SQL - Handout

INTRODUCTION
A query language is the language through which users get information from the da
tabase. These languages are typically of a higher level than the traditional pro
gramming languages. The query languages can be categorized as procedural or non-
procedural. In a procedural language, the user must "teach" the system to perfor
m a sequence of operations on the database to obtain the desired result. In a no
n-procedural language, the user describes the desired information without provid
ing a specific procedure for obtaining this information. Systems of commercial d
atabases offer a query language that incorporates elements of both approaches: p
rocedural and non-procedural. Languages "pure": the relational algebra is proced
ural, while the relational calculus and tuple relational calculus in a domain ar
e non-procedural. These query languages are concise and formal, without "syntact
ic sugar" of commercial languages, but illustrate the fundamental techniques for
extracting data from the database.
LANGUAGE SQL
The name "SQL" stands for "Structured Query Language" - Structured Language Rese
arch. This language, of great use, had its foundations in the relational model o
f Codd (1970). Its first version was called SEQUEL (Structured Query Language Po
rtuguês), defined by D. D. Chamberlin, among others, in 1974, the research labor
atories of IBM (California). In 1975, we implemented a prototype application of
this new language. Between 1976 and 1977, the sequel has been revised and expand
ed, and had its name changed to "SQL" for legal reasons. This review was put in
place an ambitious project called the IBM System R. New changes were introduced
in SQL, thanks to the ideas presented by the various users of the environment. D
ue to the success of this new way of consulting and data manipulation within a d
atabase environment, the use of SQL is becoming greater. With that a lot of DBMS
was having as the basic language SQL - SQL / DS and IBM's DB2, ORACLE, Oracle C
orporation, Digital's RDB, SYBASE INC, Sybase, and Microsoft ® SQL Server ™ and
others. The SQL has become a de facto standard in the world of environments rela
tional database. Just now become law. Then in 1982, the American National Standa
rds Institute (ANSI) has a standard SQL official language in relational environm
ent. Unfortunately, like any standard that I value, today there are several SQL
dialects, each obviously trying to be more standardized than the other. The rela
tional model is basically composed of tables, each containing rows (records, tup
les) and columns. The records in the table are not ordered and their location is
by means of a key field, ie a field that takes the role of primary key of the t
able. It is through this key that identifies one, and only one occurrence of the
value contained in the field. One reason for the popularity of relational syste
ms is its ease of handling and understanding. The SQL language was especially de
veloped for the relational environment, and can be adapted to any non-relational
environment.
The original idea of SQL only provided its use interactively. After suffering a
few extras, she also began to be able to be used in host languages such as COBOL
, FORTRAN, "C", etc.. Currently, SQL takes a very important role in systems mana
gement database, which may take many approaches, as the figure shows: • An inter
active query language (query AdHoc) - Using SQL commands, users can build querie
s powerful without the need of creating a program and may use Forms or assembly
tools report; • Programming language to access the database - SQL commands embed
ded in application programs that access data stored; • Language database adminis
tration Data - 0 responsible for administering the database (DBA) can use SQL co
mmands to accomplish their tasks; • Language client / server - The programs (cus
tomer) of personal computers use SQL commands to communicate through a local net
work, sharing the data stored in one location (server). The client / server arch
itecture minimizes data traffic over the network; • Language for distributed dat
abase - SQL assists in the distribution of data through multiple nodes connected
to the computer system. Also assists in data communication with other systems;€
• Way to access other databases on different machines - SQL helps to convert bet
ween different database products placed on different machines (from micro to mai
nframe). Why be a language of many applications, SQL can handle objects of diffe
rent classes among the functions of a DBMS:
• Data Definition (DDL) - allows the user to define the structure and organizati
on of stored data, and the relationships that exist between them; • Data manipul
ation (DML) - allows the user or an application program, inclusion, removal, sel
ecting or updating data previously stored in the bank; • Access Control - protec
ts data from unauthorized manipulations; • Data Sharing - coordinates data shari
ng by concurrent users, without interfering in the action of each; • Data Integr
ity - assists in the process of definition of data integrity, protecting against
corruption, inconsistencies and failures of the computing system
.
Advantages and Disadvantages of SQL
With the use and standardization of SQL, some advantages are straightforward: •
Independence Manufacturer - SQL is offered in almost all DBMS's, and those who d
o not yet have are flocking to it. With that I can change DBMS without worrying
about the new that will come; • Portability between computers - SQL can be used
from a personal computer via a workstation to a mainframe computer; • Reduced co
sts Training - Based in the previous section, applications can move from one env
ironment to another without requiring retraining of staff development • high-lev
el structured English - SQL is formed by a set of simple sentences in English, o
ffering a quick and easy to understand; • Interactive Query - SQL provides quick
access to data, providing answers to the user, the complex issues in minutes or
seconds;
• Multiple views of data - SQL allows the creator of the database take different
views of data to different users; • Definition of dynamic data - Through SQL, o
ne can alter, expand or add dynamically the data structures stored with maximum
flexibility; Despite all these advantages, some criticisms are addressed to the
SQL:
• Standardization leads to a natural, inhibition of creativity, because anyone w
ho develops applications are caught in standard solutions and can not undergo im
provements or changes;
Even facing some problems and criticisms, the SQL language is here to stay, help
ing quite deeply the lives of users and analysts at work to manipulate the data
stored in a relational database. And it is about the aid that we treat, showing
features of SQL commands and, through practical examples. We will not show all t
he commands, especially those developed for use in a host language (cursor) will
present the commands to create, update, change, exploration and removal of tabl
es within a relational environment typical.
Tables for the data model;
VISION GRAPHICS OF REQUEST