Index

Ablative pyrolysis, 79, 8687f, 89 Apparent density, 4243

Above-ground outdoor storage, 274275 Aquatic biomass, 29t
Acceleration, gravitational, 327 Arching, 277
Acetic acid, in pyrolysis, 66f Argon, in air, 331t
Acid hydrolysis, 10 Aromatics, condensed tertiary, 102
Activation energy, 141143t Ash, 52
Aerobic digestion analysis, 50t
in biomass conversion, 9 in biomass, 34
in waste degradation, 33 in bio-oil, 308t
Agricultural biomass sources, 28, 270 fusibility of, 329t
Air ingredients, 52
composition of, 331t As-received basis, 5657
as gasification medium, 119t ASTM D 346 protocol, 52
physical properties of, 332t Atmospheric pressure, 327
tar and gasification in, 106 Atomic ratio, 3940
Air-dry basis, 57 Auger, fuel, 294
Alkali, 108 Autothermal, 84
Alkali metal catalysts, 130 Avogadros number, 327
Alkali remover, 115
Alkyl tertiary product, 102 Bagasse, 93t
Allocation, of feed points, 298 Bales, 289
Almond shell, kinetic rate constants of, 82t Bark, 35
American Clean Energy and Security Act, Barrier filter, 113114, 113f
325326 Barriers, corrosion-resistant, 264
Amin, Sanjay, 229 Bases
Ammonia air-dry, 57
formation heat of, 46t as-received, 5657
syngas in production of, 305t, 313314 of composition, 5657
Ammonia synthesis, 24 dry ash-free, 57
Anaerobic digestion, in waste degradation, 33 heating values, 5859
Analysis moisture, 5455
of biomass, 50t total-dry, 57
proximate, 5055, 54t, 69 Beech sawdust, kinetic rate constants of, 82t
thermogravimetric, 5556 Beehive oven, 66f
ultimate, 4950, 51t Belt feeder, 295
Animal waste, ultimate analysis of, 51t Benzene, in pyrolysis, 66f
Anthracite Bergius process, 3
C/H ratio of, 15t Bins, biomass storage, 275
ignition temperature of, 48t Biochemical conversion of biomass, 910, 11f
ultimate analysis of, 51t Biocrude, 306

Biomass Gasification and Pyrolysis. DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-374988-8.00021-0

Copyright 2010 Prabir Basu. Published by Elsevier, Inc. All rights reserved. 353
354
Biodiesel, 8, 319320
Biological sources of biomass, 28
Biomass, 2933
above-ground outdoor storage, 274275
agricultural sources of, 28
analysis, 50t
apparent density of, 4243
aquatic, 29t
ash in, 34
bark in, 35
bases of composition of, 5657
biological sources of, 28
cell constituents in, 3638
cellulose in, 3637
cell wall in, 3334
char, 122
collection, 270
crops as, 31
definition of, 2733, 325326
acid hydrolysis of, 10
biochemical conversion of, 910,
11f
carbon dioxide and, 45, 17
C/H ratio of, 15t
chemical production from, 6
as clean, 6
combustion of, 1013, 12t
conversion, 816, 9f
cooking with, 67, 7f
digestion in conversion of, 9
diversity of, 5
drawbacks of, 8
dust and, 18
electricity from, 12
energy from, 68
environmental benefits, 1618
fermentation in conversion of, 9
formation of, 4
fossil fuels vs., 4
gaseous fuels from, 5
gasification of, 12t, 1415
heat from, 12
liquefaction of, 12t, 16
liquid fuels from, 5
motivation for use of, 1619
nitrogen removal and, 18
products of, 58
pyrolysis of, 12t, 1314
renewability of, 1619
sociopolitical benefits of, 1819
solid fuels from, 5
sources of, 5t
sulfur and, 18
Index
thermochemical conversion of, 1016,
12f, 12t
torrefaction of, 1314
transport fuel from, 8
densities of, 4244
entrained-flow gasification of, 190191
extractives in, 33
feeders, 288299
feed system in SCW gasifier, 261262
flow, 274
forest sources of, 28
formation of, 2729, 28f
as greenhouse neutral, 27
heating value estimations, 59
heat of formation in, 46
hemicellulose in, 3738
ignition temperature in, 4748, 48t
industrial sources of, 29t
lignin in, 38
ligno-cellulosic, 3031
liquefaction of, 12t, 16, 9091
mineral matter in, in charoxygen reaction,
147
moisture in, 5355, 229230
municipal sources of, 28, 29t
oils as sources of, 28
photosynthesis and, 2829
physical properties of, 4248
preparation of, 284288
proximate analysis of, 5055
pyrolysis and composition of, 7475
receiving, 272
retrieval from storage, 274
SCW and conversion of, 237240
shelf-life, 274
sources of, 28, 269
specific heat in, 46, 335t
storage, 269, 272284
structure of, 3338
terrestrial, 29t
thermal conductivity in, 4445, 45f
thermodynamic properties of, 4448
transport fuels from, 315323
true density of, 42
ultimate analysis of, 4950
vegetables as, 31
virgin, 29t, 30
waste, 29t, 3133
wood structure in, 3436
Bio-oil, 70, 305306, 306f
applications of, 309
ash in, 308t
carbon in, 308t
Index
in chemical feedstock production, 309
chemical properties of, 308t
composition of, 307t
in energy production, 309
furfurals in, 307t
heating value of, 71t
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur
in, 308t
physical properties of, 307308
production of, 310
terms associated with, 306
in transport fuel production, 309
water in, 307t
Bituminous coal, C/H ratio of, 15t
Boltzmanns constant, 327
Boudouard reaction model, 123124,
141142, 142t
Broido-Shafizadeh model, 7880, 79f, 80t
Bubbling fluidized bed, 7f, 8687f, 87,
160161, 177179
Bulk density, 4344
Calcium, true density of, 43t
Calcium carbonate, formation heat of, 46t
Candle filters, 113114
Canola oil, 8
Carbon
analysis, 50t
in bio-oil, 308t
combustion, 23, 256257
fixed, 55
reactions, 121t
Carbon dioxide
in air, 331t
biomass and, 45
emission, biomass and, 17
formation heat of, 46t
tar and gasification in, 107
Carbon gasification, 23
Carbonization, characteristics of, 72t
Carbon monoxide
formation heat of, 46t
specific heat of, 331t
in syngas, 303
Carbon-to-hydrogen (C/H) ratio of fuels,
15t
Catalyst selection, 129130, 252
Catalysts, in hydrothermal gasification, 243
Catalytic cracking, 116
Catalytic gasification, 128130
Cattle manure, moisture content of, 53t
Cell, in wood, 35f
Cell constituents, biomass, 3638
355
Cellulose, 3637, 37f
kinetic rate constants in pyrolysis if, 82t
in pyrolysis, 66f, 75, 7880
in torrefaction, 94f
Cellulose analysis, 50t
Cell wall, in biomass, 3334
Cereal, in ethanol production, 316317
CFD. See Computational fluid dynamics
Char, 55, 70, 108
Charcoal
in history, 2
pyrolysis in production of, 91
Char combustion reactions, 126128
Char gasification, 122126
Char reactivity, 146149
Chemical equilibrium, in gasification, 136146
Chemical looping gasifier, 184185
Chemical moisture, 287
Chemical production, from biomass, 6
Chipper, 286
Choren process, 190191
Chute, gravity, 290291
Chute design, 282284
Circulating fluidized-bed (CFB) gasifier,
179185
Circulating fluidized-bed pyrolyzer, 8687f,
88
Classification of fuels, 3841
Cleaning
gas, 98
syngas, 304305
Climate change, 4
Coal
C/H ratio of, 15t
heating value of, 71t
ignition temperature of, 48t
spontaneous ignition of, 277278
ultimate analysis of, 51t
Coal-gas. See Town gas
Coke, 2
Cold gas efficiency, 219221
Collection, biomass, 270
Combustion
of biomass, 1013, 12t
of carbon, 23, 256257
char, reactions, 126128
gasification vs., 1, 2022
heat of, 4647, 139t
stoichiometric amount of air for, 5960
Commercial attraction of gasification, 1922
Composting, in biomass conversion, 9
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD),
157158
356 Index

Concentration, solid, 244245 energy balance in, 200204

Condensed tertiary aromatics, 102 entrained-flow, 214218
Conditioning, of syngas, 304305 equivalence ratio in, 195196
Conductivity, thermal, 4445, 45f fuel feed rate in, 194
Constant(s) gasification temperature in, 200201
Boltzmanns, 327 heat of reaction in, 201204
equilibrium, 137t, 335t height in, 210
physical, 327 mass balance in, 193200
Plancks, 327 medium flow rate in, 194200
reaction rate, 137 operating issues in, 219228
Stefan-Boltzmann, 327 optimization, 218
universal gas, 327 oxygen in, 196197
Contact avoidance, 264 performance issues in, 219228
Conversion, biomass, 816, 9f process, 192204, 218
Conveying, 288 product gas prediction and flow rate
Cooking, with biomass, 67, 7f in, 193194, 204205
Corn, in ethanol production, 316317 sizing in, 205214
Corn cob and stalks steam in, 197200
fusibility of ash of, 329t tar and, 109111
moisture content of, 53t handling and, 269270
proximate analysis of, 54t handling system, 271272
Corrosion, 263265 hopper, for mass flow, 279
in hydrothermal gasification, 262265 hydrothermal gasification reactor,
resistant barriers and materials, 264265 251262
Cracking, 116 modifications for tar removal, 112
catalytic, 116 pyrolyzer, 9091
steam, 104 torrefaction, 95
tar, 226 De-stoner, 284285
thermal, 104, 116 Devolatilization, 9293
Crops, as biomass, 31 Diagram
Crossdraft gasifier, 176177 ternary, 4041, 41f
Crude oil, carbon-to-hydrogen ratio of, 15t van Krevelen, 39
Cyclones, 113 Diesel, 318319
elemental analysis of, 308t
Dairy cattle manure, moisture content of, 53t green, 8
Degradation, waste, 33 methanol in production of, 319320
Dehydration, in ethanol production, 316, 323 Differential thermogravimetry (DTG), 5556
Density(ies) Digestion
apparent, 4243 of biodegradable waste, 32f
biomass, 4244 in biomass conversion, 9
bulk, 4344 in waste degradation, 33
growth, 44 Dioxin, 18
true, 42, 43t Disposal, tar, 115
Depolymerization Distillation, in ethanol production, 316,
in pyrolysis, 7980 323
in tar formation, 100101 Distributor plate, 216
in torrefaction, 92 Dolomite, 107
Design Double-screw feeder, 292f
chute, 282284 Douglas fir, ultimate analysis of, 51t
gasifier, 167169, 192193 Downdraft gasifier, 100t, 109111, 110f,
auxiliary items in, 216218 172176, 207208
efficiency in, 219222 Dry ashfree basis, 57
Index 357

Dry-ash gasifier, 171172 Fabric filters, 114

Drying Farm products, as biomass sources, 5t
in gasification, 120 Fast pyrolysis, 7274
handling and, 287288 FC. See Fixed carbon
in pyrolysis, 77 Feeder(s), 288299
Dry tar reforming, 104 belt, 295
DTG. See Differential thermogravimetry in fluidized beds, 295298
Dust, biomass and, 18 moving-hole, 294
pneumatic injection, 293294
Earth metal catalysts, 130 ram, 294295
Efficiency redundant, 298
cold gas, 219221 screw, 291293
energy conversion, in hydrothermal Feeding, 288299
gasification, 265266 Feed particle size, 245
gasification, 219222 Feed points, 297t, 298
hot gas, 221222 Feed preparation, 284288
net gasification, 223225 Fermentation
E-gas gasifier, 189 in biomass conversion, 9
Electricity in ethanol production, 316
from biomass, 12 in transport fuel production, 323
emissions in generation of, 17t Filters, 113114, 113f
Electrostatic precipitators (ESP), 114 Fischer-Tropsch reaction and synthesis, 3, 24,
Embargo, 1973 oil, 4 305t, 313
Emissions Fixed-bed pyrolyzer, 8587
biomass and, 17 Fixed carbon (FC), 55
in electricity generation, 17t Flaming pyrolysis, 132
Energy Flash pyrolysis, 72t, 73
activation, 141143t Flow
balance in gasifier design, 200204 funnel, 276
from biomass, 68 mass, 276279
bio-oil in production of, 309 Fluidization velocity, 210
Gibbs free, 138140, 139t Fluidized-bed gasifier, 3, 100t, 111, 111f,
Enthalpy of formation, 46 133134, 159161, 168t, 177185,
Entrained-flow gasifier, 3, 100t, 111, 134136, 208214, 225226, 295298
135f, 161164, 168t, 185191, Flushing, 277
214218, 226 Food, ethanol production from, 316317
Environmental benefits of biomass, 1618 Food waste, moisture content of, 53t
Enzymatic hydrolysis, 322323 Forestry, 270
Equilibrium constant, 137t, 335t Forest sources of biomass, 28
Equilibrium moisture, 5354 Formation, heat of, 46, 139t, 333334t
Equivalence ratio (ER), 195196 Fossil fuels, biomass vs., 4
ESP. See Electrostatic precipitators Freeboard height, 214
Ethanol Free energy, Gibbs, 138140, 139t
biochemical production of, 315317 Free moisture, 5354
biochemical vs. thermochemical production Fuel auger, 294
of, 13t Fuel classification, 3841
from food sources, 316317 Fuel feed rate, 194
ignition temperature of, 48t Fuel heating value, 5760
nonfood sources in production of, 317 Funnel flow, 276277
as transport fuel, 8 Furan, 18
Eucalyptus, ignition temperature of, 48t Furfurals, 307t
Extractives, in biomass, 33 Fusibility of biomass ash, 329t
358
Gas
applications of product, 9899
cleaning, 98
composition of product, 6061
in drying, 288
as pyrolysis product, 7071
universal constant of, 327
Gaseous fuels from biomass, 5
Gas flow rate, 193194
Gasification, 14
air as medium for, 119t
of biomass, 12t, 1415
of carbon, 23
catalyst selection in, 129130
catalytic, 128130
char, 122126
chemical equilibrium in, 136146
combustion vs., 1, 2022
commercial attraction of, 1922
composition of product gas in, 6061
drying in, 120
efficiency, 219222
high-temperature, in syngas production,
303
high-temperature Winkler, 178
hydrothermal, 117119, 229230
application of, 247
biomass feed system in, 261262
carbon combustion system, 256257
catalysts in, 243, 252
challenges in, 266267
chemical production with, 249250
corrosion in, 262265
energy conversion, 247249, 265266
feed particle size in, 245
gasliquid separator system in,
257261
heat exchange and transfer in,
253256
heating rate in, 245
hydrolysis in, 237238
operating parameters in, 241247
pressure and, 247
reaction design and kinetics in,
250262
reactor size, temperature, and type in,
247, 251253
residence time in, 244
SCW in, 230237
SCW oxidation in, 239
solid concentration in feedstock and,
244245
subcritical steam in, 232
Index
subcritical water in, 231232
waste remediation with, 249
kinetics of, 136149
low-temperature, in syngas production,
303
mass transfer control, 148149
mediums, 118119, 119t
milestones in, 2f
models, 149158
oxygen as medium for, 118
plasma, 191192
process, 119136
pyrolysis, 117118, 120121
reactions, 117119, 121t
simulation models, 150158
steam as medium for, 119, 119t
in syngas production, 302304
tar in, 121
temperature, in gasifier design, 200201
Gasifier(s), 168169
chemical looping, 184185
circulating fluidized-bed, 179185
crossdraft, 176177
design, 167169
auxiliary items in, 216218
efficiency in, 219222
energy balance in, 200204
entrained-flow, 214218
equivalence ratio in, 195196
fuel feed rate in, 194
gasification temperature in, 200201
heat of reaction in, 201204
height in, 210
mass balance in, 193200
medium flow rate in, 194200
operating issues in, 219228
operational considerations in, 225226
optimization, 218
oxygen in, 196197
performance issues in, 219228
process, 192204, 218
product gas, 193194, 204205
sizing in, 205214
specifications in, 192193
steam in, 197200
tar and, 109111
downdraft, 100t, 109111, 110f, 172176,
207208
dry-ash, 171172
E-gas, 189
entrained-flow, 3, 100t, 111, 134136,
135f, 161164, 168t, 185191,
214218, 226
Index 359

fluidized-bed, 3, 100t, 111, 111f, 133134, storage and, 272284

159161, 168t, 177185, 208214, underground storage and, 273274
225226, 295298 H/C ratio. See Hydrogen-to-carbon (H/C)
height, 210 ratio
Imbert type, 209t Heat
Koppers-Totzek, 188 from biomass, 12
moving-bed, 15, 158159, 169177, of combustion, 4647, 139t
206208 of formation, 46, 139t, 333334t
pressurized moving-bed, 3 of reaction, 4647, 201204
side-fed, 187 specific, 46, 335t
sizing of, 205214 transfer in SCW, 255256
slagging, 172 Heating oil, elemental analysis of, 308t
throated and throatless, 174176 Heating rate, 72t, 7677, 245
top-fed, 187 Heating value, 5760, 71t, 330t
transport, 181 Heat transfer in pyrolyzer, 8384
twin reactor, 181184 Height
updraft, 100t, 109, 110f, 130133, freeboard, 214
170172, 207 gasifier, 210
Gas light, 23 Hemicellulose, 3738, 37f, 80
Gasliquid separator system, 257261 in torrefaction, 9495
Gasoline Hemicellulose analysis, 50t
C/H ratio of, 15t Herbaceous plants, as biomass, 30
elemental analysis of, 308t Higher heating value (HHV), 39, 58
hydrocarbons in, 317 High-temperature gasification, in syngas
methanol in production of, 317318 production, 303
Gas-phase reactions, 144146 High-temperature Winkler (HTW)
Gassolid reactions, kinetics of, 140144 gasification, 178
Gas velocity, superficial, 206 Hoppers, 276279
Gesner, Abraham, 6567, 67f Hot gas efficiency, 221222
Gibbs free energy, 138140, 139t Hyacinth, moisture content of, 53t
Global warming, 4 Hydrocarbon, steam reforming of, 143144
Glycerol synthesis, 314 Hydrogasification reaction, 126, 143
Grape pruning, 329t Hydrogen
Gravitational acceleration, 327 in bio-oil, 308t
Gravity chute, 290291 in pyrolysis, 66f
Green diesel, 8 specific heat of, 331t
Grinder, 286 in syngas, 303
Growth density, 44 Hydrogen analysis, 50t
Hydrogen sulfide, specific heat of, 331t
Handling, biomass, 269 Hydrogen-to-carbon (H/C) ratio, 39
chute design and, 282284 Hydrolysis
components in, 271 acid, 10
conveying and, 288 enzymatic, 322323
design of system, 269272 in ethanol production, 316
drying and, 287288 in hydrothermal gasification, 237238
feeding and, 288299 in transport fuel production, 322323
feed preparation in, 284288 Hydropyrolysis, 72t, 73
flow and, 274 Hydrothermal gasification, 229230
gravity chute in, 290291 application of, 247
hoppers for, 276278 biomass feed system in, 261262
mass flow and, 278 carbon combustion system, 256257
receiving and, 272 catalysts in, 243, 252
size reducers in, 285286 challenges in, 266267
360 Index

Hydrothermal gasification (contd) LHV. See Lower heating value

chemical production with, 249250 Light
corrosion in, 262265 from gas, 23
energy conversion, 247249, 265266 speed of, 327
feed particle size in, 245 Lignin, 38
gasliquid separator system in, 257261 analysis, 50t
heat exchange in, 253256 kinetic rate constants, 82t
heating rate in, 245 macromolecules, 70
hydrolysis in, 237238 pyrolysis, 81
operating parameters in, 241247 in torrefaction, 94f
pressure and, 247 Lignite
reaction kinetics in, 250251 carbon-to-hydrogen ratio of, 15t
reactor design, size, and temperature, ultimate analysis of, 51t
251262 Ligno-cellulosic materials, as biomass sources,
reactor type in, 247 5t, 3031
residence time in, 244 Ligno-cellulosic proportions, 40
SCW water in, 230237 Limits
SCW oxidation in, 239 particulate, 99, 99t
solid concentration in feedstock and, tar, 98100, 99t
244245 Liquefaction, of biomass, 12t, 16, 9091
subcritical steam and water in, 231232 Liquid fuels form biomass, 5
waste remediation with, 249 Liquid smoke and wood, 306
Hydrous pyrolysis, 74 Liquid yield of pyrolysis, 70
Logging, 270
Ignition temperature, 4748, 48t Lower heating value (LHV), 58
Imbert type gasifiers, 209t Low-temperature gasification, in syngas
Industrial waste, as biomass source, 29t production, 303
Industry, gasification as attractive to, 1922
Inherent moisture, 5354 Macrofibrils, 3536
Injection feeder, pneumatic, 293294 Macromolecules, lignin, 70
In-situ tar reduction, 104112 Magnesium, true density of, 43t
Integrated gasification combined cycle Magnetic metal separation, 285
(IGCC) power plants, 4, 17 Manure, moisture content of, 53t
Internal combustion, tar and, 99 Maple, ultimate analysis of, 51t
Intrinsic reaction rate, 147149 Mass balance, 193200
Iron, true density of, 43t Mass flow, 276279
Mass transfer control, 148149
Janssen equation, 281 Mass transfer effect, 8384
Jenike equation, 281282 Matter, volatile, 5152
Medium(s)
Kerosene production, 6567 flow rate, 194200
Kinetic models, of pyrolysis, 8183 gasification, 118119, 119t
Kinetics tar and gasification, 105107
gasification, 136149 Metal separation, 285
gas-phase reactions, 144146 Methanation reaction, 2425, 121t
gassolid reactions, 140144 Methane
hydrothermal gasification reaction, formation heat of, 46t
250251 in landfills, 33
pyrolysis, 7783 in pyrolysis, 66f
Koppers-Totzek gasifier, 188 specific heat of, 331t
Methanol, production, 24, 305t, 310313, 315t
Lamella, middle, 3536 in diesel, 319320
Landfills, 32 in gasoline, 317318
Index
Methanopyrolysis, 72t
Middle lamella, 3536
Moisture, 50t, 5355, 229230, 287288
Moving-bed gasifier, 15, 158159, 169177,
206208
Moving-bed reactor, 130133
Moving-hole feeder, 294
Municipal solid waste (MSW), 3032, 51t
Municipal sources of biomass, 28, 29t
Murdoch, William, 2
Natural gas, C/H ratio of, 15t
Net gasification efficiency, 223225
Neural network models, 155157
Nickel, 108
Nickel-based catalyst, 130
Nickel corrosion, 263
Nitrogen
in air, 331t
in bio-oil, 308t
specific heat of, 331t
Nitrogen analysis, 50t
Nitrogen removal, biomass and, 18
Nonferrous metal separators, 285
O/C ratio. See Oxygen-to-carbon ratio
Oil, 305306
bio-, 70, 306f
applications of, 309
ash and carbon in, 308t
in chemical feedstock production,
309
chemical properties of, 308t
composition of, 307t
in energy production, 309
furfurals in, 307t
heating value of, 71t
hydrogen in, 308t
nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur in,
308t
physical properties of, 307308
production of, 310
terms associated with, 306
in transport fuel production, 309
water in, 307t
C/H ratio of, 15t
pyrolysis, 306
wood, 100101
Oil embargo (1973), 4
Olivine, 108
One-stage global single-reaction model,
8183, 82t
Ontario Corporations Tax Act, 326
361
Organization of Petroleum Exporting
Countries (OPEC), 4
Outdoor storage, above-ground, 274275
Outlet, 283284, 291
Oven, beehive, 66f
Over-bed system, 295296
Oxidation, supercritical water, 239
Oxidation reactions, 121t
Oxygen
in air, 331t
analysis, 50t
in bio-oil, 308t
formation heat of, 46t
as gasification medium, 118, 119t
Oxygen-to-carbon (O/C) ratio, 39
Paper, ultimate analysis of, 51t
Particle size, 245
Particulate limits, 99, 99t
Peat
C/H ratio of, 15t
ultimate analysis of, 51t
Pelletization, 9596
PET. See Polyethylene terephthalate
Petcoke
heating value of, 71t
ultimate analysis of, 51t
Phenol, in pyrolysis, 66f
Photosynthesis, in biomass formation,
2829
Physical constants, 327
Physical properties of biomass, 4244
Plancks constant, 327
Plant, pyrolysis, 69f
Plasma gasification, 191192
Plate, distributor, 216
Plugging, of screw feeder, 291
Pneumatic injection feeder, 293294
Points, feed, 297t, 298
Political benefits of biomass, 1819
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET), 238f
Poplar, ignition temperature of, 48t
Pore diffusion, 127t
Potassium, true density of, 43t
Power plants, integrated gasification
combined cycle, 4, 17
Precipitation, 287
Pressure
atmospheric, 327
tar and, 105
Pressurized moving-bed gasifier, 3
Primary tar, 100101
Process design, gasifier, 192204
362
Product gas
applications, 9899
composition, 6061
prediction, 204205
Product yield, pyrolysis, 7477
Proximate analysis, 5055, 54t, 69
Pruning, grape, 329t
Pyroligneous tar, 306
Pyrolysis, 23, 65, 7174. See also
Torrefaction
ablative, 79, 8687f, 89
as autothermal, 84
of biomass, 12t, 1314
biomass composition and, 7475
in biomass particle, 68f
bio-oil from, 70
Broido-Shafizadeh model and, 7880,
79f, 80t
cellulose in, 7880
charcoal production through, 91
char from, 70
chemical aspects of, 7881
depolymerization in, 7980
drying in, 77
fast, 7274, 72t
final stage of, 78
final temperature in various processes
of, 72t
flaming, 132
flash, 72t, 73
gaseous products of, 7071
in gasification, 117118, 120121
heating rate, 6567, 72t, 7677
hemicellulose in, 80
hydro-, 72t, 73
hydrocarbon decomposition in, 66f
hydrous, 74
initial product of, 68
initial stage of, 77
intermediate stage of, 77
kerosene production with, 6567
kinetic models of, 7783
lignin in, 81
liquid production through, 9091
liquid yield of, 70
mass transfer effect in, 8384
methanopyrolysis, 72t
oil, 306
one-stage global single-reaction model
of, 8183
operating variables and yield in, 85t
particle size and, 75
physical aspects of, 7778
Index
plant, 69f
in presence of medium, 7374
process of, 6774
products, 6971, 72t, 7477
rapid thermal, 88
residence time in various processes
of, 72t
slow, 72
solid product of, 70
temperature, 67, 75
ultra-rapid, 73, 88
vacuum, 72t, 8687f, 89
vapor products of, 7071
Pyrolyzer, 8589
ablative, 8687f, 89
bubbling fluidized-bed, 8687f, 87
circulating fluidized-bed, 8687f, 88
design considerations, 9091
fixed-bed, 8587
heat transfer in, 8384
rotating-cone, 89
ultra-rapid, 88
vacuum, 8687f, 89
Rain, 287
Ram feeder, 294295
Rape seed, 8
Rapid thermal pyrolysis (RTP), 88
Rate, heating, 72t, 7677, 245
Rate constant, reaction, 137
Rat holing, 277
RDF. See Refuse-derived fuel
Reaction(s)
Boudouard, 123124, 141142, 142t
carbon, 121t
char, 123, 126128
in gasification, 121t
gas-phase, 144146
gassolid, kinetics of, 140144
heat of, 4647, 201204
hydrogasification, 126, 143
kinetics in hydrothermal gasification,
250251
oxidation, 121t
rate constant, 137
shift, 121t, 124126, 304
watergas, 124, 142
Reactor pressure, tar and, 105
Receiving, biomass, 272
Reducers, size, 285286
Reduction, tar, 103116
Redundant, feeder, 298
Redwood, ultimate analysis of, 51t
Index
Reforming
of hydrocarbon, steam, 143144
tar, 104
Refuse-derived fuel (RDF), 294295, 329t
Remediation, waste, 249
Renewability of biomass, 1619
Rentech-Silvagas process, 183184
Residence time, 72t, 76, 107, 244
Rice hulls, 329t
Rice husk, proximate and ultimate analysis
of, 51t, 54t
Rice straw
fusibility of ash of, 329t
moisture content of, 53t
ultimate analysis of, 51t
Rotary spreader, 296
Rotating-cone pyrolyzer, 89
SASOL. See South African Synthetic Oil
Limited
Sawdust
heating value of, 71t
kinetic rate constants of, 82t
moisture content of, 53t
ultimate analysis of, 51t
Screw feeder, 291293
Scrubbers, wet, 114115
SCW. See Supercritical water
Secondary tar, 102
Separator system, gas-liquid, 257261
Sewage sludge, ultimate analysis of, 51t
Shelf life, biomass, 274
Shift reaction, 121t, 124126, 304
Shirley, Thomas, 2
Side-fed gasifier, 187
Silicon, true density of, 43t
Silos, 275
Simulation, gasification, 150158
Size, feed particle, 245
Size reducers, 285286
Sizing, gasifier, 205214
Slagging gasifier, 172
Slow pyrolysis, 72
Snow, 287
Sociopolitical benefits, of biomass,
1819
Sodium, true density of, 43t
Solid concentration, 244245
Solid fuels from biomass, 5
South African Synthetic Oil Limited
(SASOL), 302
Space velocity, 206
Specific heat, 46, 331t, 335t
363
Spiral chunker, 286
Spreader, 293
Standards D-1102, E-1755-01, and D-3174-04,
52
Standard D-3175-07, 52
Standards E-871-82 and E-1358-06, 5354
Steam
cracking, 104
as gasification medium, 119, 119t
in gasifier design, 197200
reforming, of hydrocarbon, 143144
subcritical, 232
Steam-reforming reaction, 121t
Steven-Boltzmanns constant, 327
Stoichiometric air requirement, 195
Stoichiometry, 5960, 152153
Storage, biomass, 269, 272284
above-ground outdoor, 274275
bins and silos for, 275
underground, 273274
ventilation and, 274275
Subcritical steam, 232
Subcritical water, 231232
Sulfur
biomass and, 18
in bio-oil, 308t
true density of, 43t
Supercritical water (SCW), 230237. See also
Hydrothermal gasification
oxidation, 239
Superficial gas velocity, 206
Surface moisture, 287288
Syngas, 1, 302
ammonia production with, 305t, 313314
applications of, 302
from biomass, 6
C/H ratio of, 15t
cleaning of, 303305
conditioning of, 304305
conversion of, into chemicals, 310314
in Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, 305t, 313
gasification and, 302304
in glycerol synthesis, 314
hydrogen/carbon monoxide ratio in,
303
low- and high-temperature gasification
and, 303
in methanol synthesis, 305t, 310313
production, 24, 302303, 305t
shift reaction and, 304
tar and, 303304
uses of, 301
Syrup, wood, 100101
364
Tar, 97102
acceptable limits for, 98100
air gasification and, 106
alkali and, 108
alkali remover and, 115
barrier filters and, 113114
carbon dioxide gasification and, 107
char and, 108
composition of, 101102
cracking, 226
cyclones and, 113
design modifications, for removal of, 112
in direct-combustion systems, 98
disposal of, 115
dolomite and, 107
in downdraft gasifier, 100t, 109111, 110f
electrostatic precipitators and, 114
in entrained flow gasifier, 100t, 111
in fluidized-bed gasifier, 100t, 111, 111f
formation, 100101
gas cleaning and, 98
in gasification, 121
gasification factors and, 99100
gasifier design and, 109111
by gasifier type, 100t
in-situ reduction of, 104112
internal combustion and, 99
medium of gasification and, 105107
nickel and, 108
olivine and, 108
operating conditions and, 105107
physical removal of, 112115
post-gasification reduction of, 112116
primary, 100101
problems of, 97
pyroligneous, 306
reduction, 103116
reforming, 104
residence time and, 107
scrubbers and, 114115
secondary, 102, 112116
steam gasification and, 106
steamoxygen gasification and, 106107
syngas and, 303304
temperature and, 105
tertiary products, 102
in updraft gasifier, 100t, 109, 110f
upper limits of, 99t
Temperature
of drying gas, 288
effects on pyrolysis, 75
gasification, in gasifier design, 200201
ignition, 4748, 48t
Index
pyrolysis, 67
tar and, 105
Ternary diagram, 4041, 41f
Terrestrial biomass, 29t
Tertiary tar products, 102
Thermal conductivity, 4445, 45f
Thermal cracking, 104, 116
Thermochemical conversion, of biomass,
1016, 12f, 12t
Thermodynamic equilibrium models,
151154
Thermodynamics, of biomass, 4448
Thermogravimetric analysis, 5556
Throated and throatless gasifiers,
174176
Time, residence, 72t, 76, 107, 244
Top-fed gasifier, 187
Torque, in screw feeder, 292293
Torrefaction, 1314. See also Pyrolysis
advantages of, 9394
depolymerization in, 92
design considerations, 95
devolatilization in, 9293
hemicellulose in, 9495
mechanism of, 9495
moisture absorption and, 93
thermodynamic loss and, 92
Torrefied pellet, 9596
Total-dry basis, 57
Town gas, 2
Tracheids, 35
Transfer of heat, in pyrolyzer, 8384
Transfer of heat, in SCW, 255256
Transportation fuels. See also Ethanol
biochemical process for, 320
biomass in, 8, 315323
bio-oil in, 309
feed preparation, in production of, 322
fermentation, in production of, 323
gasification in, 3, 3f
hydrolysis in production of, 322323
thermal process for, 320
Transport gasifier, 181
True density, 42, 43t
Twin reactor system, 181184
Ultimate analysis, 4950, 51t
Ultra-rapid pyrolysis, 73, 88
Under-bed system, 296298
Underground storage, 273274
Universal gas constant, 327
Updraft gasifier, 100t, 109, 110f, 130133,
170172, 207