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FINAL REPORT
Charlotte Sterrett
April 2007
We are only able to sell our vegetables when it rains. Otherwise everything we grow
we have to eat ourselves, and sometimes this is not enough.
Thandi, Hluhluwe Advent Creche
Contents
2 Introduction.... 6
2.1 Climate change
2.2 UMKhanyakude Partnership Program
4 Planning 11
4.1 Methodology
4.2 Ethics
4.3 Trip outline
5 Research findings.. 14
5.1 PLA responses
5.2 Differences across communities
5.3 Gender and climate change
5.4 Health and climate change
5.5 Challenges
6 Conclusion... 20
7 Recommendations . 21
7.1 The program
7.2 NGOs in the region
7.3 Oxfam Australia
8 Appendices .. 23
8.1 References
8.2 PLA responses
8.3 Interview questions
8.4 Focus group questions
8.5 Map of UMKhanyakude District
Acronyms
AIDS Acquired immune deficiency syndrome
DES Dietary energy supply
GCM Global climate model
GNP Gross national product
IPCC United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
HIV Human immunodeficiency virus
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
NGO Non-governmental organisation
OAus Oxfam Australia
OVC Orphans and vulnerable children
PLA Participatory Learning and Action
WHO World Health Organisation
Climate change is a serious threat to the life and livelihoods of poor people around
the world. Its connections to water, energy, health, agriculture, food security, and
natural resources means it is already frustrating our efforts to address poverty and to
secure sustainable futures for poor women and men1. Put simply, it is a serious
threat to the future of our planet which if not addressed, will hinder developing
countries in reaching their poverty reduction and sustainable development objectives
under the UN Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)2.
By 2020, it has been projected that between 75 and 250 million people in Africa will
suffer water shortages due to climate change. Agricultural production and access to
food, in many African countries and regions will be severely affected4.
The research, which took place over a number of months in 2006, shows that
communities believe climate change is occurring in the UMKhanyakude District and
they feel particularly vulnerable to its impacts. It must be stressed that the
observations and comments given by participants are based on observed changes
over time, rather than just climate variability.
1
Christian Aid, The climate of poverty, 2
2
United Nations Development Program. Climate change and the MDGs. Available at;
http://www.undp.org/gef/adaptation/dev/02a.htm
3
IPCC, Climate change 2001: Technical Summary (IPCC Secretariat, Geneva, 2001)
4
IPCC, Climate change 2007: The Physical science basis, 4
The research provides the opportunity for further understanding of climate change
from a community perspective; it provides adequate information to inform the next
steps in the development of this particular program, as well as other similar
programs; it gives a voice to those who participated in the research to put forward
their own thoughts and ideas about the past and present, as well as hopes and
aspirations for the future. There is much still to do and this is a first step in a longer
process of sharing and learning, of planning and acting.
Recommendations
The program
Findings of the research should be incorporated into the ongoing design and
implementation of the program to address issues identified by the communities
Analysis of current approaches to sustainable agriculture should be undertaken in
light of the changing climate in order to assess the effectiveness of current and
future food security interventions
Closer links should be established and maintained with government agencies to
address infrastructure development that reduces community vulnerability to
climate change (e.g. access to water).
Oxfam Australia
Oxfam Australia should prioritise climate change within its work through;
Development of comprehensive policies on climate change and environmental
issues
Increased programming support within identified communities to reduce
vulnerability through region specific adaptation, sustainable development and
disaster risk reduction responses/programming
Strengthening advocacy and campaigning to mitigate global warming
Development and implementation of a framework to reduce its own emissions
and ecological footprint
Working closely with Oxfam International (OI) to ensure effective policy
development, positive engagement with government(s), and appropriate
approaches to mitigation and adaptation that promote equity for affected
communities.
The United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)7 in its Fourth
Assessment Report, released February 2007, has confirmed that global warming is
unequivocal8. Eleven of the last twelve years rank among the warmest 12 years in
the instrumental record of global surface temperatures (since 1850)9. The average
near surface air temperature has gone up by 0.74 degrees celsius and is
accelerating, and the linear rate of warming averaged over the last 50 years is nearly
twice that for the last 100 years10. Projections for 2100 show increases between 1.1
and 6.4 degrees celsius with three degrees celsius is the best estimate of the
expected average temperature increase11. This indicates that the world is on-track for
global warming above two degrees celsius, a figure widely considered as "dangerous
climate change".
According to Oxfam Great Britain12, climate data for Africa for the last 30-40 years
confirm the science showing global warming has taken a firm hold on the continent. If
current trends continue, climate models predict that by 2050 sub-Saharan Africa will
be warmer by 0.5 2 degrees Celsuis, and drier, with 10 per cent less rainfall in the
interior and with water loss exacerbated by higher evaporation rates13. There will be
more extreme events such as drought and floods, and the patterns of the seasons
will shift14. As with all hazards, it is the poor, the disadvantaged and those without
resources, who are most vulnerable to its effects. They are also the least able to
cope and adapt. The likely impacts of climate change vary depending on the region,
but for southern Africa one could expect to see; more intense floods and droughts,
faster disease transmission, larger storms and more weather-related disasters, a
decrease in farming productivity, movement of farming to higher latitudes, rising sea
levels, coral bleaching, species extinction and loss of biodiversity15.
The Global Climate and Economic Development report points out that the divide
between rich and poor will widen as a result of climate change, as the impacts of
climate change will fall disproportionately upon developing nations and those most
5
Christian Aid, The climate of poverty, 2
6
United Nations Development Program. Climate change and the MDGs. Available at;
http://www.undp.org/gef/adaptation/dev/02a.htm
7
IPCC assessments are the world's most comprehensive and authoritative review of the subject of
climate change. The research rigorously verified through the peer-review process, and it reflects a
consensus amongst all the world's governments about the state of knowledge.
8
IPCC, Climate change 2007: The Physical science basis, 4
9
Ibid
10
Ibid
11
Ibid.,10
12
Available at: http://www.oxfam.org.uk/what_we_do/issues/climate_change/story_climatechange.htm
13
Ibid
14
Ibid
15
Lane, J., Sagar, A., & Schneider, S. Equity in climate change. Tiempo, Issue 55 (April 2005): p.9.
Different contexts
The threats posed by climate change cut across many different contexts. Effective
responses to these challenging and complex issues will require us to think about how
we adapt to integrate these into our work.
Food Security
Food security is not just about access to food; it is also about food availability and is
firmly linked to climate change, vulnerability and adaptation. According to the IPCC18
food production in most of sub-Saharan Africa has not kept pace with population
increase over the past three decades.
Food consumption in Africa, for
instance, has exceeded domestic
production by 50% in the drought-prone
mid-1980s and more than 30% in the
mid-1990s. And, despite food imports,
per capita dietary energy supply (DES)
remains relatively low; lower than the
minimum recommended intake of 2000
Kcal per day19. The implications of this
state of food insecurity are significant.
The risks of adverse effects on
agriculture, especially areas with more Children receiving their daily lunch at
frequent and prolonged drought, become Ithembalesizwe
life-threatening risks, and internal coping
mechanisms such as farm improvement, employment, and trade, are not likely to be
adequate for many of the vulnerable populations. And, if food insecurity prevents
private investment in agricultural industries, resources for adapting to climate change
may not keep pace with impacts. Add to this add conflict, natural disasters, HIV and
AIDS, weak governance, and climate change; and the future for southern Africa
starts to look bleak.
Likely impacts of climate change include; crop failure, crop loss and land loss due to
drought, flooding, shortening of crop cycles, and pest infections. This could be
exacerbated in areas where agricultural policies have promoted cash and mono-
cropping, as mono-systems tend to be less resilient to climate change than more
diverse systems which enable farmers to spread the risks of disease and other
climatic stresses. Other impacts include; changing patterns of fish stocks and
migration due to increases in water temperature; and inundation of land with salt
water due to a rise in sea levels.
Rainfall fluctuations projected under global warming scenarios will hit Africans
particularly hard as agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa, of which up to 90% is rain-fed,
accounts for 70% of the regions employment and 35% of its gross national product
16
The Global Climate and Economic Development report. Available at:
www.tiempocyberclimate.org/newswatch/arnews05.htm#0507
17
Ibid
18
Available at: http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/387.htm
19
Available at: http://www.climatecentre.org/pub.php?page=3&lg
Health
The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that warming and precipitation
trends due to human induced climate change of the past 30 years already claim over
150,000 lives annually around the world23. Warmer conditions may trigger
unprecedented levels of disease outbreaks and undermine all of the MDGs,
specifically those aimed at reducing child mortality, improving maternal health, and
combating HIV and AIDS, malaria and other diseases. In southern Africa many
prevalent human diseases are linked to altered transmission of infectious diseases
and malnutrition from crop failures. Uncertainty remains in attributing the expansion
or resurgence of diseases to climate change, owing to lack of long-term, high-quality
data sets as well as the large influence of socio-economic factors and changes in
immunity and drug resistance.
Drought also poses serious threats to health, and not just from famine. A reduction in
the availability of clean water during drought drives communities to use more polluted
alternatives, which can lead to outbreaks of water-borne diseases.
There is broad consensus that the HIV and AIDS pandemic will worsen the affects of
climate change in the areas of disease prevalence, productivity, and natural resource
sectors such as agriculture and conservation, due to the diversion of government and
20
Available at: http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/387.htm
21
Ibid
22
Ibid
23
WHO, Climate change and human health: risks and responses (WHO, Geneva, 2003). Available at:
http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2003/9241590815.pdf
24
Ibid
25
Ibid
Gender
Climate change will have different impacts on men and women, and in most cases,
the adverse effects of climate change disproportionately affect women26.
Climate change is not a neutral process; it affects women more than men, and not
just because women make up the majority of the worlds poor. Women are more
reliant on the physical environment and natural resources for their own sustainability
which makes them particularly vulnerable to the adverse impacts of climate change27.
Climate change, in altering physical landscapes, land productivity and availability of
natural resources, interacts with existing unequal social structures to further
impoverish women. Low income women are also least able to voice their concerns
about its impacts or be involved in decision making and resource allocation.
In terms of food and water security climate change will cause additional hardship and
burden on women responsible for agricultural activities. Collecting water and fuel for
the family will also be impacted; work traditionally carried out by women28.
In terms of extreme weather conditions, events such as storms, floods, and cyclones
puts added burden on women who have to keep the family together. The
responsibility for nurturing the family, especially young children, as well as providing
the daily essentials is often largely borne by women29.
Women are also more at risk from violence and aggression, due in part to the
inability of males to re-establish their roles as money-earners in the aftermath of a
natural disaster30.
To date climate change literature has paid little attention to gender issues in the
climate change discourse. It is a major concern that, with so little written on gender in
climate change, that the disproportionate impacts of climate change are at risk of
going unnoticed by policy makers.
Disasters
According to Oxfam Australias Disaster Risk Reduction Manual, it is now accepted
that the social structures, forces and processes that determine and shape peoples
choices also determine their vulnerability to disasters32. In other words, the level of
26
LEG (Least Developed Countries Expert Group) (2002) Annotated guidelines for the preparation of
national adaptation programmes of action. UNFCCC
27
http://www.gencc.interconnection.org/about.htm
28
http://www.cru.uea.ac.uk/tiempo/floor0/archive/issue47/t47a7.htm
29
Ibid
30
Nelson, D.I. Land degradation and climate change in South Africa. The Geographical Journal.
Volume 169, (2003)
31
Barnett, J. The challenges of adapting to climate change in Oceania. Pacific Ecologist. Issue 1
(March 2002)
32
OCAA, Disaster Risk Reduction Handbook (OCAA, Melbourne, 2005)
In the midst of growing concerns over the effects of climate change, concerns are
also being raised about the increasing number of weather-related disasters. In the
period from 1970 to 2002 the number of reported disasters has grown from 1,110 to
2,935, an increase of 264%33. Those affected has also risen dramatically from 740
million to 2.5 billion34. The rise in people affected reflects a growing vulnerability to
natural hazards, in particular weather and climate related hazards. This vulnerability
is tied to development patterns such as; environmentally unsound practices, global
environmental changes, population growth, urbanisation, social injustice, and poverty
which increases peoples vulnerability35. In southern Africa this means that we can
expect to see an increase in the intensity and number of occurrences of drought,
floods and other extreme events.
As reported in IRIN News, since 2000 the region has experienced a variety of
disasters, ranging from Cyclone Eline, which left a trail of destruction in Mozambique,
Zimbabwe, Botswana, Zambia, Malawi and South Africa; to the recent floods in
Zambia and Mozambique in 2007. A multi-year drought has also seen more than 14
million people in the region needing food aid. This, in addition to the devastating
impact of HIV and AIDS, and disaster-induced outbreaks of diseases such as
cholera, means that there is need to integrate risk management into development
practices, and to consider ways in which to integrate long-term climatic change in risk
management.
Operating in the area since July 2005 the program aims to strengthen food and
nutrition security within the context of HIV and AIDS in the region. It currently has 10
partners working throughout the district in the areas of food provision for orphans and
vulnerable children (OVC), community and household food gardens, small
community based livelihood initiatives, income generation activities, and business
and financial skills training40.
33
IFRC, World Disasters Report 2002. Available at: http://www.ifrc.org/publicat/wdr2002/
34
Ibid
35
Available at: http://www.climatecentre.org/pub.php?page=3&lg
36
Statistics SA 2001 Census Data. Available at: http://www.kznhealth.gov.za/plans/population.pdf
37
Ibid
38
Ibid
39
South African Department of Health Study, 2004
40
Oxfam Australia Project Appraisal Form for the UMKhanyakude Partnership Program
In doing so the research aims to provide answers to the following four questions;
1. In the communities visited, what experience and knowledge do the members
have of climate change?
2. What do the communities see as the major changes in their environment?
3. What have the communities done to adapt to these changes?
4. How do they see the future in terms of what needs to be done to make their
lives better and what assistance, if any, do they identify as being required?
The research also takes into consideration the cross cutting themes of gender and
HIV and AIDS, and these form part of the findings of the research. These cross
cutting issues are also major components of the existing program.
4. Planning
Planning for the research began in March
2006 after the completion of the Regional
Annual Planning Workshop. Desk-based
research was undertaken in April to May
2006 to expand on the existing literature
review completed earlier in the year and to
gain more specific knowledge about
research done to date that could help inform
the process. During this time links with other
individuals and organisations were made to
establish relationships for future possible
collaborations. In October a field visit to Ploughed land ready for planting, Hluhluwe
collect information from communities took
place. Using Participatory Learning and Action methodology (PLA) community
members were asked to provide information on their understandings and
experiences of, and adaptation to climate change. The field trip was five days in
duration, during which Charlotte Sterrett (Program Officer for the Southern Africa
Unit) and Mavis Nyakurimwa (Program Officer for the UMKhanyakude Partnership
Program) visited six communities in the UMKhanyakude District, KwaZulu-Natal.
Once the field trip was completed a report was written, with drafts sent to participants
for comment before being written up and distributed.
4.1 Methodology
The methodology used for this research during the data collection component
included a number of PLA techniques. PLA is a family of approaches and methods
Historical timeline
Historical timelines generate relevant information by participants for discussion and
analysis about the local environment, resource use and problems. This PLA
technique was employed in order to allow community members to discuss the
changes they had observed in the environment in the time they had lived there. This
provided the research with a view of observed changes over time. In order to
complete the timeline participants were asked to discuss and then draw a matrix or
graph that illustrated their understanding of sequential changes in the environment.
Community map
The community map is similar to the historical timeline in that it provides a situational
analysis. This PLA technique was employed in order to allow community members to
map out their own community (within a group) to set out where community resources,
infrastructure and physical features are located. In order to complete the map
participants were asked to provide a visual representation of their community on
butchers paper including areas where water was collected and gardens cultivated,
for example. It was then discussed within the group.
Semi-structured interview
Semi-structured interviews are used to gather large amounts of data from individuals
around key questions. They are the most formal technique used in the research.
Interviews lasted about 45 minutes to one hour.
Problem tree
Problems trees are a method used to share learning and awareness about specific
problems identified by participants. They are important for understanding issues and
for planning actions. The technique was employed to elicit information from
participants about their ideas on the causes and effects or particular problems they
had identified in their environment, using visual representation. Participants took part
in selected activities and their responses were recorded in a note book and/or
recorded for transcription and analysis at a later time.
41
Available at: http://www.fspi.org.fj/programs.htm
Consent
Voluntary informed consent was required from all research participants. It was the
researchers responsibility to provide full information about the nature of the research
in easy to understand terms, so participants fully understood what they were being
asked to do. No financial inducements or other incentives were offered to
participants.
Confidentiality
Participants confidentiality was a priority at all times during the research.
Photographs were taken and used with permission.
Protection
At all times participants were treated in a manner that protected them from physical
or psychological harm.
Courtesy
Participants were under no obligation to agree to take part in research activities.
Community Type of
Date visited Municipality PLA Men Women TOTAL
23- Focus
24/10/2006 Ithembalesizwe Hlabisa group 2 7 9
Focus
group,
Hluhluwe The Big 5 historical
24/10/2006 Advent Creche False Bay timeline 1 8 9
Interview,
Ubombo Drop- historical
25/10/2006 in Centre Jozini timeline 1 5 6
Ophondweni
Youth Focus
25/10/2006 Development Jozini group 2 1 3
Sibambisene, Problem
25/10/2006 Mkuze Jozini tree 2 7 9
Focus
Hot Girls Fancy group,
Stitch, community
26/10/2006 Ingwavuma Jozini map 2 17 19
TOTAL 10 45 55
42
Research guidelines have been adapted from Murdoch Universitys Guidelines / Codes of Practice for
the Conduct of Research. Available at: http://www.research.murdoch.edu.au/ethics/hrec/codes.html
5. Research Findings
The large majority of participants are unclear about why the climate is changing and
do not have any knowledge about the debate on climate change currently taking
place around the world. While some see a link between the increase in temperature
and reduction in rainfall; there are many misconceptions in the community about
climate change such as the belief that it is Gods will or that poverty has created
climate change.
We dont know what is causing these problems; perhaps the world is coming to an
end.
Eunice, Hluhluwe Advent Crche
In terms of adaptation, responses show that participants and the larger community
have few, if any, long term sustainable adaptation measures in light of a changing
climate. Communities are instead trying to cope with their immediate needs rather
than employing longer term strategies. Unable to install rainwater tanks to collect
what little rainwater there is due to financial constraints, some participants walk long
distances to access water from collection points or rivers, which at times are not
reliable. In many cases participants reduce the amount of land they cultivate and the
diversity of crops, and practice soil and water conservation, in addition to migrating
for paid work to earn cash income to buy food. Other forms of cash income include
mat weaving, wood carving, beading and selling sweets but these raise little income
due to the lack of markets to sell these goods.
We have changed what we plant and the amount we plant. Now we have door sized
gardens, using rubbish to add nutrients to the soil.
Thandi, Hluhluwe Advent Crche
Communities would like more help from local government in the areas of adaptation
strategies and training around sustainable agriculture. They are concerned however
that local government is struggling to provide other essential services such as
treatment access for HIV and AIDS; so perhaps this would not be possible. The lack
of access to water is of considerable concern in all communities interviewed. They
believe that the installation of water pipes and taps is ad hoc, with many people still
unable to access water even where pipes are provided. In general most communities
utilitise internal resources for help and advice. This includes traditional leadership,
neighbours and informal community structures.
Community predictions for the future are largely negative. Communities feel that
increasing conflict over natural resources coupled with ineffective governance will
lead to more negative outcomes for the people and environment as a whole. There is
also the belief that the land will be further degraded, with less land available for
homes and grazing for animals. Population growth is also seen as putting further
strain on depleting resources leading to further inability to cope with climate changes.
People need more knowledge about how to look after the land so that they can
survive.
Givenson, Ophondweni Youth Development Initiative
Community map
One community map was undertaken as part of the research. It highlights the main
issues facing the town of Ingwavuma which include; lack of access to water,
decreasing rainfall and rainfall variability. A lack of access to water impacts on
household ability to grow food, as well as water for consumption, cleaning and
bathing. The community in response is more dependant on income to buy food which
forces many to work away from home for long periods of time, leaving families behind
to cope. The increasing prevalence of HIV is one result of this. Reduced rainfall
means many have to walk long distances to collect water. This is usually the
responsibility of children who, as a result, do not attend school in order to complete
this task. Some even sleep by the river due to the long distances they need to travel
making them more vulnerable to sexual assault or violence. Non-attendance at
school has many implications for these children and their families.
Historical timeline
From the four timelines completed a number of trends can be identified which
substantiate the findings from both the focus groups, interview and community map.
They demonstrate that the climate is becoming drier and that drought is a constant in
communities lives. This is identified across three communities and all timelines. Lack
of water is also identified in all timelines which is impacting on the quality and
quantity of crops. Health impacts such as disease from contaminated water are
identified in two of the timelines as a result of the drought, as is the inability to plough
sufficient land to grow food. This is linked to poverty in one of the timelines. An
example of one of the timelines is seen below. It was completed by members of the
Hluhluwe community (4 female, 1 male);
Effect: EXCESS
POVERTY- DROUGHT AND POVERTY
FOOD
WHITE MAN NO ROAD-
COULD STARVATION
DELIVERS NEEDED
BE INCREASING
MAIZE TO STORED
SWIM SHORTAGE
ACROSS LACK OF
WILD OF MILK
RIVER WATER
BERRIES FROM COWS
AND DUE TO LACK
FRUIT OF RAIN AND
GRASS
The problem tree analysis began with the whole group identifying the main problems
affecting their area which were;
1. Heat and humidity leading to loss of crops
2. Lack of access to water and long distances travelled to collect water
3. Poverty
4. Drought impacting on food security
5. Birds eating crops
6. Lack of money to grow gardens and irrigate well
7. Insect invasions in summer
8. Changing seasons with winter warmer and rains more erratic.
From the problems identified by the larger, three smaller groups were formed and
asked to choose one of the problems and represent it visually in the form of a
problem tree, looking at causes and effects of that particular problem.
Group1- This group consisted of three people (2 female, 1 male) who chose the
issue of drought. They identified that a lack of rainfall and the geographical location
and topography were main causes of drought. The effect of drought included; food
shortages, death of livestock, sickness and disease, poor family support such as
schooling, cleanliness and wellbeing, higher child mortality, and a lack of
employment opportunities.
Group 2- This group consisted of three people (2 female, 1 male) who also chose the
issue of drought. They looked at the problem tree in a metaphoric way choosing to
describe what drought would feel like if you were a tree. They identified drought as
making the tree lose its leaves, its fruit dying from insufficient nutrients, and the
whole decay of the tree. This would also affect the rest of the environment.
43
Available at: www.fao.org/ag/agL/AGLW/aquastat/damsafrica/30largestcapacitydams060908.xls
44
http://www.undp.org/gef/adaptation/dev/02a.htm
5.5 Challenges
In undertaking this research there was a number of challenges.
The region where the research took place is spread out over a large
geographic area which meant that travelling between each community took
time. This reduced the amount of time we were able to spend in each
community collecting information.
The main language in the area is isiZulu. Many most participants were unable
to communicate in English which meant that we either had to make use of a
local interpreter, or try to communicate as best as we could in English. As we
did not employ the services of an interpreter who was familiarised with the
subject matter this meant that at times we were unable to communicate the
specifics of the research very well. As a result some of the group discussions
were not as rich or natural in flow as they could have been and as such,
information was lost.
The subject was difficult for many participants to engage with immediately. In
hindsight it would have been more useful to spend more time in communities
to engage them in a number of PLA techniques to gain a better understanding
of their experiences.
6. Conclusion
The research shows that communities believe climate change is occurring in the
UMKhanyakude District and they feel particularly vulnerable to its impacts. It must be
stressed that the observations and comments given by participants are based on
observed changes over time, rather than just climate variability.
45
Ehrhart, E, & Twena, M. Climate change and poverty in Mozambique: realities and responses for
CARE (CARE International, 2006)
7. Recommendations
7.1 The program
Findings of the research should be incorporated into the ongoing design and
implementation of the program to address issues identified by the communities
Analysis of current approaches to sustainable agriculture should be undertaken in
light of the changing climate in order to assess the effectiveness of current and
future food security interventions
Closer links should be established and maintained with government agencies to
address infrastructure development that reduces community vulnerability to
climate change (e.g. access to water).
Publications
Barnett, J. The challenges of adapting to climate change in Oceania. Pacific Ecologist. Issue 1 (March
2002)
Christian Aid, The climate of poverty: facts, fears and hope (Christian Aid, 2006)
Ehrhart, E, & Twena, M. Climate change and poverty in Mozambique: realities and responses for CARE
(CARE International, 2006)
IPCC, Climate change 2001: Technical Summary (IPCC Secretariat, Geneva, 2001)
IPCC, Climate change 2007: The Physical science basis (IPCC Secretariat, Geneva, 2007)
Lane, J., Sagar, A., & Schneider, S. Equity in climate change. Tiempo, Issue 55 (April 2005)
LEG (Least Developed Countries Expert Group) (2002) Annotated guidelines for the
preparation of national adaptation programmes of action. UNFCCC
Leichenko R.M. and OBrien K.L., The dynamics of rural vulnerability to global change: the case of
southern Africa (Rutgers University, New Jersey, 2001)
Nelson, D.I. Land degradation and climate change in South Africa. The Geographical Journal. Volume
169, (2003)
OCAA, Disaster Risk Reduction Handbook (OCAA, Melbourne, 2005)
WHO, Climate change and human health: risks and responses (WHO, Geneva, 2003)
Available at: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2003/9241590815.pdf
Websites
Foundation for the Peoples of the South Pacific International http://www.fspi.org.fj/programs.htm
Gender and Climate Change website http://www.gencc.interconnection.org/about.htm
Literature review- Climate change in southern Africa. Charlotte Sterrett, February 2006
Participatory Rural Appraisal of ward 3 of Jozini municipality. Mavis Nyakurimwa, June 2006
Focus groups and semi-structured interview- Five focus groups took place in five locations. The total
number of participants was 17 (15 female, 2 male). The ages of participants ranged from 20-65 years.
One interview took place with Ubombo Drop-in Centre. The interviewee was a male aged 40.
1. As a (man/ woman/ young person/older person) what, if any, is your role in the community
in managing the land, and how has this changed over time?
The one interview participant came from an agricultural background with relatives owning
around 30-35 cattle until about 15 years ago. The land was seen as important to his family as
they rely on it for growing a variety of crops such as maize, butternut pumpkin, beans, spinach,
beetroot and cabbage. He also stated that community groups also manage certain land as part
of the tribal council
The majority of participants had direct roles in managing the land. Examples of this are; looking
after a household garden such as planting, weeding and cultivating.
The types of crops grown included maize, cabbages, beetroot, spinach, carrots, onions,
potatoes.
2. In the time you have lived here have you noticed any changes in the land?
The one interview participant stated that the climate in Jozini had become hotter in recent
years and that the type of heat is different. He also noted that the seasons had changed with a
shorter rainy season and less overall rain
This participant also noted that maize production had decreased significantly and to the point
were no surpluses where available for storage
Participants saw many changes in the land such as the increasing destruction of the forest
through collection of wood for building of homes, fences and firewood. Soil was noted to be
more fertile in areas where there were more trees
A change in the seasons was also identified in all locations where winter was seen to be
warmer than the past and summer hotter. The length of seasons has also changed. Whereas
20 years ago the rainy season used to start in September and last until January, it but now it
doesnt start until November and rains more erratically
Summer rains were seen to be more erratic making water more difficult to find underground.
The lack of rain has meant that less land has been cultivated than in the past
A number of participants also noted that there was an increasing incidence of drought. This
has left many without access to sufficient clean water and increasing distances travelled to
collect it. In certain areas rivers and streams have dried up and no longer exist
In terms of crop production many noted that crops are not as productive in recent years. In
Hluhluwe one participant who had lived in there his entire life stated that traditionally, there
would enough food grown throughout the seasons to last and be stored in the months when
food was scarce, but that this was not longer possible
In terms of soil quality a number of participants said that the soil now needs to be irrigated in
order for the crops to grow and that overall its quality had diminished. Soil erosion was also
mentioned as an increasing problem. In some places, the rich topsoil has been washed away
leaving he subsoil that is not fertile. In addition gullies have been formed in certain areas.
5. If you need help or advice with the land, where do you get this from?
The one interview participant stated that while the government was responsible for the
installation of water taps and pipes, the provision of this was poor and ad hoc in nature, and
that the quality and quantity of water was unreliable. Participants in all locations spoke about
the lack of help offered by the local government and a lack of faith in their ability to be able to
help
Many participants mentioned that when they needed help they sought this from their
neighbours or others they knew in the local community
A number of participants said that they sought help through traditional structures such as the
traditional leadership within their community
In Ophondweni participants said that they had received advice from the Department of
Agriculture, but that the local government did not have the capacity to undertake the work
required.
7. What would you like to see happen in the future to make your life better?
The one interview participant found that it was hard to predict what would happen in the future
but would like to see civil society and government organisations working together more closely
towards better quality solutions. He also wanted to see communities vulnerability reduced
through better access to water, electricity and increased knowledge of the issues. This also
included the need for better training in how to farm sustainably and linking with other
communities. There should also be increased investment in the practical application of
addressing the issues and not just investment in theoretical options.
Participants at Ithembalesizwe expressed the need for agricultural field workers to train and
teach people in the community to plant, use the soil and conserve water. They also wanted to
see other professionals come and give advice on the best places to build homes in light of
climate change. They also thought that more planning was required at all levels of government
to avoid any future destruction of the environment
At Hluhluwe participants expressed the need for increased access to water through the
provision of water pipes. Currently their only means of water supply is through rain water tanks
and because of the drought they havent been able to collect enough water, relying on water
being delivered by truck. They also hoped for the rain to return in the future and for things to be
like they used to be when there was enough water for everyone to grow their own food and
provide for their families
At Ophondweni participants wanted to see greater access for people to land, which would
require new legislation to allow this. They also wanted to see greater mobilisation and training
around what people could do with this land in terms of income generation or subsistence
agriculture
Community map- One community map was completed by 19 participants from Hot Girls Fancy Stitch
in Ingwavuma. The ages of participants ranged from 20-70 years. The map detailed the layout of the
town. The group began first by drawing the road that leads in and out of town and used this as a basis to
show the layout of shops, industrial buildings, school, church and hospital. The next step was to draw
where the river and streams were located and where water was collected. People then drew in their
household gardens as well as community gardens and commercial grazing lands. Of particular interest
was the discussion that took place about where the river was located. This arose due to the fact that the
river had become dry in certain locations. Water collections points were also discussed in detail. There
appeared to be over four points for collection of water; either natural springs or bore water. Some of
these had become unreliable in recent years. Pictures of two sections of the map can be found below.
Historical timeline- Four historical timelines were completed with four groups in three locations. The
total number of participants was 17 (16 female, 1 male). The ages of participants ranged from 20-84
years.
An example of one of the timelines is seen below. It was completed by members of the Hluhluwe
community (4 female, 1 male);
Effect: EXCESS
POVERTY- DROUGHT AND POVERTY
FOOD
WHITE MAN NO ROAD-
COULD STARVATION
DELIVERS NEEDED
BE INCREASING
MAIZE TO STORED
SWIM SHORTAGE
ACROSS LACK OF
WILD OF MILK
RIVER WATER
BERRIES FROM COWS
AND DUE TO LACK
FRUIT OF RAIN AND
GRASS
From this diagram certain trends are taking place over the past 50 years. While there was drought some
time in the 1950s, this was then followed by a flood that caused significant flooding in the area. The lake
The second timeline was completed by a grandmother from Hluhluwe aged 84 years. She has lived in
the area for the past 20 years. Her timeline shows that when she first arrived (early 1980s) that there
was plenty of water and natural fruit to eat such as bananas and mangoes. This has diminished over the
years so that in the early 2000s she stated that water frequently runs out and has to be delivered by
truck. She also notes that vegetables die more easily, as do more established plants.
The third timeline was completed by the Ithembalesizwe grandmothers group. The group consisted of
six women aged 60-85 years who have lived in the area for over 20 years. Since this time they have
noted one flood where many houses were destroyed, cattle were drowned, and people died. There was
also much soil erosion. In the 1990s they described the onset of a long term drought and an increase in
orphans. They also said that they are unable to plough their lands most recently due to the lack of water
which has inturn increased poverty in the area. People have also fallen sick from contaminated water
and crops have died.
The final timeline was completed by five young women from Ubombo in Jozini aged between 20-30
years. Their first recording in 1984 was of a large flood that caused houses to be destroyed and people
to be drowned. This was followed in 1993 by a cyclone that again destroyed homes and killed people. In
1999 there were again floods which destroyed homes. 2002 saw the onset of drought which is ongoing
and has increased diseases and contributed to the loss of stock from starvation.
5.1.4 Problem tree- Three problems trees were completed by three groups in one location;
Sibambisene, Mkuze. The total number of participants was 9 (7 female, 2 male). The ages of
participants ranged from 20-45 years.
The problem tree analysis began with the whole group identify some of the main problems affecting their
area. The following problems were identified;
Heat and humidity leading to loss of crops
Lack of access to water and long distances travelled to collect water
Poverty
Drought impacting on food security
Birds eating crops
Lack of money to grow gardens and irrigate well
Insect invasions in summer
Changing seasons with winter warmer and rains more erratic.
From these identified problems the group was divided into three smaller ones and asked to pick one of
the problems and represent it visually in the form of a problem tree, looking at causes and effects of that
particular problem.
Group 1- This group consisted of three people (2 female, 1 male) who chose the issue of drought. They
identified that a lack of rainfall and the geographical location and topography were main causes of
drought. The effect of drought included; food shortages, death of livestock, sickness and disease, poor
family support such as schooling, cleanliness and wellbeing, higher child mortality, and a lack of
employment opportunities.
Group 2- This group consisted of three people (2 female, 1 male) who also chose the issue of drought.
They looked at the problem tree in a metaphoric way choosing to describe what drought would feel like if
you were a tree. They identified drought as making the tree lose its leaves, its fruit dying from insufficient
nutrients, and the whole decay of the tree. This would also affect the rest of the environment.
Group 3- This group consisted of three people (3 female) who chose the issue of heat and humidity.
This group found it extremely difficult to identify the causes of this so concentrated more on the effects.
The major effects they identified included; loss of crops through heat stress, limited harvest or no
harvests at all, lack of water in catchments or rivers, heat stress, and death of people and livestock.
Interview Questions
Background information
3. How important is the land to you and your family? Do you use it to grow food?
4. As a (man/ woman/ young person/older person) what, if any, is your role in the community in
managing the land, and how has this changed over time?
Identification of changes
5. What was the land like 20 years ago/10 year ago? Is this different from now?
OR
5. In the time you have lived in here have you noticed any changes in the land? (Changes in weather,
water, soil quality, seasons, natural resources etc)
7. How have some of the changes you mentioned affected you and your family?
8. What have you done differently to cope with changes in the land?
9. If you need help or advice with the land, where do you get this from?
Future
11. What do you see happening in the future with the land?
12. What would you like to see happen in the future to make your life better?
Interviews should last 45mins to 1 hour. Not all questions may be relevant to each
participant/community.
Background information
1. As a (man/ woman/ young person/older person) what, if any, is your role in the community in
managing the land, and how has this changed over time?
Identification of changes
2. In the time you have lived in here have you noticed any changes in the land? (Changes in weather,
water, soil quality, seasons, natural resources etc)
4. What have you done differently to cope with changes in the land?
5. If you need help or advice with the land, where do you get this from?
Future
7. What would you like to see happen in the future to make your life better?
The aim of these questions is to draw out broad information from the groups on their understandings
and experiences of climate change and how they have adapted/coped. Each focus group discussion
should last 1 1.5 hours.