About Nanotechnology

Imagine being able to observe the motion of a red blood cell as it moves through your vein, or being
able to watch as a type of white blood cell (called a "T-cell") destroys an invading microbe by
engulfing it. What would it be like to observe the vibration of molecules as the temperature rises in
a pan of water? To observe sodium and chlorine atoms as they get close enough to actually transfer
electrons and form a salt crystal? New scientific tools, developed and improved over the last few
decades, make such observations increasingly feasible. These are examples of the effort to view,
measure and even manipulate materials at the molecular or atomic scale - the major focus of
nanotechnology.

The prefix "nano" comes from a Greek word, , that means "dwarf". This prefix is used in the
International System of Units (SI) to denote a factor of 10 9. If we have the "nano" prefix attached
to a meter (m) then 1 nm (nanometer) = 109 meter (one billinoth of a meter, according to the "short
scale" definition of a billion used in English-speaking countries). If the prefix is attached to a
second (sec) then 1 ns =109 second (1 biilionth of a second).

Most quantities involving "nano" are considered "very small."

Individual atoms are smaller than 1 nm (1 nanometer) in diameter. It takes about 10 hydrogen atoms
arranged in a row to create a line 1 nm in length. Other atoms are larger than hydrogen, but still
have diameters less than 1 nm. A typical virus is about 100 nm in diameter and a bacterium is about
1000 nm head to tail.
The tools that have allowed us to observe the previously invisible world of the nanoscale objects
include special sophisticated microscopes such as the Atomic Force Microscope and the Scanning
Tunneling Microscope.

Three dimensional view of an AFM image of a Aluminum gate single-wall Carbon nanotube
(SWCNT) Field Effect Transistor (FET).
Image source: MSU Nanomanufacturing Lab
Meet Professionals

The answer is...Yes! Nanotechnology also involves biology, several disciplines of engineering,
material science, and medicine. Anywhere molecules and atoms are concerned, nanotechnology can
potentially play a role.

When the terms "nanoscience" and "nanotechnology" first appeared, there was a tendency to treat
them as a separate scientific discipline or as a new industry. Most practitioners nowadays tend to
view nanoscience and nanotechnology as interrelated with other disciplines. Thus, observational
tools that image the nano world (like the Atomic Force Microscope) can be applied in several
scientific areas, and researchers of different backgrounds and aims are using those tools routinely to
answer questions about the material and biological world around us.

For centuries researchers have known that properties of materials, such as hardness, electrical
conductivity, elasticity and adhesion are (or are likely to be) dependent on the atomic or crystalline
structure of these material. Using information from the Periodic Table of the Elements we could
infer atomic bonding and crystal structure, and use these to explain the characteristics of different
materials and solutions. What we could not do in the past (but can increasingly do nowadays) was
to observe those materials at the molecular or atomic level and test our assumptions and hypotheses
directly.

Nanotechnology thus helps us understand better the mechanisms behind many phenomena that were
studied earlier in the fields of chemistry, physics and biology. For example, chemists have been
creating solutions, suspensions and colloids for hundreds of years. However, they were not able to
actually measure and observe the particles or mixtures that they were creating at the molecular
level. Now, by being able to measure and view these products at the nanoscale, chemists can more
accurately verify performance predictions and understand better the chemical interaction processes.

Is it Physics?

Much of the widely studied field of classical mechanics (which is part of classical physics)
describes the motion of physical objects that are measurable and observable by the naked eye (these
are known as being on the macroscopic scale). An important sub-filed of classical mechanics is the
science of mechanics, which studies the physical laws governing the motion of bodies and systems
of bodies. An example of a problem addressed through mechanics is prediction of the trajectory of a
baseball which was released under some known initial conditions (such as position, speed, direction
and spin). While understanding of motion at the macroscopic scale often provides insight toward
analyzing motion on other scales, other mechanisms and rules may have to be considered at the
nanoscale.

Visualization of human keratinocyte cell line HaCaT cells and the cell junction by AFM. Three-
dimensional view showing the height of the cell.
Image Source: MSU Nano Manufacturing Lab

Consider for example, the interaction between a moving bowling ball and a stationary (and smaller)
billiard ball. One way to analyze this interaction is through the study of momentum in this system of
objects. The momentum of an object (more precisely its linear momentum) is the product of the
mass and velocity of the object. The principle of conservation of momentum is that the total
momentum of any group of objects (the two balls in our example) remains the same unless outside
forces act on the objects. In our example, with no external forces) the consequence is that the
smaller billiard ball will speed away from the bowling ball after the collision, and the bowling ball
will continue on its path at a slightly slower pace.

Suppose now that instead of a bowling ball rolling along, we follow a red blood cell traveling
through the blood stream. Instead of the billiard ball, imagine a drug coated nanoparticle made up of
several hundred gold atoms. Can we calculate the path of the cell and the nonoparticle after they
collide using the same approach we used with teh bowling and billiard balls, or should we take into
account other mechanisms such as the viscosity of the blood? Is it possible that the interaction
between the much larger red blood cell and the small nano particle may convey sufficient energy to
the nanoparticle so that the bonding force between its atoms would be overcome and the
nanoparticle would fall apart? At the present time the answer to such questions is not always fully
known, and such scenarios are studied by nanoscience researchers and practitioners.

Nanoscientists are asking questions like, "How do 100 atoms behave differently than 100,000?" or
"How does friction work at the nanoscale? Or "Can we weigh proteins and viruses?" Finding the
answers to these questions and others requires knowledge of chemistry, physics, engineering and
materials science. Most importantly, the information and knowledge required to answer these
questions does not come for only one or two disciplines - it requires a combination of knowledge,
investigative and experiments skills from all of the disciplines. In the nanoscience research and
product development arena many of the understanding and discoveries is coming about because of
the interaction and synergistic efforts of multi-disciplinary teams.

This image was obtained using a Scanning Electron Microscope. It shows gold nanoparticles of
various sizes and shapes. Note that individual atoms of gold can be seen as well as the boundaries
between different crystal organizational regions of the nano particles. These boundary regions may
prove important in understanding the strength of the nano particle.

As implied above, we have a good understanding of how many things work and interact at the
macro or micro scale but the understanding is less clear when we start observing the interaction of
individual molecules or atoms. This is especially true, and even more so for biological systems.
Although answers are being found daily, we do not know the exact interaction mechanism for a
drug and various proteins, or how the ion channels in cell membranes "decides' whether to open or
close.
The foundational cause of most diseases is fundamentally unknown. This is where the tools of
nanotechnology enter into the picture. Researchers are using the tools of nanoscience; AFMs,
SEMS, TEMS and so on to understand at the molecular level how biological systems work.
The image to the right shows the hairs inside the ear of turtle. By taking images like this we can
begin to understand the chemical, electrical and physical operation of very small, complex
biological systems.
The bundle in this hair cell is a pyramidal structure composed of sterocilia, which are connected by
tip links. When the bundle is displaced, the tip links get stretched and pull open the transduction
channels, thereby generating an electrical signal due to positively charged ions. Myosin motor
proteins attached to the channels may be involved in active amplification.

Using nanoscience tools such as a nano mechanical indenter, researchers are studying the interface
between the sponge-like dentin region and the hard enamel portion of a tooth. This understanding
will lead to better dental care, treatment and protection materials.

As researchers begin to understand the molecular level operation of biological systems we can then
begin to replicate those systems using tools and methods of chemistry, physics, materials science,
and engineering.

Nanoscale Properties

Properties of materials at the nanoscale are different in many cases from the properties of materials
observed in other scales.
Consider, for example, the melting point of metals. Nanoparticles often exhibit a lower melting
point than the corresponding metals in bulk, and these melting points depends on size. For example,
bulk Gold melts at 1064 degrees Celsius, but a 4nm Gold particle melts at roughly 850 degrees
Celsius.

This image illustrates how surface area increases as the size is reduced. Image Credit: NASA Ames
Center for Nanotechnology

In semiconductors such as Silicon, the band gap changes with the size. The band gap is the energy
needed to move an electron from the valence band to the conductance band. This property
distinguishes various semiconductors such as Silicon, Germanium and Gallium Arsenide on their
electron transport characteristics and field of applicability. The band gaps of these three materials
are 1.12, 0.67 and 1.42 electron volts (eV) respectively in bulk form. Studies show that the bandgap
increases when these materials are made in the form of very small nanowires or nanoparticles. (A
nanowire is a wire-like structure with diameter of the order of a nanometer). For example, a silicon
nanowire with diameter of 1.3 nm exhibits a very wide band gap of 3.5 eV.
The color of a material can also be size dependent. The appearance of color is caused by the partial
absorption of light by electrons in that material; the unabsorbed part of the light remains visible.

Two-light window from a Gothic Revival church in Sydney, Australia exhibits red color because of
doping with gold Nanoparticles.

On most smooth metal surfaces, light is entirely reflected by the very high density of electrons; this
is why the surfaces of slabs of metal have mirror-like appearance. In contrast, small particles absorb
some of the light, leading to the appearance of color. This property depends on size.

For example, Gold exhibits a different color depending on its particle size. Extremely tiny particles
of Gold have been used to color glasses since the very early days of glass making. Ruby vases (with
color that is pink to blood-red) were made using finely dispersed Gold particles for centuries.

Chinese Ruby color pottery using gold particles.

Image Credit: NASA Ames Center for Nanotechnology
Nanosystems are not large enough for many classical laws of physics to apply. For example, Ohm's
law, which describes the relation between current and voltage in a conductor, does not describe
current conduction through a tiny nanowire. Here other effects, known as quantum mechanical
effects are more important.

History of Nanotechnology

As is the case with many other disciplines, applications of nanotechnology (for example, in making
steel and creating paintings) were in use centuries before the field was formally defined. Early
contributors to the field include James Clek Maxwell (Scottish physicist and mathematician, 1831-
1879) and Richard Adolf Zsigmondy (Austrian-German chemist, 1865-1929). Zsigmondy studied
colloids (chemical mixtures where one substance is dispersed evenly throughout another) and
looked at gold sols and other nanomaterials. Other important contributors in the first half of the
20th century include Irvin Langmuir (American chemist and physicist, 1881-1957) and Katherine
B. Blodgett (American physicist, 1898-1910), the first woman to get her Ph.D. studying Physics at
the University of Cambridge.
The earliest systematic discussion of nanotechnology is considered to be a speech given by Richard
Feynman (American physicist, 1918-1988) in 1959. It was titled: "There's Plenty of Room at the
Bottom." In this speech Feynman discussed the importance "of manipulating and controlling things
on a small scale" and how they could "tell us much of great interest about the strange phenomena
that occur in complex situations." He described how physical phenomena change their manifestaion
depending on scale, and posed two challenges: the creation of a nanaomotor, and the scaling down
of letters to the size that would allow the whole Encyclopedia Britannica to fit on the head of a pin.
The term 'nanotechnology' was used first by the Japanese scientists Norio Taniguchi (1912-1999)
in a 1974 paper on production technology that creates objects and features on the order of a
nanometer. The American engineer K. Eric Drexler (b. 1955) is credited with the development of
molecular nanotechnology, leading to nanosystems machinery manufacturing.
The invention of scanning tunneling microscope in the 1980s by IBM Zurich scientists and then the
atomic force microscope allowed scientists to see materials at an unprecedented atomic level. The
availability of more and more powerful computers around this time enabled large scale simulations
of material systems using supercomputers. These studies provided insight into nanoscale material
structures and their properties. The complementary activities of modeling and simulation, atomic
scale visualization and characterization, and experimental synthesis activities fueled nanoscale
research activities in the 1980s.

Scanning electron microscopy of polygonized nanotube.

Image Credit: Svetlana Dimovski,
Drexel University

Significant progress was obtained by IBM in 1990 when a team of physicists had spelled out the
letters "IBM" using 35 individual atoms of xenon. Another breakthrough came in 1985 with the
discovery of new shapes for molecules of carbon, known as the buckyball, which are round and
consist of 60 carbon atoms. This led to the discovery of a related molecular shape known as the
carbon nanotube in 1991. Carbon nanotubes are still one of the most promising areas of
nanotechnology as they are about 100 times stronger than steel but just a sixth of the weight; they
have unusual heat and conductivity characteristics. In parallel, studies of semiconductor
nanocrystals led to the development of quantum dots, whose properties are between those of bulk
semiconductors and discrete molecules.

In 1990, at IBM's Almaden Research Center in San Jose, in a small lab packed with high-tech
equipment in the hills of Silicon Valley, IBM Fellow Don Eigler achieved a landmark in mankind's
ability to build small structures. On September 29, 1989 he demonstrated the ability to manipulate
individual atoms with atomic-scale precision, and went on to write I-B-M with individual Xenon
atoms, an event likened to the Wright brothers' first flight at Kitty Hawk.

In the late 1990s and early 2000s almost all industrialized nations created nanotechnology
initiatives, leading to a worldwide proliferation of nanotechnology activities. In the U.S., the Office
of Science and Technology Policy (OSTP) established an Interagency Working Group on
Nanotechnology (IWGN) consisting of representatives from various government agencies including
the U.S. Air Force, the U.S. Navy and NASA. The IWGN, working with academia and industry,
created the U.S. National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI). Canadian institutions include the
National Institute of Nanotechnology (NINT) in Alberta, five (5) research institutes of the National
Research Council in Ontario and the NanoQuebec consortium.

Model of water inside a carbon nanotube.

Image Credit: Henry Ye, Drexel University

Activities in France include the the SCS cluster in Sophia Antipolis, the Systematic cluster in the
Paris region, and the global micro-nanotechnology cluster Minalogic in Grenoble. Among the
initiatives in Germany is the German Government's Nano-initiative, which includes NanoMobil (for
the automobile industry); NanoLux (for the optical industry); NanoFab (for the electronics
industry); Nano for Life (for life science industries); and Nano in Production (for nano materials
production). Activities in Japan have been led by MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology) and METI (Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry). Among their
many projects is the creation of the Nanotechnology Researchers Network. The network provides
support to nanotechnology research of universities and private organizations, by making advanced
and large-scale equipment owned by public organizations and certain universities -- such as high-
voltage electron microscopes and nanofabrication facilities -- available for use by general
researchers throughout Japan. The major focus of research across the world continues to be research
on nanoscale properties, synthesis of materials and characterization, and application development to
create useful devices and processes and reap economic benefits. There is growing recognition of
the importance of educating future scientists and engineers about this emerging field, as well as
address safety and health aspects of nanomaterials.

The Future of Nanotechnology

The future of nanotechnology has been a subject of many scientific and nonscientific speculations,
including several doomsday visions in popular culture that predicted self-replicating nano particles
taking part in massive assaults on humanity and the environment. An example of such scenario is
given in Michael Crichton popular novel Prey, where "grey goo" self-replicates and overwhelms the
world... Dire predictions have accompanied many new technologies at their infancy (for example
robotics in the 1940s and 1950s). The more futuristic visions of nanotechnology include on one
hand the envisioned use of nano-particles inside the body and the blood stream (for diagnostic and
therapeutic purposes), and on the other hand potential development of new weapons of mass
destruction enabled by nanotechnology.

Current products of nanotechnology are much more ordinary reinforced plastics for the body of
bicycles, stain-resistant clothes, better cosmetics and healthcare products, and tennis rackets
reinforced with carbon nanotubes.

Scanning electron microscopy of Silicon Carbide whiskers. Image Credit: Katya Vishnyakova
and Gleb Yushin, Drexel University

Some authors who discussed the future of nanotechnology differentiate between incremental
nanotechnology, evolutionary nanotechnology, and radical nanotechnology. Incremental
nanotechnology is represented, for example, by reinforcement of current materials by nano-scale
devices leading, as one application, to development of better paints. Evolutionary
nanotechnology involves more sophisticated tasks such as sensing and analysis of the environment
by nano-structures, and a role for nanotechnology in signal processing, medical imaging, and
energy conversion. Applications include targeted drug delivery and enhancement of components
such as transistors, solar cells, light emitting diodes, and diode lasers. Significant improvements in
the area of computing are expected from so-called evolutionary computing, allowing faster
processing, miniaturized architectures, and increased storage.
Many of the more daring visions of nanotechnology emerge from the original vision of Eric Drexler
in the late 1980s (Engines of Creation: The Coming Era of Nanotechnology). These anticipate the
development of complex structures for nano-scale fabrication, which employ tiny robots and
vehicles. Such conncepts have been criticized sometimes for their tendency to translate into the
nano-scale architectures and structures from other scales without paying enough attention to the
impact of scaling on the underlying physical laws these laws often are not manifested at the nano-
scale as they are in larger scales. Alternative approaches that were proposed include "taking a lead
from nature" replacing the previously envisioned hard components (e.g., nano levers and cogs)
by soft materials and importing into the field of nanotechnology biological principles observed in
cells and small organisms. Relevant ideas include the use of molecular motors that are
incorporated into artificial nanostructures, and miniaturization of existing microelectromechanical
systems (MEMS) into what has been dubbed nanoelectromechanical systems (NEMS).

An emerging field within nanotechnology is known as bionanotechnology, which is a synthetic

technology based on the principles and chemical pathways of living organisms. Bionanotechnology
looks for connections between molecular biology and nanotechnology guiding the development of
machinery at the nano-scale by the structure and function of natural nano-machines found in living
cells.

Scanning electron microscopy of wood-derived Silicon Carbide.

Image Credit: Katya Vishnyakova and
Gleb Yushin, Drexel University

As was the case with many new technologies, solid predictions of their course of developments are
difficult to make. If nanotechnology were to follow the paths of other new technologies (digital
communications, the Internet) the early predictions for the first ten years would tend to
overestimate the impact of the technology (much less is achieved compared to predictions); the
long-term prediction for the first 50-75 years would tend to underestimate that impact (much
more is achieved compared to predictions).

Social Implications

New technologies often have significant social and environmental implications, and these are not
always obvious at the inception of the technology. Consider, for example, how major inventions and
devices such as the telephone, the combustion engine, the DC motor, and the television have
changed the societies into which they were introduced. Not surprisingly, new technologies are often
accompanied by debates and controversies between the enthusiastic proponents who see economic
progress and improved performance, and the opponents who fear harm to the social fabric,
malicious uses of the new technology, and damage to the environment.

A key concern with nanotechnology is its potential toxicity. We found many bulk materials (lead,
asbestos) to be harmful to health -- what about nanoparticles and other nanostructures? The toxicity
of many nanoparticles and nanotubes are not yet characterized, and their adoption in commercial
products may be hampered by health concerns and the need for lengthy testing of their toxicity.

Visualization of the cell junction of human epithelial cells by AFM: High magnification image with
a scan size of 7 x 7 mm2 showing the detailed structure of cell junctions.
Image source: MSU Nano Manufacturing Lab

Scanning electron microscopy of Silicon Carbide ribbons.

Image Credit: Katya Vishnyakova and Gleb Yushin Drexel University
Many potential applications of nanotechnology have social implications. Enhanced computing and
sensing, for example, can be very useful objectives in the right hands they can improve human
welfare, and support healthcare, safety, information exchange, and entertainment. However, in the
wrong hands, these technologies also enable more effective surveillance and analysis of
communication that may be detrimental to freedom and human rights.

Deeper questions on nanotechnology involve the interaction between humans and nature, and the
boundaries between humans and machines. At one point, nanotechnology may provide us with tools
that affect the course of human lives by, say, providing "replacement parts" that increase human life
span by an order of magnitude. Do we understand the implications of such developments on the
organization of human societies? On the environment?