INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF TOURISM RESEARCH
Int. J. Tourism Res. 13, 368383 (2011)
Published online 12 June 2011 in Wiley Online Library
(wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/jtr.855
An Integrated Approach to Consumer
Decision Making for Budget City Breaks:
the Role of Emotion
Diana Ene1 and Peter Schoeld2,*
1
Nottingham UniversityNottingham University Business School, Nottingham, UK
2
University of Salford, School of Business, Salford, UK
ABSTRACT
The short break market has been neglected
from the perspective of consumer decision
making (CDM) research despite its economic
importance for many destinations. This study
examines CDM in the budget city break
market; it examines the interrelationship
between the key constructs of price, quality,
involvement, emotions and attitude in relation
to consumer purchasing, repurchasing and
recommendation. Emotions were found to
have a signicant inuence on CDM for
budget city breaks, their impact varied on the
basis of decision type and market segment,
and the number of relevant dimensions
increased with the complexity of decisions.
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Received 25 September 2010; Accepted 17 April 2011
Keywords: consumer decision making;
emotion; budget city breaks; segmentation.
INTRODUCTION
A
number of consumer decision making
(CDM) models featuring motivation,
supply, demand, value, price, quality,
cues, information and emotions have been
developed in an attempt to improve our under-
standing of the process (Andreason, 1965;
Howard and Sheth, 1969; Engel et al., 1986;
Solomon, 1996). Within a tourism context, the
*Correspondence to: P. Schoeld, University of Salford,
School of Business, Salford M5 4WT, UK.
Email: p.schoeld@salford.ac.uk
applications (inter alia Gilbert, 1991; Cooper et al.,
1998; Middleton and Clark, 2001) have attempted
to provide a general framework, which has
assumed a vacation scenario and its associated
criteria, such as extensive information search and
high levels of risk and insecurity, which may not
be relevant in all tourism product markets, e.g.
short breaks. The demand for short break prod-
ucts has grown signicantly over the recent past,
and the European Travel Commission (2009, p. 16)
reported that trips will continue to be of shorter
duration and closer to home an extension of
current trends. Despite the economic importance
of the short break market, it has been neglected
from the perspective of CDM research. It is
generally assumed that short break decision
making is characterized by lower risk, lower
involvement and a more limited information
search than decisions relating to vacations, but
there is no empirical evidence to support this view.
This study responds to these challenges by
examining CDM in the budget city break
market and in acknowledgement of the
complexity of the CDM process; the research
takes an integrated approach to the problem
by adapting and extending Hansens (2005)
conceptual CDM framework. As such, it
examines the cognitive, affective and conative
dimensions of city break CDM and their
interrelationships. A further contribution of
the research is its analysis of a posteriori
segments, based on CDM dimensions, within
the budget city break market. The paper has
three specic objectives:
(1) Identify the dimensions of budget city
break CDM.
(2) Examine the role of emotions in budget city
break decision making.
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
An Integrated Approach to CDM for Budget City Breaks
(3) Analyse the characteristics of dimension
based a posteriori budget city break market
segments.
CITY BREAKS
A short break has been dened as a non
business trip of between one and three nights
duration (Fache, 1994). The literature on city
breaks is rather limited but has developed
signicantly over the past decade. Previous
studies have looked at a range of issues
including the distinctive characteristics of par-
ticular destinations such as Dublin (Dunne et al.,
2006, 2010) and New Zealand (Pike, 2003), the
facilitators and constraints relating to short
breaks to Melbourne (McDonald and Murphy,
2008) and perceptions and motivations to visit
places on short breaks (Bloy, 2000; Jang and Cai,
2002). A few studies have examined city break
market segments. For example, Puczko et al.
(2007) segmented Budapests tourists on the
basis of nationality, interests, time of travel and
motivations for visiting the city. More recently,
Davison and Ryley (2009) segmented lowcost
air travellers according to their European
destination preferences, air travel behaviour
and both household and individual character-
istics such as age, employment type and
income. The sample included both short break
and vacation travellers. They identied seven
categories of lowcost yer: retired annual
holiday makers; less mobile, low earners; work-
ing women who take annual holidays; em-
ployed frequent yer; family oriented, female
holiday makers; high income, frequent yers;
and retired frequent yers. The main segments
for weekend breaks were the employed fre-
quent yers and family oriented, female
holiday makers. They also found a relationship
between age, employment and income; subjects
who were in the younger age groups, employed
and earned more than 10 000 per annum
preferred short break to weeklong breaks.
Although research into short city breaks is
beginning to develop albeit slowly, we know
little about the nature of the decisionmaking
process in this product market. Furthermore,
the study of tourism decision making to
date has neglected the role of emotions and
their interrelationship with the cognitive di-
mensions of consumer decisions. This studys
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
369
examination of decisionmaking dimensions in
the short city break market, its segmentation of
the market on the basis of these dimensions
and its evaluation of the role of emotion in
this process therefore represents a signicant
development in the literature.
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
A number of tourism CDM models, based on
general frameworks presented in the consumer
behaviour and marketing literature, have been
hitherto used to conceptualize tourist decision
making (see Smallman and Moore, 2010, for an
overview). The linear model of the tourism
decisionmaking process by Wahab et al. (1976)
acknowledges the familiar sequence of cogni-
tive stages in consumer decisions but arguably
places insufcient evidence on the inuence of
variables such as price or quality. Schmolls
(1977) travel decision process model includes
both internal and external variables but ex-
cludes a feedback loop, and there is no input to
attitude and values (Cooper et al., 1998). By
comparison, the model of the travelbuying
behavior by Mathieson and Wall (1982) fea-
tures the general stages within the decision
making process, the key variables at each stage
and the importance of destination image
together with the inuence of trip features,
such as party size, but does not examine the
interrelationship between relevant variables.
Gilberts (1991) CDM framework attempts to
address some of the weaknesses in these earlier
models by examining the interaction between
variables, and the stimulusresponse model
by Middleton and Clark (2001) also acknowl-
edges the complexity of CDM by examining
internal and external inuences on consumer
behaviour within an inputoutput structure.
However, all of these traditional models
neglect the role of emotions and conceptualize
tourists as rational decision makers.
In comparison to staged CDM frameworks,
Hansens (2005) hybrid model, which has
hitherto not been applied to tourism, incorpo-
rates value, cue utilization, information search
and emotional perspectives on CDM. It features
linkages between ve key constructs: price,
quality, involvement, emotions and attitude
(derived from these different perspectives),
which are investigated in relation to purchase
Int. J. Tourism Res. 13, 368383 (2011)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
370
intention (Figure 1). Hansens (2005) frame-
work was developed from his study of Danish
students consumption of consumer goods.
The value, cue utilization, information pro-
cessing and emotional perspectives on CDM,
which are featured in the model, are all derived
from the pertinent literature. Zeithaml (1988),
among others, argues that consumers are value
driven, i.e. decisions are made on the basis of the
perceived utility of a product. Value has been
conceptualized as low price, particular features
that the consumer is looking for, quality that
matches a certain price and also as an expres-
sion of consumer monetary sacrice (Jacoby
and Olson, 1977; Zeithaml, 1988; Chang and
Wildt, 1994; Dodds, 1995; Hansen, 2001).
Proponents of cue utilization theory
(Steenkamp, 1989; Richardson et al., 1994) argue
that consumers may use one or more indicators
of the quality or performance of a product, such
as price or brand, to reduce the risk from not
knowing the quality of a product. Among all the
available cues, the buyer is tempted to use the
cues that hold a high predictive value and
condence value. When evaluating alterna-
tives, the consumer often considers both intrin-
sic and extrinsic cues, such as brand, store name,
price, level of advertising, packaging and
country of origin, in combination, to increase
the reliability of an appropriate choice. Among
all cues, price appears to guide the consumers
decision process when other cues are not
available (Dodds, 1991; Richardson et al., 1994;
Peterson and Jolibert, 1995; Hansen, 2005).
According to the informationprocessing per-
spective (Blackwell et al., 2006), consumers
Figure 1. Hansens (2005) integrated CDM framework.
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
D. Ene and P. Schoeld
develop beliefs and attitudes through a cogni-
tive process of ongoing interaction with envi-
ronmental stimuli through a process of
compensatory or noncompensatory decision
making. From this perspective, the consumer is
facing a problemsolving situation and is
employing their rational capacity reason to
reach the best decision (Kassarjian, 1981).
Emphasis is therefore placed on awareness,
level of involvement and decision rules.
By comparison, the emotional perspective
acknowledges the signicant role of affect, in
general, and emotions, in particular, in the
decisionmaking process (Bagozzi et al., 1999).
Although few purchases are entirely emotional,
emotions are considered to play a part in every
purchase decision (MacKay, 1999). Both positive
and negative emotions have been found to
inuence consumer behaviour (Han et al., 2007)
not least because of their impact on information
processing in relation to encoding and retrieval
of information, use of different strategies to
process information, evaluations and judg-
ments, and creative thinking (Bagozzi et al.,
1999). Various studies (Wyer and Carlston,
1979; Schwarz and Clore, 1983, 1988) demon-
strated that emotions can be the basis of the
evaluation process because feelings are sources
of information to the consumer (Frijda 1986;
Schwarz, 1990). Recent research in this area has
shown that cognition and affect are used
simultaneously in the socalled metacognition
process in which consumers use affect
asinformation when they consider that their
emotions offer important information for the
evaluation of alternatives (Avnet and Pham,
Int. J. Tourism Res. 13, 368383 (2011)
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An Integrated Approach to CDM for Budget City Breaks
2005). Although various models of consumer
behaviour have started to incorporate affective
variables (Loken, 2006), emotions have been
neglected in the tourism literature with few
exceptions. These include Bryant and Veroffs
(2007) research, which found examples of
enjoyment lessening experiences during holi-
days; Nawijns (2010) study, which found a life
cycle of positive emotions in the holiday
happiness curve; and del Bosque and San
Martins (2008) research, which showed that
both positive and negative emotions inuence
tourist satisfaction. However, the inuence of
emotions on other outcome variables, such as
intention to repurchase and to recommend,
which are investigated in the present paper, has
not been tested in previous studies.
Involvement is concerned with the consum-
ers level of interest, emotional dedication and
time allocated to the searching of a product or
service (Stone, 1984). It also is related to the
processes of attention and comprehension
(Celsi and Olson, 1988). This means that the
degree of involvement inuences directly the
breadth and/or depth of the decisionmaking
process, i.e. the extent of information search
and processing, product attribute evaluation
and the decision heuristic employed (Blackwell
et al., 2006). A highly involved consumer
spends more time looking, evaluating and
using the relevant information and typically
employs compensatory or phased models of
decision making. On the other hand, a less
involved consumers information processing
would be supercial, the decision being the
result of noncompensatory models using
conjunctive, disjunctive, elimination by aspect
and lexicographic rules and frequency heur-
istics (Mowen and Minor, 2001). The impor-
tance of involvement is reected in its use as
a segmentation variable in a study of the
domestic travel market in the USA (Fesenmaier
and Johnson, 1989).
Quality has been conceptualized from a
number of different perspectives (Dodds, 1995;
Peterson and Jolibert, 1995; Hansen, 2001).
Steenkamp (1990, p. 312) links perceived quality
to emotions in describing it as any evaluative
judgment such as favorable disposition, liking,
or affect. His quality perception process out-
lines its complexity and the need to consider a
number of variables including intrinsic and
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
371
extrinsic quality cues. For example, the litera-
ture has examined price as an indicator of
quality; this has included notions of objective
price, perceived nonmonetary price, fair price
and reference price (Winer, 1986; Chang and
Wildt, 1994; Bolton et al., 2003). Reference price
is used as a signal, which helps the consumer
understand a products perceptive value (Lin
et al., 2006: 240) in a situation of information
asymmetry (Kirmani and Rao, 1981). The link
between price and perceived value is described
by the value for money concept, which
indicates that both consumers and providers
interrelate the benets of a product/service to
its price (Huber et al., 2001).
The concept of attitude has been variously
dened, e.g. as evaluative judgment or as an
affective evaluation created by the cognitive
system (Bagozzi et al., 1999). The complexity of
attitude at the conceptual level also is related to
the relationship between attitude, objects and
behavior, i.e. consumers can have attitudes
towards physical and social objects and/or
towards their own behaviour or actions (Peter
and Olson, 2008). The latter relates to buyers
future behavioural intentions expressed as
willing to recommend and repurchase or revisit
in the case of tourism products.
The various perspectives on CDM differ in
relation to risk reduction strategies, the degree
of cognitive and affective activity and with
respect to tradeoffs and evaluations. Moreover,
it is possible that consumers use two or more
decisionmaking strategies simultaneously
(Bettman et al., 1998; Hansen, 2005). This
suggests that CDM models should incorporate
multiple perspectives and recognize the inter-
action between perceived value, involvement,
cognitive and affective dimensions and both
attitudinal and behavioural outcomes. Hansens
(2005) framework was therefore used in this
research to model CDM in the budget short city
break market because it integrates various
perspectives on CDM to accommodate consum-
ers employment of multiple modes of decision
making. The original model has been extended
by incorporating two new variables: repur-
chase and recommendation, which adds a
conative dimension to the extant cognitive and
affective dimensions (Figure 2). Additionally, the
original outcome variable, buying intention,
has been replaced by actual purchase to
Int. J. Tourism Res. 13, 368383 (2011)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
372
approximate the CDM process for budget short
breaks more closely.
METHODOLOGY
A mixedmethod approach was used consisting
of frontend qualitative research, using semi
structured interviews, to both explore the
dimensions of short break CDM and rene
the scales used in the equestionnaire survey.
The interview data conrmed the complexity of
the interrelationship between the variables and
thus validated the use of the conceptual
framework within the short break context; it
also showed that subjects could recall sufcient
detail about their most recent short break to
provide meaningful responses to questionnaire
items.
A number of prevalidated scales were in-
cluded in the questionnaire: Mittals (1989)
involvement scale; Izards (1977) emotions scale;
and Hansens (2005) price, quality and attitude
scales. The wording of certain scale items was
adjusted from the original format on the basis of
feedback from a protocol analysis and piloting of
the instrument prior to the survey. Additional
response sets were added to measure subjects
satisfaction with a recent short break in terms of
how appealing/pleasing it was, together with a
measure of their expectations prior to purchase.
Behavioural intention was measured in terms of
the likelihood of recommending and revisiting
the destination and purchasing similar short
Figure 2. Integrated CDM framework for short city breaks.
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
D. Ene and P. Schoeld
break products. Subjects perceptions of their
recent breaks price and quality relative to
previous breaks also were measured.
A sampling frame consisting of 10 000 Uni-
versity students and staff produced 155 useable
responses from an email request to complete an
online survey. The sample is relevant because of
the studys focus on budget breaks. It consists of
42.6% males, 36.1% in the 1824 age group and
50.3% in the 2534 age group. UK residents
make up 47.7% of the sample with 52.3%
coming from overseas (18.7% from Europe),
and 65.2% are single.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The dimensions of short city break decision
making
A principal components analysis (PCA) with
oblique rotation was used to identify dimen-
sions of consumer decisions for budget city
breaks. The minimum coefcient for items to be
included in the nal scale was 0.40, as recom-
mended by Stevens (1992) for the sample size.
Thirtyve variables were removed prior to the
nal analysis because they had loadings of 0.4
or higher on two or more factors. The Kaiser
MeyerOlkin (KMO) measure of sampling
adequacy (0.82) and Bartletts tests of sphericity
(p < 0.001) supported the factorability of the
correlation matrix. All factors with eigenvalues
greater than or equal to 1.0 were retained.
Int. J. Tourism Res. 13, 368383 (2011)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
An Integrated Approach to CDM for Budget City Breaks 373

The analysis identied ve dimensions of
CDM for budget city breaks, which explained
67.07% of the variance in the data before
rotation (Table 1). Three of these are emotion
dimensions; dimensions 1 (alpha = 0.82) and 5
(alpha = 0.88) are negative, whereas Dimension
2 (alpha = 0.87) is positive. Dimensions 3
(alpha = 0.60) and 4 (alpha = 0.51) are cognitive.
Quality (Dimension 3) has been dened as a
cognitive dimension here, although perceived
quality has been linked to emotions by
Steenkamp (1990) in that it involves an evalu-
ative judgement such as favourable disposition,
liking or affect. Price/Involvement (Dimen-
sion 4) is the least reliable of the ve as indicated
by its low score. Its complexity compared with
the other dimensions may reect a link between
value, conceptualized as low price (inter alia
Jacoby and Olson, 1977; Zeithaml, 1988) and the
importance of the decision.
Independent samples ttests and oneway
analysis of variance (ANOVA) were employed
to identify the inuence of socioeconomic
variables (gender, marital status and income)
on dimension scores. A signicant difference
was found between subjects on the quality
dimension on the basis of marital status (F = 4.23;
p = 0.003; eta2 = 0.1); engaged, married and di-
vorced subjects registered signicantly higher
levels of agreement with the variables loading on
this dimension compared with single subjects.
There also was a signicant difference on the
insecurity/anxiety dimension on the basis of
subjects income (F = 3.458; p = 0.010; eta2 = 0.09);
there were signicantly higher levels of agree-
ment with the insecurity/anxiety statements in

Table 1. Dimensions of CDM for budget city breaks

1 2 3 4 5 Com
Dimension 1: Insecurity/Anxiety
Feel mad at yourself 0.667 0.660
Feel you dislike yourself 0.656 0.735
Feel scared, uneasy like something might harm you 0.550 0.504
Dimension 2: Enjoyment/Interest
Feel Alert, curious, kind of excited about something 0.899 0.811
Feel glad about something 0.858 0.760
Feel so interested in what you are doing, caught up in it 0.829 0.670
Feel like what you are doing/watching is interesting 0.781 0.630
Feel happy 0.691 0.532
Dimension 3: Quality
Compared with my other budget short city breaks, the 0.852 0.715
quality of my last break was higher.
Compared with the average quality of budget short city breaks, 0.791 0.682
the quality of my break was higher.
Dimension 4: Price/Involvement
Compared with the average market price, the price of my last 0.819 0.673
budget short city break was lower.
I think that the purchase of this product was an important decision. 0.743 0.667
Dimension 5: Guilt
Feel you did something wrong 0.886 0.782
Feel regret, sorry about something you did 0.866 0.810
Feel like you ought to be blamed for something 0.759 0.709
Feel embarrassed when anybody sees you make a mistake 0.677 0.659
Feel like people always look at you when something goes wrong 0.604 0.615
Eigenvalue 7.05 3.56 1.52 1.48 1.15
Variance (%) 32.06 16.17 6.91 6.70 5.23
Cumulative variance (%) 32.06 48.23 55.13 61.84 67.07
Cronbachs alpha 0.82 0.87 0.60 0.51 0.88
Number of items (total = 16) 3 5 2 2 5

Note: only loadings above 0.4 are displayed.

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Tourism Res. 13, 368383 (2011)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
374 D. Ene and P. Schoeld

the lower income groups compared with the
higher income groups. No signicant differences
were found on the basis of gender.
The inuence of the dimensions on the
outcome variables
Least squares regression analysis was used to
determine the predictive ability of the dimensions
with respect to the four outcome variables in the
model: overall satisfaction (dened as attitude
towards the purchased product in Hansens
framework), intention to recommend the product
to others, intention to repurchase the same
product and intention to purchase a similar
product. In each case, the regression model
achieved satisfactory levels of goodness of t in
predicting consumer satisfaction and behaviour-
al intention. A forward stepwise procedure was
used because there were two or more statistically
signicant predictors (Table 2).
The multiple R value (0.34) for consumer
satisfaction shows that it is signicantly inu-
enced by the price/involvement cognitive
dimension and the interest/enjoyment emotion
dimension, which make similar contributions
(0.29 and 0.25 respectively), although the R2
value shows that only 11% of the variability
in satisfaction is accounted for. Consumer
intention to recommend the city break to others
is signicantly inuenced by two different
dimensions: quality and insecurity/anxiety.
The R2 value suggests that they account for
just over 15% of the variability in consumer
intention to recommend the city break. It is
interesting that quality is more inuential
(beta = 0.44) than insecurity/anxiety (beta =
0.23) and has a positive effect compared with
the negative inuence of the latter.
Only enjoyment/interest (Dimension 2)
makes a signicant contribution to consumer
intention to repurchase the same city break. The
R2 value shows that just below 17% of the
variability in the repurchase of the city break is
accounted for by this emotion dimension. It is
interesting that the price/involvement dimen-
sion is not signicant in consumers intention to
repurchase, yet enjoyment/interest is signi-
cant for both. It also is notable that in the case of
intention to repurchase, enjoyment/interest
makes a higher contribution (beta = 0.61) than
any other dimension to any other outcome

Table 2. Regression of budget city break outcome variables on the ve dimensions

A. Satisfaction with city break
Dimensions B SE B Std beta T Sig. Tolerance VIF
Price/involvement (Dimension 4) 0.290 0.097 0.249 2.994 0.003 0.978 1.001
Enjoyment/Interest (Dimension 2) 0.250 0.096 0.218 2.617 0.010 0.998 1.002
Multiple R = 0.337; R2 = 0.114; adjusted R2 = 0.100; SE = 1.09474; F = 8.22; p < 0.001
B. Intention to recommend city break
Dimensions B SE B Std beta T Sig. Tolerance VIF
Quality (Dimension 3) 0.443 0.100 0.369 4.493 <0.001 0.985 1.015
Insecurity/anxiety (Dimension 1) 0.226 0.098 0.189 2.300 0.018 0.985 1.015
Multiple R = 0.394; R2 = 0.155; adjusted R2 = 0.142; SE = 1.11705; F = 11.656; p < 0.001
C. Intention to repurchase city break
Dimensions B SE B Std beta T Sig. Tolerance VIF
Enjoyment/interest (Dimension 2) 0.609 0.120 0.411 5.079 <0.001 1.000 1.000
Multiple R = 0.411; R2 = 0.169; adjusted R2 = 0.162; SE = 1.36348; F = 25.73; p < 0.001
D. Intention to purchase similar product
Dimensions B SE B Std beta T Sig. Tolerance VIF
Enjoyment/interest (Dimension 2) 0.427 0.126 0.280 3.375 0.001 0.994 1.006
Quality (Dimension 3) 0.267 0.126 0.175 2.115 0.036 0.994 1.006
Price/involvement (Dimension 4) 0.264 0.128 0.171 2.067 0.041 0.998 1.002
Multiple R = 0.388; R2 = 0.151; adjusted R2 = 0.130; SE = 1.42657; F = 7.345; p < 0.001

DurbinWatson statistics: 1.662.16; predictor variable loadings on the dimensions in each regression model indicate the
absence of multicollinearity in the data; condence intervals indicate that the estimates are likely to be representative of
95% of other samples.

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Tourism Res. 13, 368383 (2011)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
An Integrated Approach to CDM for Budget City Breaks
variable. The dimension is also signicant for
consumer intention to repurchase a similar
product, although in this case, it combines with
two other dimensions: quality (Dimension 3)
and price/involvement (Dimension 4). The R2
value shows that just below 16% of the variability
in the outcome variable is inuenced by these
dimensions. Enjoyment/interest makes the lar-
gest contribution to the model (beta = 0.43), with
quality and price/involvement making similar
but lower contributions (beta = 0.27 and beta =
0.26 respectively).
Overall, the dimensions make similar albeit
weak contributions to consumer decisions with
emotion having a signicant inuence on all
four outcome variables. In three cases, emotion
and cognitive dimensions combine to signi-
cantly inuence consumer decisions, whereas
in the case of intention to repurchase the same
city break, the emotion dimension is the only
signicant predictor. It is notable that the
positive emotion dimension (enjoyment/inter-
est) makes a signicant contribution to three
outcome variables, whereas the negative emo-
tion dimension (insecurity/anxiety) is signi-
cant only in the case of consumer intention to
recommend the product to others. The signi-
cant inuence of the emotion dimensions
supports the research by Bagozzi et al. (1999),
which highlighted the importance of emotions
in the decisionmaking process; it also lends
some support to MacKays (1999) argument
that emotions play a part in every purchase
decision.
The role of dimensions in short break
decisions
The results indicate that emotion is either the
basis of the evaluation process (Frijda, 1986;
Schwarz, 1990 or that cognitive and affective
dimensions are simultaneously inuencing the
decision with the possibility that consumers are
using affectasinformation, i.e. emotions are
considered to offer important information for
the evaluation of alternatives (Avnet and Pham,
2005). The combination of price and involve-
ment variables in the case of Dimension 4 lends
some support to the notion of simultaneous
inuence as does the combined effect of
cognitive and emotion dimensions on consumer
satisfaction, intention to recommend the city
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
375
break to others and intention to purchase similar
products, with cognitive dimensions having
signicantly more inuence than emotion di-
mensions on consumer satisfaction and intention
to recommend, whereas emotion was signi-
cantly more inuential in the case of intention to
purchase a similar product.
Overall, the enjoyment/interest, quality
and price/involvement dimensions have the
most signicant inuence on the outcome
variables. It is notable that the impact of the
enjoyment/interest emotion dimension on
consumer intention to purchase similar city
breaks, and particularly on their intention to
repurchase the same city break, is relatively
high when compared with both its inuence on
consumer satisfaction and the inuence of other
dimensions on the outcome variables, with the
exception of quality on intention to recom-
mend the city break to others. Although the
enjoyment/interest dimension is clearly im-
portant in the budget city break CDM process, it
does not make a signicant contribution to
consumer intention to recommend the product
to others. The predictive signicance of the
quality dimension in relation to intention to
recommend the product may indicate that
quality represents a more universally recog-
nized standard or safer benchmark to use as a
basis for recommending a product than the
more personal enjoyment/interest dimension,
as part of a risk reduction strategy. Moreover,
the signicant role of quality in consumer
intention to repurchase a similar product also
supports this argument and suggests that
quality is playing a similar role in this context.
The signicance of the price/involvement
dimension in relation to consumer satisfaction
reinforces the high importance ratings on the
involvement variables. This appears to contra-
dict the assumption that decision making for
short breaks is a low involvement activity (e.g.
McDonald and Murphy, 2008). The link be-
tween the price and involvement variables
seems to indicate the signicance of value in
addition to the importance of the decision itself.
This is likely to impact on searching and
processing information, evaluating product
attributes and inuencing the decision heuristic
employed. Price/involvement also is signi-
cant in relation to intention to purchase a similar
product. The importance of this dimension
Int. J. Tourism Res. 13, 368383 (2011)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
376
supports the contention of Celsi and Olson
(1988) and Blackwell et al. (2006) that involve-
ment is a critical variable in consumer decisions,
and this appears to be the case in the context of
this particular product market. It is therefore
possible that consumers spend more time
looking, evaluating and using the relevant
information than is generally thought to be the
case. Not surprisingly, this dimension was not
found to be signicant with respect to either
intention to recommend the city break to others
or intention to repurchase the same product.
An examination of the singular and combined
contributions of the ve dimensions to the
outcome variables provides a further insight
into the nature of the associated decisions. The
emergence of enjoyment/interest as the only
signicant predictor of consumer intention to
repurchase the same product is understandable,
given that the consumer has already experienced
the product; the decision to repurchase or not is
therefore less complex compared with that
relating to the other behavioural outcomes. This
suggests that in this case, emotions are the basis
of the evaluation process because consumer
feelings are a valid source of information
(Schwarz and Clore, 1988; Schwarz, 1990). The
fact that the decision appears to be based on an
emotional response to the consumers previous
experience with the product and that there is no
signicant inuence from any cognitive dimen-
sions may have important implications for
marketing short break products to repeat visi-
tors. By comparison, consumer satisfaction is
inuenced by enjoyment/interest and also by
price/involvement, indicating that perceived
value and the investment of time and effort have
combined with enjoyment/interest as inuen-
tial elements. Similarly, consumer intention to
purchase a similar short break also is a more
complex decision, and not surprisingly, three
dimensions, including both cognitive and emo-
tive elements, have a signicant inuence on the
outcome. As discussed earlier, consumer in-
tention to recommend the product to others also
is complex because of the difculty of consider-
ing the needs and/or wants of others and the risk
of dissatisfaction as a possible outcome of the
recommendation. This complexity also is re-
ected in both the signicance of the quality average (5.43). Members of this cluster also have
and insecurity/anxiety dimensions and their
opposing effects. Overall, the pattern indicates
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
D. Ene and P. Schoeld
that the number of signicant dimensions
increases with the increasing complexity of
the decision and that repurchase of the same
product involves a signicant emotional dimen-
sion to the decision, whereas more complex
decisions involve both affective and cognitive
dimensions.
Budget city break segments
To develop further our understanding of CDM
in the budget city break market and the role of
emotion in this context, a cluster analysis was
performed on the dimensions. This facilitated
an assessment of both the markets heteroge-
neity and the inuence of the cognitive and
emotion dimensions on decisions within a
posteriori segments. A hierarchical cluster anal-
ysis was used to identify the number of clusters
required for a Kmeans nonhierarchical algo-
rithm (Hair et al., 2006). Initial cluster centres
were selected by SPSS Version 17.0 and iterated
until the Euclidean distance between centroids
changed less than 2% to reduce the bias of
designating initial cluster seeds and produce
stable clusters when the criterion had been met.
The unweighted average linkage between
groups method of clustering was used. Four
distinct clusters were identied, and all ve
dimensions contributed to their differentiation
(Table 3). Additionally, the results from the
multiple range tests using the Scheffe procedure
show that there are signicant differences
between clusters with respect to each dimension
in 73% of cases. The clusters also are signi-
cantly differentiated on the basis of four of the
seven outcome variables (Table 4) but with
signicant differences between relatively few of
the individual clusters. Details relating to the
four clusters are given in Table 5.
Cluster I is the second largest segment with
just less than one third (31.8%) of the sample. Its
members have the highest mean scores on the
positive emotion dimension (enjoyment/inter-
est) and the cognitive price/involvement
dimension. The high ratings on the variables,
which load on price/involvement, indicate that
the purchase of the product was an important
decision (5.94) and that the price was lower than
the lowest ratings on the negative emotion
dimensions: insecurity/anxiety and guilt and
Int. J. Tourism Res. 13, 368383 (2011)
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An Integrated Approach to CDM for Budget City Breaks 377

Table 3. ANOVA and multiple range tests on budget city break segments and dimensions
Scheffe test results
Dimensions/Clusters F III IIII IIV IIIII IIIV IIIIV
Insecurity/anxiety 60.98** ** * 0.03 ** ** 0.35
Enjoyment/interest 24.71** 0.05 ** ** * 0.14 0.85
Quality 33.85** * ** 0.80 * ** **
Price/involvement 29.35** 0.29 0.30 ** 0.97 ** **
Guilt 42.69** ** 0.98 * ** ** **

d.f. = 3, 150.
*p = 0.01; **p < 0.001.

Table 4. ANOVA and multiple range tests on budget city break segments and outcome variables
Scheffe test results
Dimensions/Clusters F III IIII IIV IIIII IIIV IIIIV
Worse than expected 10.42** ** 0.34 0.75 ** ** 0.71
About the same as expected 1.12 0.71 0.94 0.93 0.44 0.75 0.64
Better than expected 2.26 0.93 0.86 0.45 0.92 0.33 0.12
Appealing/pleasing 2.02 0.24 0.78 0.43 0.37 0.92 0.64
Repurchase a similar short break 2.71* 0.71 0.94 * 0.74 0.54 0.21
Repurchase the same product 4.41* 0.39 0.22 ** 0.72 0.42 0.32
Recommend 4.92* 0.21 0.92 0.10 * 0.74 *

d.f. = 3, 150.
*p = 0.01; **p < 0.001.

Table 5. Results of Kmeans cluster analysis for budget city breaks

Cluster 1 (n = 49) Cluster II (n = 19) Cluster III (n = 50) Cluster IV (n = 36)

Dimension 1: insecurity/ 1.93 4.48 2.09 2.38

anxiety
Dimension 2: enjoyment/ 5.25 4.78 3.99 4.12
interest
Dimension 3: quality 3.56 5.03 5.13 3.24
Dimension 4: price/ 5.69 4.92 5.41 3.89
involvement
Dimension 5: guilt 2.42 4.62 2.46 2.70
Cluster Cheap and Uneasy and Quality and Undecided
cheerful discerning value

Mean values were computed on the basis of aggregated scores for each dimension from attribute ratings on sevenpoint
Likert scales: (1 = very strongly disagree, 2 = strongly agree, 3 = disagree, 4 = neither disagree nor agree, 5 = agree,
6 = strongly agree and 7 = very strongly agree).

the third lowest rating for quality. Cluster I was
therefore labeled cheap and cheerful because
this seemed to summarize the characteristics of
this segment on the basis of their priorities in
CDM for short breaks. Cluster II is the smallest,
with only 12.3% of the sample. Members have
the highest mean ratings for the negative
emotion dimensions: insecurity/anxiety and
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
guilt, the second highest ratings for enjoy-
ment/interest and quality and the third high-
est ratings for price/involvement. Given the
dominance of the negative emotion dimensions
compared with the other clusters and the
relatively high scores for quality, the cluster
was labeled uneasy and discerning. Cluster III
is the largest of the four segments, with 32.5% of
Int. J. Tourism Res. 13, 368383 (2011)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
378
Table 6. Results of Kmeans cluster analysis for budget city breaks
Variables Cluster 1 (n = 49) Cluster II (n = 19) Cluster III (n = 50) Cluster IV (n = 36)
Worse than expected 2.49
About the same as expected 4.43
Better than expected 4.67
Appealing/pleasing 5.71
Repurchase a similar short break 5.40
Repurchase the same product 5.70
Recommend 5.85
Cluster Cheap and
cheerful
the sample. It has the highest rating for the
quality dimension and the second highest
rating on the price/involvement dimension,
with next to lowest and lowest ratings on the
negative and positive dimensions respectively.
As such, it was labeled quality and value.
Cluster IV has 23.4% of the sample, and its
members are difcult to describe on the basis of
the dimensions. The results indicate that al-
though the negative emotion dimensions have
the second highest ratings overall, members of
Cluster IV do not feel insecure, anxious or
guilty. The ratings on the other dimensions also
are inconclusive. The cluster was therefore
labeled undecided.
The cluster ratings on the outcome variables
are given in Table 6. The cheap and cheerful
cluster members have the highest ratings for
appealing/pleasing (an overall measure of
satisfaction with the product) and for both
intention to repurchase a similar short break
and intention to repurchase the same product.
They also have the second highest rating on
intention to recommend the product and
better than expected. This indicates that
Cluster I is a viable target market for lowcost
short break products. By comparison, Cluster
II (uneasy and discerning) has the highest
rating for worse than expected and some of
the lowest ratings for the appealing/pleasing
and intention to repurchase a similar short
break, intention to repurchase the same
product and intention to recommend the
product. It is possible that the negative (dis)
conrmation of Cluster II members experi-
ences being worse than their expectations may
have adversely inuenced satisfaction and
loyalty ratings. The overall outcome is that
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
D. Ene and P. Schoeld
4.50 2.47 2.83
4.67 4.22 4.94
4.65 4.95 4.11
5.06 5.61 5.29
5.11 5.20 4.47
5.00 5.06 4.54
5.17 6.02 5.20
Uneasy and Quality and Undecided
discerning value
Cluster II is not a viable segment to target. The
ratings for Cluster III indicate positive (dis)
conrmation in that its members have the
highest ratings for better than expected. They
also have the highest rating for intention to
recommend and the second highest ratings for
appealing/pleasing, intention to repurchase a
similar short break and intention to repurchase
the same product. Given the high level of agree-
ment by members about quality and value, this
segment should be targeted using products that
provide these specic benets. Cluster IV
members have the highest ratings for the
product being about the same as expected;
despite this, members ratings on the other
outcome variables are low in comparison with
other clusters. Given its characteristics, the
undecided is not a viable segment.
Overall, the results show that Cluster I (cheap
and cheerful) and Cluster III (quality and value)
offer some potential as viable market segments.
They are the largest clusters, and together, they
represent 64.3% of the sample. Both merit further
consideration but appear to require different
benets from short break products; Cluster I
members are interested in lowcost short breaks,
whereas Cluster III members seek highquality,
valueformoney breaks. Moreover, there are
signicant differences between the two clusters
on a number of key variables (Table 7).
As would be expected, Cluster I (cheap and
cheerful) has signicantly higher levels of agree-
ment with all of the positive emotion statements
and the enjoyment/interest dimension, where-
as Cluster 3 (quality) has significantly higher
levels of agreement with the quality dimension
and quality variables. This suggests that emotion
has a greater inuence on Cluster Is short break
Int. J. Tourism Res. 13, 368383 (2011)
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An Integrated Approach to CDM for Budget City Breaks 379

Table 7. Signicant differences on variable and dimension ratings between clusters I and III
Variables/Dimensions F
1. Compared with my other short breaks, the quality of my last break was higher. 23.47**
2. Feel like what you are doing/watching is interesting 9.32**
3. Feel so interested in what you are doing/caught up in it 8.35**
4. Feel alert, curious, kind of excited about something 16.82**
5. Feel glad about something 20.63**
6. Feel happy 18.81**
7. Feel joyful, like everything is going your way 12.12**
8. Dimension 2: enjoyment/interest 24.71**
9. Dimension 3: quality 33.85**

ANOVA/Scheffe test results (**p < 0.001).

decisions compared with Cluster III, and these CONCLUSIONS

differences should be reected in the products
designed for each segment and their respective
promotion. Clusters I and III are signicantly
differentiated on the basis of the dimensions but
not outcome variables (Table 4), and their
members have undifferentiated (p > 0.05) socio
demographic characteristics (p > 0.05), although
it is interesting to note that Cluster 1 has twice as
many females as males, whereas they are in
equal proportions in Cluster III (Table 8).
Although the body of empirical research on
tourism CDM continues to grow, the short break
market has been hitherto neglected, despite its
importance for many tourism destinations. This
study makes a contribution to the literature by
examining CDM in the budget short city break
market based on actual budget city break
purchases rather than being a survey of in-
tention. Moreover, in acknowledgement of the

Table 8. Budget city break cluster proles

I II III IV
Gender 2 = 2.18, d.f. = 3, p = 0.54
Male 18 (36.7) 9 (47.4) 25 (50) 14 (38.9)
Female 31 (63.3) 10 (52.6) 25 (50) 22 (61.1)
Age 2 = 10.46, d.f. = 12, p = 0.58
1824 16 (32.7) 9 (47.4) 20 (40) 11 (30.6)
2534 27(55.1) 9 (47.4) 22 (44) 19 (52.8)
3544 4 (8.2) 1 (5.3) 6 (12) 2 (5.6)
4554 2 (4.1) 1 (2) 4 (11.1)
5564 1 (2)
65+
Marital status 2 = 15.76, d.f. = 12, p = 0.20
Single 29 (59.2) 12 (63.3) 39 (78) 20 (55.6)
Engaged 8 (16.3) 3 (15.8) 1 (2) 7 (19.4)
Married 12 (24.5) 3 (15.8) 8 (16) 9 (25)
Divorced 1 (5.3) 1 (2)
Widowed 1 (2)
Monthly income (GBP) 2 = 10.59, d.f. = 12, p = 0.56
200 16 (32.7) 11 (57.9) 16 (32) 14 (40)
201300 7 (14.3) 2 (10.5) 12 (24) 7 (20)
301400 12 (24.5) 3 (15.8) 7 (14) 5 (14.3)
401500 6 (12.2) 2 (10.5) 8 (16) 2 (5.7)
>501 6 (16.3) 1 (5.3) 7 (14) 7 (20)

Values in parentheses are percentages.

Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Int. J. Tourism Res. 13, 368383 (2011)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
380
complexity of the CDM process, it has employed
an integrated approach to the problem by
adapting and extending Hansens (2005) CDM
framework rather than using one of the staged
CDM models, which have hitherto been em-
ployed in the tourism literature. This facilitated
an examination of cognitive, affective and co-
native dimensions of city break CDM and their
interrelationships and conrmed both the com-
plexity of decision making in this product market
and that the extended version of the composite
model is a viable framework to structure the
analysis of the CDM process for budget city
breaks.
The study identied ve signicant dimen-
sions of CDM in the budget city break market:
three emotion dimensions (insecurity/anxiety,
enjoyment/interest and guilt) and two cogni-
tive dimensions (quality and price/involve-
ment). Moreover, apart from two exceptions,
there were no signicant differences in dimen-
sion scores on the basis of sociodemographic
variables. This demonstrates that both cognitive
and affective dimensions underpin CDM in this
context. Moreover, both cognitive and emotion
dimensions were found to signicantly inuence
consumer satisfaction with budget short city
breaks and their intention to both recommend
these products to others and to purchase similar
city breaks. By comparison, only a positive
emotion dimension (enjoyment/interest) was
signicant in relation to consumer intention to
repurchase the same product. Given that emotion
signicantly inuenced all four behavioural out-
comes, the research demonstrates the signicant
role played by emotion in CDM for budget city
breaks, notwithstanding the relatively small
amount of variance explained by the dimensions.
This is an important nding and lends some
support to the emotional perspective on CDM,
although it is possible that consumers use two or
more decisionmaking strategies simultaneously.
Moreover, despite some evidence that cognitive
and affective dimensions are simultaneously
inuencing consumer decisions in this particular
context, the results are inconclusive on this point,
and it is possible that emotion is the basis of the
evaluation process. The fact that emotion is the
only signicant predictor of consumer intention
to repurchase the same city break whereas cogni-
tive dimensions are added as decision complexity
increases would seem to support this view.
Copyright 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
D. Ene and P. Schoeld
Overall, the enjoyment/interest, price/in-
volvement and quality dimensions were
found to have the most signicant inuence
on the outcome variables. Enjoyment/interest
was a signicant predictor of consumer satis-
faction and intention to both repurchase the
same product and to purchase similar short
breaks, with a signicantly higher impact on
behavioural intention than on satisfaction. How-
ever, it did not inuence consumer intention to
recommend the city break to others; only
insecurity/anxiety had a signicant (negative)
inuence in this context. The signicance of the
price/involvement dimension also is an im-
portant nding because the CDM for short
breaks is normally characterized as a low
involvement activity. The result indicates that
involvement is a critical variable in CDM even in
this product market. The signicance of the
quality dimension in relation to intention to
both recommend the city break to others and
purchase similar products, but particularly in the
case of the former, suggests that this dimension is
being used as a risk reduction strategy. Another
important nding is the relationship between the
number of dimensions and the complexity of the
decision; i.e. the results indicate that the number
of signicant dimensions increases with the
increasing complexity of the decision and that
more complex decisions involve both affective
and cognitive dimensions.
A further contribution of the study is the
identication of four signicantly differentiated
a posteriori segments within the budget short
city break market: cheap and cheerful, uneasy
and discerning, quality and value and un-
decided. Two of these, cheap and cheerful and
quality and value, represent viable target
markets, which require specic products with
distinctly different benets. Moreover, the seg-
ments also are differentiated in relation to the
signicance of emotion in CDM. Emotion
appears to have a greater inuence on short
break decisions in the cheap and cheerful
segment compared with the quality and value
segment, which suggests that there is potential
for developing an emotional selling proposition
in relation to the former. The role and signi-
cance of emotion therefore seems to vary not
only with respect to different decisions but also
in the context of different market segments.
Unlike previous studies, this research has
Int. J. Tourism Res. 13, 368383 (2011)
DOI: 10.1002/jtr
An Integrated Approach to CDM for Budget City Breaks
segmented the market on the basis of the most
salient and valued dimensions of the CDM
associated with city breaks, rather than on
simple sociodemographic characteristics.
The study has produced some important
ndings, but the limitations of the research
should be noted. First, a relatively small
student sample was used because of the
exploratory nature of the research, and al-
though the sample is arguably relevant, given
the focus of the study on CDM in a budget city
break context, future studies of CDM in this
product market should nevertheless use a
larger sample, which is more representative
of the overall product market. Second, al-
though the conceptual model appears to be a
valid framework to structure the analysis of
CDM in the budget city break market, this is its
rst application in a tourism context, and
further studies of CDM in the short break
market should employ the framework to
further assess its validity in this context and
in relation to tourist decision making generally.
Third, given the existing constructs limited
ability to explain the variance in the models
outcome variables, additional dimensions,
such as risk, should be incorporated into the
conceptual framework and tested empirically.
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