theological Centres for training padres and missionaries.
Like the Portuguese in South India, the Dutch carried out their activities
in Bengal. The French confined themselves to Pondicheny. The Danes who
came to lndia had no political interests. They limited their activities to education
and religious expansion. Tanjore, Trichnapalli, Madras and Travancore were
their areas of operation. A centmlised system of administration could not be
seen in their institutions. They managed them with utrnost care and concern to
achieve their goal of winning people for Christ.68
Educational Administration in Free India
A new era in the history of Indian education began on 15thAugust
1947, when India became independent. Indian Constitution was adopted on
26'h Januay 1950. The Constitution has laid responsibilities both on the
Centre and the State Governments so that this partnership in educational
administration is carried out in a democratic climate, promoting educational
reconstruction and educational development through planned and phased
programmes. In the Constitution, Education was placed in the State list. With
Independence, a full-fledgedv
Ministry of Education and Scientific Research
was established, with Maulana Abciul Kalam Azad as the first Minister for
Education. With the assumption of the national ministry in Delhi, the interest
of the Central Govemment in education was fully reviewed and Central
grants began to flow freely for educational reconstruction in the states. Since
the new constitution envisaged Education as a State subject it gave no more
control to the Central Govemment than what it already had under the
Government of India Act, 1935.
As time passed, there arose overlapping in the matter of educational
reorganisation in the efforts of the Central and the States of the Union. The
Centre issued directives without sharing responsibility. They wanted to retain
the power they had been enjoying for long. Even after the Constitution of
India came into effect the Centre adopted an isolationist policy and gave no
help to the states in the matter of education. But with the launching of Five
Year Plans, the states began to get funds for educational expansion. With the
control of these grants the Centre started supervising education in the states.
After the attainment of independence, the Department of Education

at the Centre became a separate Ministry of Education headed by a
Cabinet Minister. In 1958, the Union Education Ministry was bifurcated
into the General Education Ministry and the Ministry of Scientific Research
and Cultural Affairs. In 1963, these two Ministries were merged to form a
combined Ministly of Education with two Departments, the Department of
Education and the Department of Science. The two Departments were later
abolished on 2gth February 1964 and the Ministry of Education came into
being. When Rajiv Gandhi came to power in Delhi as the dynamic and
vibrant Prime Minister, he changed the name of the Ministry of Education
into the Ministry of Human Resources Development. The Central
Government discharges its functions and responsibilities through several
advisory councils and statutory organisations like, Central Board of

Education, Central Board of Secondary Education, University Grants
Commission, National Council for Educational Research and Training etc.
Educational Policy in the Constitution of India
Constitution is a mirror of the ideals, values, hopes, dreams and
aspirations of its people. So it is quite natural that education has an

important place in this great document. It provides the conception of the
economic and social order for which the youth of the country should be
The Preamble, which is an introduction to our Constitution is a

ed~cated.~'
grand declaration of the ideals and objedives that the Indian people desire to
achieve through the political edifice they have set for themselves. It indicates
the high moral tone of the Constitution. It contains the objedives to which
the people of a country are permanently committed and at the same time
selves as a challenge to people to adhere to the ideals embodied in it and
regulate their life and conduct accordingly.
Various Constitutional Provisions Relating to Education
I. Free and compulsoly education
Article 45 of the Constitution states "The State shall endeavour to
provide within a period of ten years from the commencement of this
constitution, for free and compulsory education for all children until they
complete the age of fourteen years."
..
11. Religious instruction
Article 28 (1)provides: "No religious instruction shall be provided in

any educational institution wholly maintained out of State funds."
iii. Language safeguards
Article 29(1) states "Any section of the citizens, residing in the territoy
of India or any part thereof having a distinct language, script of culture of its
own shall have the right to conserve the same."
iv. Equality of opportunity in educational institutions

Article 29(2) states "No citizen shall be denied admission to any
educational institution maintained by the state or receiving aid out of State
funds on grounds only of religion, race, caste, language or any of them."
v. Minority rights
Article 30 relates to "Rights of minorities to establish and administer
educational institutions."
Article 30(1) reads "All minorities whether based on religion or
language shall have the right to establish and administer educational
institutions of their choice."
(2) "The State shall not, in granting aid to educational institutions,
determine against any educational institution on the ground that it is
under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or
languages."
vi. Education of the weaker sections and scheduled castes
Article 46 deals with promotion of educational and economic interests
of Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other weaker sections. It reads:
"The state shall promote with special care the educational and economic
interests of the weaker sections of the people and, in particular, of the
Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, and shall protect them from social
injustice and all forms of exploitation."
vii. Education of Anglo-lndian community
Article 37 relates to "special provision with respect to educational
grants for the benefit of Anglo-Indian Community."
viii. Instruction in mother tongue

Article 350-A states: "It shall be the endeavour of evew state and of
every local authority within the state to provide adequate facilities for
instruction in the mother tongue at the primay stage of education to children
belonging to linguistic minority groups, and the President may issue such
directions to any State as he considers necessay or proper for securing the
provisions of such facilities.
ix. Higher education and research
Parliament has exclusive rights to enad legislation in respect of
Institutions of National Importance, Union Agencies, Institutions of Scientific
and Technical Education financed by the Government of India, Institutions
of Higher Education and Research, mentioned in entries 62, 63, 64, 65 and
66 of the Union List of the Constitution.
Education as a Concurrent Subject
Right from the beginning of the modem system of education
originating with the British rule in India, there had been large variations in
the curriculum and structure of education, service conditions of teachers,
examination patterns a n d standards of education over various states of India.
Uniformity in these matters could not be brought about as the education was
on the State List and the States were free to make their own rule. This could
be materialised only when the Central Government was made empowered to
legislate on education. This was possible only if education was in the Union
List or Concurrent List. Several effortshad been made to include education
in the Concurrent List.
The Committee of the Members of Parliament on Higher Education
examined the whole issue and recommended that higher education at least
should be included in the Concurrent List. In their opinion the experience of
the years since independence has shown that, for the lack of adequate
authority at the Centre, national policies could not be implemented
satisfactoiily and that the excellent recommendations of many Commissions
and Committees, in various fields of education remained on paper. Some
argued that for the creation of an egalitarian society, it was essential that the
Centre should be charged with the duty of looking after education. Some
were against placing education in the Concurrent List. The Education
Commission (1964-66) observed: "The inclusion of education in the

Concurrent List may lead to undesirable centralisation and greater rigidity in
a situation where the greatest need is elasticity and freedom to experiment."

It was only in 1975 that education was voted to be on the Concurrent
List. Thereafter, the Central Government has been empowered to make
legislations on education also with the provision that if State Act comes into
conflict with the A d passed by the Union government, the latter will prevail.
The present position in this regard after the change stands as follows:
1. The State Government even now can make their own legislations on
education.
..
11. The Central Government is also empowered to get any A d about
education passed through the Union legislative bodies.
iii. If the State act and the Union Act happen to be in contradiction, the
Union Act will prevail.
The decision to include education in the Concurrent List has been
hailed as a v e y progressive and useful step in the educational administration
in India. This bold step will ensure uniformity and diversity throughout India.
This would also help in formulating legislations regarding a uniform national
policy on university admissions, uniform examination systems etc. Another
great advantage of putting education on concurrent list is that this may lead
to greater responsibility of the Central Government in educational matters.
Thus the Centre will have to find more funds from its own revenue to be
spent on education, particularly in those aspects of education which are
covered by a Central legislation.
M.L. Sachdeva in his study on Centre-State Relationship in Education
observed:
Broadly speaking, it may be concluded that the Central
Government has consolidated its position so far as its educational
role is concerned. From an advisory and coordinating authority it
has become an equal partner . . . the trend is towards the
increasing activities of the Centre."O'

Along with the developments in Education and Administration, a pamllel
stream of knowledge was also developinpEducationaI Management. It began
with the realization that an organization would be orderly, effective and goal
oriented, if it is run on modem principles of management. The Industrial
Revolution which began in Britain had its aftermath in its colony-India,too. The
growth of factories and the large number of workers necessitated new strategies
and policies for their administration. So, the entrepreneurs and adminishators
began to use management principles in administration. This happened in the
educational sector too. With the attainment of independence, a number of,
educational institutions, mushroomed in India, both in the private and public
sector. Our rulers had the foresight to appoint an Education Commission
immediately after gaining independence. All the Education Commissions have
since then highlighted the need for effective management of educational
institutions. This expedited the growth of this branch of knowledge in the

county. But even after 52 years of Independence, education has not solved
what it is expected to solve, and not achieved what it is expected to achieve. It

may be hoped that scientific management of educational institutions will bear
the expected fruits of education.
Notes
Ranjana Srivasthava, "Educational Management: Concerns for the Future,"

New Frontiers in Education Vol. XVIII April-June 1998, p.97.
/bid.
" Dr. R.P. Bhatnagar and Dr. Vidya Agawal, Educational Adminisfmtion,
Supervision, Plar~ningand Financing (Meerut: S uy a Publications, 1997) p.3.
Jyoti Christian, "Educational Management: Conceptual Clarifications,"
Fundamental- of Educational Management, H.M.Singh (Ed.) (New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House, 1995) p .3.
"elors Commission Report, UNESCO, p.119.
' O.P. Dahaman and O.P. Bhatnagar, Education and Communication for
Development (New Delhi: Oxford & IBH Publishing Co, 1980) p.3.
' Harold Koontz and Heinz Weihrich, Essentialr of Management (New Delhi:
Tata Mc Graw Hill, 1998) p.4.
'Jyoti Christian, n. 4, p.4.
' Pre mila Chand rase kha ran, Educational Planning and Management
(New Delhi: Sterling Publishers, 1997) p.63.
'" Quoted by M . Dash, Education in India: Problems and Perspectives
(New Delhi: Atlantic publishers, 2000) p.63.
' Ibid.
l2 The American Management Association, New Pe~specffivsin Management
(New York: Norton Publisher, 1999) p.6.
'" Narnita Roy Choudhuly, Management In Education (New Delhi: APH
Publishing Corporation, 2001) p.3.
l4 /bid., p.4.
'' M. Dash, n.lO, p.63.
'"anjana Srivasthava, n.1, p.97.
l7 Tony Bush and John West Bumham, The Principles of Educational
Management (Essex: Longman, 1994) pp. 11- 13.
'%L. Gupta, Polfical They (New Dehi: Sultan Chand and Som, 1980) p.4.
l9 Quoted by Jyoti Christian, n.4, p.4.
20
p.14.
Namita Roy Choudhuy, 11.13,
2' Ibid.,pp.14-15.
" Peter Drucker, The Pmctice of Management (New York: Harper and Row,
1954)p.13.
''I S.S. Chatterjee, Principles and Pmctice of Management (New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House, 1983)p.7.
24 M. Dash, n.10,p.64.
2"he Fortyfith Year book, Pt. 11. National Society for the Study of Education,
Chicago: The University Press, 1946. p.1.
26
Dr. R.P. Bhatnagar and Dr. Vidya Agarwal, n.3, p.3.
27 Ronald F. Campbell, Administrative Theory in Education (London: OUP,
1965) p.166.
2H L.D. Gupta, Educational Administration, (New Delhi: Oxford and IBH
Publishing Co., 1987) p.3.
2"r. R.P. Bhatnagar and Dr. Vidya Agarwal, n.3, p.5.
" ' Hollis A. Moore Jr., quoted by James Jones, Jackson Salisbuy and Ralph
Spencer, Secondary School Administm fion (New York: McGmw-Hill, 1969) p. 187.
.'" R.F. CampeU, J.E. Corabally and R.O. Nystrand, Introduction to Educational
ad mini st ratio,^ [Boston: AUyn and Bacon, Inc. 1983)p .3.
'" S.P. Murdock, Administration and Management (London:Chapman & Co.,
1997) p.3.
'' Dr. R.P. Bhatnagar and Dr.Vidya Agarwal, n.3, p.8.
"'0.Sheldon, Philosophy of Management (London:Sir Isaac Pitman & Sons,
1930) p.12.
"'Dr.B.R.Lulla and Dr.S.K.Murty, kentiah of Educatlbnal Administration
(Chandigarh: Mohindra Capital Publications, 1976) p.3.
136
Namita Roy Choudhuy, n. 13,p.40.
'" [bid.pp.41-42.
" Linda Elisson and Brent Davies, Education Management for the 1990's
(Essex: Longman, 1991) p.31.
""rnest C. Miller, Objectives and Standards: An Approach to Planning and
Control (New York:American Management Association, Inc., 1966) p. 138.
4" Eugene B. EUiot and Earl E. Moiser, Organisation of Planning for Education
(Chicago: University Press, 1995) pp.268-272.
" Namita Roy Choudhury, n.13, p.52.
4' Premila Chandrasekharan, n.9, p.64.
Harold Koontz and Heinz Weihrich, n.7, p.134.
" Ibid.,p.186.
4s p.75.
Namita Roy Choudhuy, 11-13,
4"bid., p 7 7 .
47 ibid, p.97.
48 Quoted by Gregory Bush, Leading and Managing in Education (New York:
Viking Press, 1989) pp.20-21.
4' Murgatroyd and Gray, Leade~h* and the Hfective School(London:Falmer
Press, 1984) p. 39.
'"T. J . Se lgiovanni, Educational Leademhb (Landon:Cassel, 1990)pp-24.
Harold Kooniz and Heinz Weihrich, n.7,p.317.
'Namita Roy Choudhuy, n.13, p.103.
":' Abraham Maslow, Motivatio~land Pe~onafi&(New York: Harper & Row,
1954) p.16.
" Dr. B.R. Lulla and Dr. S.K.Murty, n.35, p.28.
" R .S. Pa nd ey , De velopment Strategies in Modern Indian Educa tion
(New Delhi: Kanishka Publishing House, 1997) p.1.
"aDr.
R.K Mukherji quoted by Dr. R.K. S h a m and Dr. R.N. S h a m , History of
Educabbn in lndia (New Deh: Ailantic Pubhshers, 19%)p.26.
57 S.S . Mat hur, Educational Adminishation, Principles and Practices (New
Defhi: Ashiwad Books, 1989) p.4.
" Dr. B.R. Lula and Dr. S.K. Murty, n.35,p.30.
" Dr. R.P. Singh, Educational Administration in India, Past and Pmsent
(New Delhi: Vignan Book, 1997) p.13.
'"Dr. R.N. Sharrna and Dr. R.K. Sharma, 11.56, p.54.
61 A.P. Howell, Education izl British lndia (Calcutta: Government Press, 1872)
p.1.
' Quoted by Prof. S.N. Mukerji (Ed.) Administration of Education in lndia
(Baroda: Achaya Book Depot, 1962) p.3.
' /bid.
" Naik and Nurullah, A Studenis History o f Education in India, 1800-1973
(New Delhi: Mcmillan Co. 1974) p.42.
'"arter V. Good,Dictionay o f Education (New York: McGraw-Hill,) p. 13.
'"Quoted by S.N. Mukerji, 11.62, p.9.
" Prof. S.N.
Mukerji, 11.62, p.88.
"'Dr. Ram Burdan, Educational Adminkhation: A Peep Into the Past
(New Delhi: Vision Books, 1997) p.16.
"'J .C. Agganval, t and Planning of Modem Education: With
De velopmez~
Special Reference to India, (New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House, 1982) p.1.
7" M.L. Sachdeva, A Critical Study o f Centre-State Relationship in Education
fro~n1871-1973in M i a (New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers, 1975) p.22.

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CHAPTER 1

The Art and Science of Educational Management:

Education in general, and higher education in particular, is an activity

society through a well recognised educational process. This demands an

But future offers endless opportunities and possibilities, though agreement

its component parts and their inter-relations will be bewilderingly numerous.

The changing environment will require an educational system which is able

to re-organise itself into varied "states" so as to constantly adjust to changing

needs.' An innovative system, capable of adjusting to, and in fact, creating a

variety of "states," must have the ability to process a growing volume of

information with greater speed, efficiency and effectiveness. It is in this

context of education that the novel concept of Educational Management

acquires an increasingly greater significance and a much greater relevance.

Educational Management is considered a comparatively new

There must be someone to organise educational activity and to ensure that

importance of education of the citizen to preserve itself and it assumed

partial, if not total, responsibility and control of educational institutions. Laws

closer to politics, a well-organised hierarchy of positions, like the minister,

latter with policy executing and programme implementing. Thus the

institution of educational administration was established.

educational administrative procedure was based upon the practices in

business and industry. In industry the manager is solely responsible for

institution. Under this system, there was no opportunity for participation in

the administrative process and there was n o question of sharing

responsibility. With the expansion of education, the inadequacies of such

educational theory and professional approach to education, there arose the

techniques and procedures, which are technical and scientific in nature.

and conclusions instead of uncritical acceptance of opinions. There is also

new discipline, Educational Management, which is more scientific and

begins by defining the two concepts.

process of drawing out the best in a man or a child.4

Gandhiji said "Education is the manifestation of perfection which is

already in a man or drawing out the best in a child."

The Webster's Dictionay clarifies-"Education is the action or process

of educating or of being educated at various stages where knowledge and

development result from an educational process."

The Dictionay of Education defines education "as the successful

The Delors Commission of the UNESCO defines Education as "one of

habits through instruction or study. When learning is progressive towards

'Management' is a comparatively new concept and is used in place of

'Administration'. This concept, which has been commonly used in business

organisation and industv is now widely used in other fields including

Every educational institution has certain objectives. The head of the

institution needs to organise people, make use of resources in a systematic

work done or to get the objectives accomplished in a pre-planned way.

This is what the concept of Management implies.

One of the most important human activities is managing. Ever since

of individual efforts. As society began to rely more on group effort, and

organized groups became large, the task of managers rose in importance.

environment in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently

accomplish selected aims.'

Management is an act of judicious use of means to accomplish

In the words of Morel1 (1969), Management is that activity in an

organization, which consists in deciding upon the ends (goals) of an

Terry (1971) defines Management as a distinct process of planning,

objectives by the use of human beings and other resources."

The American Management Association defines Management in the

following words. 'Management is guiding human and physical resources into

dynamic organisation units which attain their objectives to the satisfaction of

the part of those rendering services."'

'Education' and 'Management' are large and complex concepts for

which many definitions are available in the international literature. But n o

a basis for thinking about the management of a college as an organisation