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Why do we care about materials?

Materials and Stresses
Controls cost and weight of a product
Contributes to the failure of a product
Affects impact on environment (green
Stephen M.Belkoff, Ph.D. engineering)
Orthopaedic Instrumentation Laboratory
Departments of Orthopaedic Surgery
Affects aesthetics
The Johns Hopkins Bayview Medical Center

F F
ELASTIC PLASTIC
ULTI MATE
lo = original length LOAD LOAD
TO
Dlo = elongation FAI LURE
A A
Ao = original area
lo F = force lo PROPORTI ONAL
Force

LI MI T
s= stress = F/Ao
e= strain = Dlo /lo

STIFFNESS

F F

Deformation

Stress/Strain

COLUMN

BEAM

No Tensile
Stress Compressive Shear

SHAFT

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ELASTIC PLASTIC Stress

Torque/Force/Moment

???
TO
Stress is a measure of the concentration of
FAI LURE
force
PROPORTI ONAL Stress = = force per unit area normal to the
LI MI T
force

???
STIFFNESS = F/A

Twist/Deformation/Deflection

Stress continued Strain

What else has units of force per area? Strain is a measure of how much a material
distorts in response to stress
Interpretation stress concentration matters
Strain =
for failure consider shoes
= x/L
There are two kinds of stresses:
Normal perpendicular to a principal direction
Shear twist about a principal direction where x = deformation and L = length at rest

Strain continued ELASTIC PLASTIC

ULTI MATE
STRESS
BREAKI NG
Note that strain is dimensionless POI NT

Interpretation it makes sense that behavior

STRESS

YI ELD

should depend on strain rather than x POI NT

MODULUS
OF
ELASTICITY

STRAIN

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Spring Constants from Stress/Strain

Relating Stress and Strain Relations

Many materials have a linear relationship =E

between stress and strain at low levels of
strain: F/A = E x/L
=E
where E = Youngs modulus F = A E x = k x
E is a material property L

k = AE/L

Real Materials

Real materials have two distinct sorts of

behavior:
Elastic shape is totally recovered when
stress is removed
Plastic (or inelastic) shape change is not
totally relaxed when the stress is removed
Next, stress must increase to get more strain
strain hardening
Point E is Ultimate Stress. Necking starts.

Necking Drawing
Continued stress will produce drawing, a
segment with reduced thickness, and finally
fracture (at F).

When a material gets to the ultimate stress, it

starts to change in area we call that necking.

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What do we consider failure? Poissons Ratio

Most materials strive to keep volume roughly the same
Yield Strength as they deform.
A strain in direction of stress produces another strain
Rupture (opposite sign) in the other orthogonal directions.
Ultimate Strength The strain in the unstressed directions is proportional to
the strain in the stressed direction The Poisson Ratio is
the constant of proportionality
= - unstressed/stressed

For metals = 0.3

Typical Calculation An Unusual Material: Nitinol

Nickel titanium (NiTi) is a shape memory alloy also commonly
Initial volume = V
referred to by its trade name, Nitinol (Nickel Titanium Naval Ordnance
Stress in x = Laboratory)
Nitinol is superelastic, able to withstand some deformation when a
This produces strain
load is applied and return to its original shape when the load is
in x-direction of x removed.
Below its transformation temperature, it displays the shape memory
Strains in y and z are effect. When it is deformed it will remain in that shape until heated
above its transformation temperature, at which time it will return to its
y = z = -x original shape.
New volume = (1+x)(1+ y)(1+z )xyz
= xyz + (x+ y+z )xyz + h.o.t.
= V0 + (1-2) x V0 = (1 + 0.4x)V0 for metals

BENDING BENDING

3 PT 3 PT
BENDING BENDING

y
4 PT
BENDING

My
CANTILEVER
=
I

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Bone

Weakest in shear
Tension
Compression

Fracture Causes

Fatigue
Trauma

Viscoelasticity
1day 1wk 1mo 1yr 10yr 100yr

sult
STRESS, s(Pa)

Rate dependence
Creep
Stress relaxation
Endurance Limit History dependence (memory)
sE

No. of Cycles (n)

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Strain Rate Dependence Stress

Concentrations
Change in
material
properties
Change in cross
Increase energy absorption section
corner

Damage tolerance

hole
scratch