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0 TITLE
2.0 OBJECTIVE
To measure the drag coefficients of spheres over several decades of particle Reynolds
number.
3.0 INTRODUCTION
and other processing applications. This occurs, for example, in flow past
spheres in settling, flow through packed beds in drying and filtration, flow past
frictional losses and/or the force on the submerged objects in these various
applications.
shear stress or drag on the smooth surface parallel to the direction flow. This
force exerted by the fluid on the solid in the direction of flow is called skin or
wall drag. For any surface in contact with a flowing fluid, skin friction will
exist. In addition to skin friction, if the fluid is not flowing parallel to the
surface but must change directions to pass around a solid body such as a
sphere, significant additional frictional losses will occur and this is called form
drag.
1
3.1.1 Drag Coefficient
In treating fluid flow through pipes and channels, a friction factor, defined as
the ratio of the shear stress to the product of the velocity head and density, was
shown to be used. An analogous factor, called the drag coefficient, is used for
a distance from the solid boundary of the stream sufficient for the approaching
stream to be at a uniform velocity. Define the projected area of the solid body
AP
direction of flow. Denote the projected area by . For a sphere, the
FD
diameter. If is the total drag, the average drag per unit projected area is
FD/ Ap w
. Just as the friction factor f is defined as the ratio of to the
product of the density of the fluid and the velocity head, so the drag
CD FD/ Ap
coefficient is defined as the ratio of to this same product or
FD
Ap
CD
uO 2
2
u0
Where is the velocity of the approaching stream. For particles having
shapes other than spherical, it is necessary to specify the size and geometric
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form of the body and its orientation with respect to the direction of flow of the
fluid. One major dimension is chosen as the characteristic length, and the other
important dimensions are given as ratios to the chosen one. For cylinders the
the L/D ratio. The orientation between the particle and the stream is also
specified. For a cylinder, the angle formed by the axis of the cylinder and the
LD P
, where L is the length of the cylinder. For a cylinder with its axis
same diameter.
C D =(P )
G0 G p
P
u
D p=characteristiclength
Where
G0=u o
3
substantiated theoretical equation exists for smooth spheres at low Reynolds
the Mach number when the latter becomes greater than about 0.6. Coefficients
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4.0 APPARATUS
1. Glass tubes.
3. Knob
Glass tubes
Drain valves
Knob
Ball valves
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5.0 METHOD
of different viscosities (cooking oil and oil and another one is filled up with
detergent). detergent.
2. Mild steel sphere with diameter 3.175mm Start the experiment with diameter of
are dropped one at a time from the top of the 3.175mm by dropping it at one time from top
tubes and allowed to fall to the bottom. of the tubes and allowed to fall to bottom.
3. The passage between the 1m marks on the Time is recorded by watching at the passage
wall of the tubes being timed with a stop between 1m marks on the wall.
the base of the tubes, it is removed by turning tubes by rotating the knob at the bottom of
the valve through 180 by rotating the knob the glass tube, and then only open the ball
position.
6. Repeat the experiment for step 2 until 5 The experiment is repeated by changing the
with different dimension and material of the diameter size of the sphere and the material
6
6.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
RESULTS
Drag
coefficient Reynolds Viscosity
Object Length/diameter Mass Time taken (s)
Material CD No Re oil (kg/sm)
shape (mm) (kg) oil
1 2 3 Average
3.175 0.000142 3.50 3.50 3.60 3.53 4.2559 5.59 0.1460
5.000 0.000526 1.90 2.00 1.80 1.90 3.8893 2.97 0.8054
Mild steel 6.350 0.001050 1.40 1.50 1.40 1.43 1.2709 18.74 0.2152
8.000 0.002040 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 0.9338 25.70 0.2570
9.525 0.003530 0.95 0.95 0.98 0.96 0.8546 27.87 0.3233
Sphere
3.175 0.000142 3.81 3.84 3.59 3.75 4.8022 4.96 0.1551
5.000 0.000525 1.91 1.99 2.00 1.97 4.1811 2.76 0.8351
Stainless
6.350 0.001040 1.62 1.58 1.53 1.58 1.5345 15.52 0.2352
steel
8.000 0.002048 1.12 1.11 1.26 1.16 1.0443 22.98 0.2725
9.525 0.003527 1.08 0.99 0.99 1.02 0.9648 24.68 0.3435
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Fluid : Detergent
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Additional info : Oil
N N
s f 2 3
Material Weight (N) ( m3 ) ( m3 ) v (m/s) (Ns/ m ) V( m r (m)
8
0.0014 81599.35 8907.48 0.2833 0.1460 1.7157 10 0.0016
Mild steel 0.0103 75040.07 8907.48 0.6993 0.2152 1.3726 107 0.0032
g/W
/Mg
V
s=
V
1m
v=
T
9
4
V = r3
3
10
W =mg Additional info : Detergent
N
N f
s ( m3 2 3
Material Weight (N) ( m3 ) v (m/s) (Ns/ m ) V( m r (m)
)
0.0014 81599.35 8613.18 0.9091 0.0457 1.7157 108 0.0016
8
0.0052 79449.96 8613.18 1.3889 0.3065 6.5450 10 0.0052
Mild steel 0.0103 75040.07 8613.18 1.6393 0.0922 1.3726 107 0.0032
7
0.0200 74604.60 8613.18 1.9231 0.1220 2.6808 10 0.0040
7
0.0346 74689.69 8613.18 2.0833 0.1624 4.6325 10 0.0048
0.0014 81599.35 8613.18 0.9709 0.0428 1.7157 108 0.0016
0.0052 79449.96 8613.18 1.2048 0.3533 6.5450 10
8
0.0052
Stainless steel 0.0102 74311.53 8613.18 1.4286 0.1046 1.3726 107 0.0032
0.0201 74977.62 8613.18 1.6949 0.1392 2.6808 107 0.0040
0.0346 74689.69 8613.18 1.8519 0.1827 4.6325 107 0.0048
g/W
/Mg
V
s=
V
11
1m
v=
T
4
V = r3
3
W =mg
12
Mild Steel Sphere in Oil
4.5
3.5
2.5
Drag
Mild Steel Sphere in Oil
Coefficient 2
1.5
0.5
0
5.59 2.9699999999999998 18.739999999999991 25.7 27.87
Reynold's
Number
13
14
Mild Steel Sphere in Detergent
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
Drag
Mild Steel Sphere in Detergent
Coefficient
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
55.45 19.89 99.13 110.72 107.28
Reynold's
Number
15
Stainless Steel Sphere in Oil
6
Reynold's
Number
16
17
Stainless Steel Sphere in Detergent
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.1
Reynold's
Number
18
DISCUSSION
1. Drag force exerted on the solid which move in a fluid is due to viscosity of the fluid.
It is made up of two components, surface drag and form drag.
2. Relationship of the drag force with the coefficient is
2
A V
F=C D
2
3. The resultant force on the sphere must equal to the specific weight difference times
the volume of the displaced liquid, strokes expression,
f
s
3
4r
F=
3
5. Reynolds number
VD
=
6. The fall velocity of a sphere V is calculated as 1/T, where T is the take time taken by
the sphere to fall between the 1m marks. So, in order to calculate the Re, we need to
find and determine the viscosity first. Stokes law can be used to find as long as Re
< 1. The procedure is to select the smallest sphere of the lightest material provided,
measure T, calculate V and use this value to find viscosity from following equation.
f
s
2 2
= r
9
VD
=
19
8. It is possible to measure the value of T for the remaining spheres, and calculate the
drag coefficient and the Reynolds number. To get the accurate reading, it is advisable
to average the number of T obtained over repeated drops of the sphere.
20
7.0 CONCLUSION
fluids with great accuracy. A proposed mathematical model that includes a new drag
21