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654600 552800 "
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 681.3.06
32.973.26-0473
27
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13.03.2002 . .

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ISBN 978-5-94157-397-4 . ., 2004

, "-", 2004


........................... ......................................................................................................1

.........................................................................................................................................5

1.
.................................................................................................................................... 7
1.1. ....................7

..................................................................7
................................ ....................... 10
...................................................................... 11
.........................................................13
1.2. ..................................................................... 13
............................................................................................................ 13

........................................................................................... 15
()............................................ ..................... 17
(

)................................................................................................. 21
.......................................................................................22
1.3. -
.................................................................... 22

pull-up- pull-down-.......................................... 22
..................... 24
1.4. .
........................................................26

1.5. .
. .......... 28
......................................................................................................28
..................................................... 29
.......................................... 32

................................... 36

................................................................................................... 37
...............................................................................................37
............................................................ 40

" ".. .................................................................... 42

/ ......................................................... 43
( DDR).................................... 50
. SERDES CDR......................... 50
 V

2.9. - .... 129

2.10. ........................................................................................132
- ........................................................................... 133
................................................................................... 135

2.11. ............................................................................................... 138
, "1 N"................................................................139
, ()....................... 141

3.
( )............................................................................................................ 143
3.1. ( ).
. ..............................................................................143
............................................................................................ 144

..........................................................................147
....................................................................................... 147
3.2. ................................................................... 149
3.3. .........................................................................162
3.4.
.........................162
................................... ......... 162

................................................................... 164
.................................................................... ....................... 165


............................................................................................166
3.5.
.............................................................................................................................. 167
.......................................................................................... 169

............................................................................................... 172
3.6. ................. .......................................... 179
................................................................................ 180

......................................................................... 182
............................................................................. 183
PLL DLL,
.............................................................. .................................................. 184
..........................................................................................188

..................................................................................................................190
...........................................................................................192
3.7. ............................................................................ 194
........................................................................................................ 195
................................................................................................... 197

..............................................................................................198
3.8. . ......................................201
............................................................................................202
.......................................................................... .............................. 202
.............................................................................. 206
 VI_________________________________________________________________

3.9. - ..........................208
..................209
............................................. 212
3.10. .............................................................213
..................................................................................................... 213

"1 N"................... ........................................................................... 214
"1 N" ................................... 215
"1 N" .....................................218

3.11. ...................................................................................222
()...................224

4. ................................................................................... 227
4.1. . . ............................227
............................................................................................228

............................................................................... 229
................................................................................ 231
............................................................................ 236
.............................................................237
4.2. ............................................... 237
2D....................................................................................................................237

3D............................................................................... ....................................238
2DM................................................................................................................241
.................................................................................................. 242

...................................................................... 244
-...................................................................................................................... 247
4.3.
............................................................................................................................... 252

................................................................ 252
.......................................................................................253
......................................................................... 253

( DDR Double Data Rate).

QDR (Quad Data Rate).................................................... ......................... 254
.......................................................................254
.............................................................. 255
4.4.

" " ( ROM(M), PROM, EPROM, EEPROM).......................... 256

....................................................................................................................256
PROM.................................................. ...............................................................259
EPROM, EPROM-OTP EEPROM............................................................262
ROM............................................................................................268

4.5. -.............................................................................................................. 269

.................................. 271
-HE -...................................... ............................271
-.......................................................274
-........................................................................ 275
 ___________________________________________________________ VII

-................................................................ 276
- ...........................................277
- ()......................... 280
-

( StrataFlash .).................................................................................. 283
- ............................................................................. 284
4.6. EEPROM Flash.................................................. 285

4.7.
...................................................................................................... 287
() ................................ ........ 287
.................................................................................288

.....................................................................................................................289

4.8. ..............................................................291
.......... ......................................................292
....................... 293
...................................................... 297

.......... ........................................................ ............299

NV-SRAM.............................................................301
4.9. ................. .303
.............................................................................................. 303

-...............................................................................................307
..........................................................................307
..................................................... 308
............................................................................................... 309

4.10. ............ 311

4.11.
.................................................................................................................... 313
FPM, EDORAM, BEDORAM................................................................... 314

MDRAM..................................... ......................................................... 316

SDRAM........................................................... ................................... 318
DDR SDRAM............................................................................ ........ 320
RDRAM.............................................................................................. 324
CDRAM............................................................................................... 329

() .... 329
RLDRAM.................................................. ......................................... 331
FCRAM...............................................................................................332
.......................................................................................333
........................................................................... 334

4.12.
(FRAM, PFRAM, MRAM, OUM)...................................................................................... 335
FRAM ()............... ........................................................335
PFRAM (-)................................................337
MRAM ()......................................................................338
 VIII

OUM ( ).........................340
.......................................................341
4.13. ................................................................................. 342

5. /

.................. ........................................................................ 345
5.1. .
............................................................................................ 345

................................................................... 349
5.2. .
............................................................................................... 354
................................................................................................................356
.................................................................................................... .357
........................................................................................................................ 358

5.3. .......................................... 359
182185...............................................................359
............................................................................................................... 361
.............................................................................362
..................................................... 363
............................................. 367
......................................................................................................369

....................................................................................................... 373
..................................................................................... 378

5.4.
........................................................................... 380
....................................................................................... 387
..........................................................388
/............................392

/................................. 394

6. .................................................. 397

6.1. ............................................................ 397

...................................................399
,
.............................................................400
6.2. ................................................ 401

............................................................................................... 401
........................................................................................................403
6.3. ......................................................................... 404
......................................................................... 404
...................................................................410

6.4.
................................................................................................................................ 419
............................................................................................................... 419
()........................................................... 424
UART.................................................................................................................. 433
 _____________________________________________________ ____________ IX_

SPI..................................................................................................................434
l2C...................................................................................................................437
6.5. .
................................................................................................. 439
....................................... .................... 439

........................................................ 440
............................................................................................................... 443
..........................................................................449

6.6. ............................................................. 450
....................................................................................... 451
................................................................................. 457
..............................................................................458
6.7. .......................................................................................................................459
, .................................................. 459

54 ....................................................464
6.8. JTAG........................................................................... 471
JTAG ..........................................................471

7. ................................................................................................ 479
7.1. ....................................................................................................479

7.2. ............ ................................................................... 482
'7.3. ................... 486

AVR............................................................................... 486
, ......................................488
...............................................489
................................................ ........... 490
...................................................................................................... 491

.....................................................................491

8. ,
, ..................... 493

8.1. ................................................................................................... 493

8.2.
( )..................................................................................... 494
...............................................................................................................494

........................................................................................................ 497
.....................................................501
.............................................................................................. 501
......................................................................... 502
........................503

........................... ................................................................................... 506

................................. 507
( 1556)........................................................512
..................................... 515
........................... 516
 X

8.3. (
)....................................... ........................................... 520
......................................................................................................... 520
............................. ....................................................................... 523

........................................................................................................ .....528
................................................................................. 529

9. /
(CPLD, FPGA, ).............533
9.1. ......................................................................................................... 533
-
............................................................................... ....... 535
..................539

......................................................................................... 541
9.2. (CPLD)......................... 543
CPLD.......................... .................................................................... .............. 543
CPLD.....................................................................................544
CPLD ( ) ....549
/ CPLD........................................................................................... 551

9.3. (FPGA)................ 553
..................................................... ................................. 553
FPGA................................................................................................ 554

/ FPGA........................................................................................... 559
FPGA...................................................................................561
FPGA......................................... .............................................567
9.4.

........................................................................................................... 569
tbHC 1 ........................................569
..................................................................................................... 571
........................................................................... 576
.............................................................................................578

/..................................................................................... ..................580
9.5. - .......................... 580
............................................................................................................... 580
.................................................................... 581
.............................................................................................583

10. " "................591

10.1. ...................................................................................................... 591
IP- " "................................. 592

SO PC......................................... .........594
SOPC............................................................................................ 596
10.2. " "
( ).............................................. 598
APEX 20//, APEX ............................................... 598
Stratix........................................................................................................... 601
 XI

Virtex /, Virtex II, Virtex II Pro............................... 604

SOPC .............................................608
10.3. " "
().................................................................................. 609

SOPC, ...................................... ....... 609
SOPC ....................................................... ........ 610
FPSLIC Atmel................................................... ............................611

SOPC Triscend................................................................................. 617
SOPC Altera......................................................................................619
SOPC ........................................620

11.
........................................................................................... 623

11.1. ........................................................................................... 623
11.2. ............................................................................. 626
11.3. ............................. ..................... 629
11.4. ..............................632
........................................................................632
....................................................................................634

12.
....................................................................................... ........................637
\

12.1. ....................................................... 637
12.2. ,
.............................................................................................. 642
12.3. .......................................................647
12.4.

.............................. .................................................................... 649

12.5. ......................................................................652
................ ............................................653

.....................................................654
................................................. 655
......... ...............................................658
- ..................660
....................................... 661

SOPC................ 662
12.6.
............................................................. .......................................................... 663
.....................................................................................................................663
- ................................664

.......................................................................................... 665
...................................................................................... 668
12.7. ..............670
............................................670
12.8. VHDL................... .................................................. 673
................................... 674
 XII

VHDL............................................................................. 675
VHDL........................... 678
VHDL ................................................................679
...............................680

.............................................................................................................................. 681
VHDL-AMS........................................................................................695
12.9.

................................... 705
. ........................ 706
. ...................... 707
. ......................................709
AHDL VHDL
........................................................................................................................711

.
.........................................................................................................................718
. ............................................................................718
.
............................................................................................ 720
.
...............................................................................................................720

1.

................................................................................................................ 721

2. ......................................... 723

3.

......................................................................................................724
.3.1. .................................................... 724
.3.2.

................................................................................................................................. 725
.3.3. ........................................726
.3.4.
........................................................ ......................................... 729

.................................................................. ................. ............................................. 731

. ...................................748

........................................................................................................... 756

.................................................................................761
.......................................................................................................761
-................................................................................................................765

....................................................................................... .................. 767



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.
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).
.

130

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(, )
 164

 ( ) 165

 166___________________________________________________________________ 3

 ( )______ 167

, ,
.

,
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,
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 ( ) 169


170






3

 ( ) 171


172






3

 ( ) 173

 174

 ( ) 175


176






3

 ( ) 177

(. 3.28)
.
= 0

0000
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010,
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.
.
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,

.

3
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, . .
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, .
,
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, .
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 178 3

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.

,
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 ( ) 179

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,
,

.
,

.
.

.

, .
, /
,
,

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,
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,
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, ,
. . .
.

.
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)
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tKU min tKU.max.

.
.

180






3

 ( ) 181


182






3

 ( ) 183

:
;
;

. ,
.

, ,
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.

(. 3.35),


.
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.


184






3

 ( )__ 185

 186 3

, , . .
,

.
, ,
,

.
, ,
. PLL DLL,
,
(,

30-35%).
PLL DLL "
,
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,
.

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, .
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 ( )___ 187

 188 3

, ,
.
, ,

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.

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PLL N.
PLL DLL ,
,
.

. , ,

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9.



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.

.

.
, , . .
, . . ,

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( ).
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,
.
 ( )____ 189


190






3

 ( )____ 191


192






3

 ( )___ 193

 194 3

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.
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.

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Input Parallel Output),
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 ( ) 195

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()

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,
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196






3

 ( ) 197

()

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(. 3.43, )
.

(DSR Data Serial Right). . 3.43,
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,
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()
 198 3

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 ( )____ 199


200






3

 ( )__ 201

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202






3

 ( )____ 203


204






3

 ( ) 205


206






3

 ( ) 207

 208 3

3.9. -

 ( ) 209


210






3

 ( ) 211


212






3

 ( )____ 213

, , , -
,

. 3.55, , ,
1001 = 9, . . -.

3.10.

"1 N".

70- XIX ,
. 50- XX , .

8 * 904

214






3

 ( )____ 215


216






3

 ( ) 217


218






3

 ( )___ 219


220






3

 ( ) 221

 222 3

,

. .

,

, ,

3.11.

 ( ) 223


224






3

 ( ) 225


226






3

4.1. .
.
()
.
40%

.
, .

.
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228






4

 _____________ 229


230






4

 __________ 231

 232 4

. 4.2. ()
 233

. 4.2. ()

EEPROM , , E2PROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable ROM)

,

- ( )
( ).
EPROM, EEPROM FLASH .
PROM, EPROM EEPROM
. PROM EPROM

. EEPROM

, .

FLASH EPROM EEPROM,
,
.
RAM . RAM

, ,
.
RAM ,

-.
, (
) , .

, RAM,

.
,
,

.

).

SRAM (Static RAM), DRAM (Dynamic RAM).
 234 4

( .
, . .

.

, ,
.

.

.

, .
(, CS
).

,
,

. ,
.

, ,
(
, ).
.

DDR (. 1).
()

. .
,
,
.
.

,
. .

,
. .
4.11.
45

 ______________ 235

. ,
-, FIFO LIFO,
,

. .

.
, .
,
.
FIFO
" " (First In First Out),

.
FIFO , FIFO
, . .
( ).

, .


- .

,
().
.
,

.
(VRAM).
,
" ".

LIFO (Last In First Out).

.

.

, ( ).

, ,

( . tag) ,
( ). , .
, ,
.

.
 236 4

-
.
,
.

, . .

.
. 4.2, .

, ,
(FRAM, Ferroelectric RAM),

. ,
, , EEPROM, FLASH-.
MRAM (Magnetoresistive RAM).

MRAM ,

. ,

MRAM
. MRAM
. MRAM , FRAM,
,

.
-
(PFRAM, Polymeric Ferroelectric RAM).

( ),
.

.
PFRAM

/.
PFRAM . ,
PFRAM .
OUM (Ovonics Unified Memory)
, - (CD,

DVD), . . ,
OUM -
(GeSbTe),
.
.
 ___________ 237

-, 2003 . :
DRAM ~ 58%;
SRAM ~ 21%;

FLASH ~ 13%;
EEPROM ~ 5%.
97%
,

4.2.



,


.

ROM.
. 4. ROM

2D, 3D, 2DM .

2D

2D (. 4.3)
= m,
; ; m .
DC CS

(Chip Select) ,
, ,
.
( ,

/).
. /
R/W (Read , Write ).
2D
, . . ,
 238 4

( ).

. 4.3. 2D

3D
3D

.
ROM (. 4.4, ),
.
,
. ,
 ______ 239

. 4.4. 3D
()
 240 4

. 4.4. 3D
()

:
2D 1 1024
, 3D 32

. 3D
, .
3D, . 4.4,
,
(. 4.4, ), "" .

,
.
, .
3D ,

2DM

.
 241


242






4

 243

 244 4

N .
.
, ,
, ,

.
(
), ,

.
( , ).

( ),

.
,

FIFO ( LIFO).

,
,
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,
,

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.

, 24- ,
16 .

,

.
, .

( ).
.

 245

.
( )
,
.

.
(. 4.7)

,
.
,
. ,

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MUX
.
( ,
. 4.7 ).

.

.
DI, -
 246 4

MUX .
CTR, , ,

.

). MUX
,
.

FIFO

FIFO, . 4.8,
()
, , .
, . .

.

. 4.8. FIFO

,
, ,

,
, , .
FIFO,
. ,
.
 ____________ 247

 248 4

, , .

( ) .

- ,

.

-
, ,
(), ,
.
- (FACM, Fully Associated Cache

Memory), . 4.10,
, "" ,
.
""
Hit.

. 4.10. -

Hit = I ,
(Hit = 0),

-.
 ___________ 249

, ,
- ( Hit = 1 Hit = 0).

, .
FACM

, .
-
, . .
-.
FACM -,
.

- -
- (
). ,
- (Cache Line)
(. 4.11). .
.



-, , [27]
, , , .
,
, ".

,
-,
.


250






4

 _________ 251

,
,
(), .

,
, .
- ( )

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, .
. ()
. -.

.
. ,
, Hit
.
. ,
.

-
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. . 4.12, 128.

.
,
, . .
,

.

FACM -

(-).
,
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, , . . 2, 4, 8, ...
. . ( 2).

, (
64).
.
, .

- :
, . .

.
( ). ,
.
 252 4

.
.
- - . 4.12, .

, -
( ).

, . .
.
, LI ( Level
()), - ,
L2 () .

.
- SRAM
-.
Power 3 IBM
- 32
64 128 .

L2 Power 3 256- .
L2 1 16 .

4.3.

.
,

,
,
. ,
, ,
.

.
,
.
.
() .
 253

, .
, ,
, .

.
.

.
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.
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,

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,
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.
 254 4

,
,
. ,

5-2-2-2 5-1-1-1 4.
, 5 ,

2 1.

(Timing). ,
,
.

( DDR Double Data Rate).
QDR (Quad Data Rate)


, . . / . ,
,
.

-

( SDR, Single Data Rate). DDR (Double Data
Rate) no ,

. ,
( )

. , DDR

, .
QDR (Quad Data Rate),
DDR .
,

(Multibank Memory, Interleaving

Memory)
,
, . .
.

 __________ 255

 256 4

, .
, ,
.

. 4.13. () ()

4.4.

" "
( ROM(M), PROM, EPROM, EEPROM)
" "

, ,
.

.
" "
( 8-, 16- 32-),
2DM.

2D.
, (), , n- .

ROM(M)
()
.
( )
, , - . .
 _________ 257

ROM(M) (. 4.14, )
, .


258






4

 _________ 259

ROM
: 1
200 . ROM
128 40100 .

PROM

PROM

.
PROM
. ( )

. ( )
.
(
fuse). ,

.

.
( ,

) (
).
, , .

,
.
( antifuse) .

(.
9).

,

.
, ,
.
.

. 4.15, , .

( 155) . 4.15, . 32x8.
32 9 (8
,









 261

10100101.
, . 2D.

. . 4.16
() ,

.

, .
OEf ,
.
( = 0), F .
, ,

D7...D0. , ,
.

.
. ,
, . . , .
,

.

. 4.16.

( ).
,
556, , 0,50,7.
-
.


















 264 4

,
,
, -,

.
,
.

,
.
, .
,

"- -
". FLOTOX,

( ).

(
).


( ).

EPROM,
EPROM,
EEPROM, .
(. 4.17, )

-
, ,
.

,
( ), , ,
,
. .

-n- ,
. , ,

, .

,
( ).
,
 265

,

"" .
-

, EPROM .

,
.
.


.

( EPROM)
.
.
,
.
,

&.
, '

. -
(101000 ),
. .
.

FLOTOX, (
.).
(10

).
10

(FowlerNordheim).

FLOTOX Floating-gate Tunneling Oxide (

Extremely Thin Oxide).
, , ,

.

( ).
EEPROM , EPROM,
( -
).
 266 4

, ( EEPROM
). "-"
,

( 104 106 ). ,
, ,
.

,
, .
- -.
,
.

p-, ( n-)

, .
.
EPROM
,

. .



EPROM-OTP (OTP One Time Programmable).
EPROM

. , . .
- .

,
,
. , ,
, , .

. 4.18.
""
. ,
,

, . .
Ucc
.
EPROM ( )
573 ,























. 4.20. () ( )

, . .
.
, ,

, .

4.5. -

- (Flash-Memory)
,
. -

.

-, EEPROM,
, ,
,
,
/ ()
, . .









 271

, -
.
- :

( ,
);
.

.
(
). Boot-,
,
Boot Block Flash Memory. Boot-
,

.


(Flash-File Memory)
( ).

- -

- (
).
:

-HE (NOR);
- (NAND).
. 4.22.

,

.
- (. 4.22, )
F

.
, , ,

,
, .
 272 4

, .

. 4.22. -HE () - ()

- (. 4.22, )

.

, , ,
, , . .
.
,

,
, .
,
-.

- , , -HE,
,
(). ,
, ,
, .

-
. ,
Boot-
Block.
ROM EPROM, ,
.


. 4.23. - -

-HE Intel.

, -.
- ,
, , -
 274 4

. ,
.
.

0,13
1 . - - (NAND),
-HE (NOR),

(
2 ).
-
1 60
80 . -
,

-HE,
( 8090% -
). ,
-.
- /
( , ),

, .

-
-
.

(Erase Suspend). ,
. . .
-

.
, -,

.

/.
,
, ,

(,
2 ).
() .

(5 ; 3,3 .). ""
.
 275

, .
, "-",

, ,
. ,
, .

.
EEPROM EPROM,
, - EEPROM
,
, EPROM ,

,
,
, ,
. -
,
.

,
. - 2003 90%

, 90% , 50%
. .

, -
, ROM(M), EPROM-OTP EPROM,
,

. -

,
, .
- .

- -,
. -

,
.
- :
, (
/ );
 276 4

, (
/ );
, (

);
, .

,
.
. (, , )
, . ,
.
.

.
(
).
, .
.
.


/.

,
- , .
.
.

-
-

( Bulk Erase
).
(
Boot-Block Flash Memory Parametric Flash Memory),
(Flash-File Memory).

. ,
64256 .
64

64.
()
Boot-
/,
.
,
 _____________ 277



















 280 4

,
.

.

.
WE .

,
I/O
( DATA). ,
,
,
,

( 0 1
), .
- Boot-

: ,
() (Bottom).

. 4.24 Boot-.

-
()

.
()
.

,
( ,
, ,
).

() . ,
3 ,
3,35
0,60,9 , .

- () ,
,
,
, ,





































 285

. ,
,
(. 4.27).

. 4.27.


.

,
. ,
.
.

,
,
,

.
,
, ,
, .
.

MLC
, 4 ,
.

4.6.
EEPROM Flash

EEPROM
 286 4

Flash. ,

.

EEPROM Flash-
,
.

.
( ) , .
.
,

, .
5 :
, "", ,
.



. 8- 16-
, .
105106,

10100 .
, ,
1 SOT-23
5 2, 2 2.

. , 1,8
1 ,
(Standby) .

,
.

(Microwire, 12,
SPI).

SPI (Serial Peripheral Interconnect) 10 ,

,

.
,

.
10
8- , 0,8 ,
16-
 _________ 287

1,6 .
,
.

,
.

. ,
, 93 Atmel
,
,
.
.

,
.

4.7.




.

.

.
.

,
.

()
2mxl m-
(0 1).

m , . .

. , 1024x1

10 .



















290






4

 291

. 4.30.

4.8.



. -, ,

,
FIFO LIFO,
.
(SRAM) 2DM (

),
2D, 3D.

. .
((), 2, , -,
, AsGa .),
.
. --

, -,
,
, .
SRAM
64 8

1020 .
537
132 n- (
,
).

292






4

 ________ 293


294






4

 ______________ 295


296






4

 ____________________ 297

 298 4

,
,
(,

). :
.
4.3.

SRAM
,
( ,

).
-

,
.

, - ( ).
(Synchronous Burst SRAM)


:
() CLK;

, ( )

( ,
);

.

.

(Pipelined Burst SRAM).

.
, ,
,

. , ,

"" 58
75 ( ).

. SRAM

(,
"").
ZBT (Zero Bus Turnaround), NoBL (No Bus
Latency), NtRAM (No Turnaround RAM) .
 299

,
. DDR SRAM
( )

8 400 .
Intel (2003 .) 16
900 .

SRAM
. ,
Cypress Semiconductor (1,8 2,5 ),
, DDR,
, . .

300
4 18 36 .

.
.
, . .
.

, . 4.36, .

Ucc.
Ucc, D1 , D2 .

. D2, D1 ,
. . Ucc .

,
. 4.36, , .
Ucc ,

. Ucc ,
.
, .
.
(. 4.36, ).

300






4

 _________ 301

NV-SRAM
NV-SRAM (Non-Volatile SRAM) ""

,
.
-.

. SRAM,
,
.
NV-

SRAM . -
-,

.
,
.

-


,
.
-
. -, ,
. -

.

. NV-SRAM

. 10 ,

( 0,7 ). ,

, , ,

100
( ).

( ).

.
. NV-
SRAM

302






4

 _____________ 303

4.9.
































































 ____________ 311

,
, , "--".

, ().

, ,
. ,

. "-
-" ,
, .

4.10.


312






4

 ___________ 313

4.11.

. ,
.
,

.

. , ,
. -

314






4


















































































 324 4

RDRAM
RDRAM (Rambus DRAM) -
Rambus.

, , ,

SDRAM.
RDRAM, SDRAM.
RDRAM ,
,
RDRAM
. ,

RDRAM . , RDRAM
,
. RDRAM
/ (
8- , 16-).
,

,
.

.

.
,

,
. N
N ,
.

.
RDRAM , ,
, .
Pentium 4 .

RDRAM Intel,
SDRAM
.
RDRAM (Base, Concurrent, Direct),

.
Direct RDRAM .
RDRAM - 13
, ,
. ,
 _________ 325


326






4

 327


328






4

 329

 330 4

, .

DRAM 20484096,

(WL-).

DRAM
, ,
, ,
, , .
DRAM,
-

.
.
. 4.49, DRAM,
, . . . . 4.49,
,
. DRAM

WL -
, ,

-
. DRAM.
-
- "" .

DRAM
50% ,
DRAM 35.

RC- () .
4 , . .
.
,

.
.

DRAM , , ,

.

DRAM ,
.
DRAM 5 .
 ___________ 331


332






4

 _________ 333


334






4

 __________ 335

64- (8-).
( ).
RIMM RDRAM .

,
. RIMM
, RDRAM.

4.12.
(FRAM, PFRAM, MRAM, OUM)


336






4

 337


338






4

 _________ 339


340






4

 _____________ 341

 342 4

4.13.

( USD). ,
.
.
, .


, 0,13 ,
0,050,07 .

,
, -
. , , Intel
,

90 (0,09 ).

1 2, 100 .

,
, ,
, .

.

, 1020

. ,
, ,
.

. 4.54.
 _______________ 343

. 4.54.

2 , -
4 .
715 .
250 ,

600 1 ( 510 ).

816 .

: [18], [24], [25], [29], [32], [35], [63], [67], [IV], [VI], [X],
[XI], [XII], [XIV], [XIX], [XXIII], [XXV], [XXVI], [XXX].

5.1. .




, -,
.
,
.

,
, , , ,
.

() ( )
/ - ,
. , ,
"" ""
, ,

,
.
,
, ,

, .
(-).

(), , ,
/ ( ) .
,
 346 5

,
.
Intel 4004 1971 .

.
, ,

, .
, , ,
- .
- ,
( ),
.

.
2300
108
. 200
, 5 ,
.

.
.


( ),
. ,

.

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.

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 / 347

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(CISC Complex Instruction Set Computer), . e.
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 / 359

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;









 / 361

RF (Register Flags) , . . ,
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 362 5

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Push Pop

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 380 5

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 / 381


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 / 385


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 / 387


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 / 389


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6

 399

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 403

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 423

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 433

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 450_______________________________________________ ____________________ 6

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 453


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 469


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 __________________________________ 471

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 473

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 475

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6

7.1.


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 481

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() ,
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534






9

 / .. 535

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538






9

 / .. 539


540






9

 / . 541


542






9

 / ... 543

9.2.
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PLD PAL () CPLD

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CPLD

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544






9

 / ...______ 545


546






9

 / .. 547


548






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 / .. 549

 550 9

,
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,
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 / . 551


552






9

 / . 553

(GOE1,
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216
520 . CPLD , ,
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Altera, 9500 Cool Runner Xilinx, 15 Lattice
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.

CPLD ,
EEPROM Flash.
, . .
, ,

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,
.
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9.3.
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(
FPGA Field Programmable Gate Arrays)
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(),
 554 9

,
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, . FPGA
, & .
, FPGA ,

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, " " , ,
,

.
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Xilinx, 1985 . FPGA
. FPGA antifuse
Actel QuickLogic.
FPGA . Xilinx
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Spartan , Spartan-3.

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.

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( )
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;

,
LUTs Look-Up Tables.
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.
,

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,
, ).
( ).
,
.










556






9

 / . 557


558






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