LAB 12: DEMONSTRATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM 1

Title:

Demonstration of Bernoullis Theorem

Introduction

Figure 1

Derivation Using Streamline Coordinates

Eulers equation for steady flow along a streamline is

1 p z v
g =V
s s s

(Equation 1)

If a fluid particle moves a distance, ds, along a streamline,

p
ds=dp (the change in pressure) (Equation 2)
s
 LAB 12: DEMONSTRATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM 2

z
ds=dz (the change in elevation) (Equation 3)
s

V
ds=dV (the change in speed) (Equation 4)
s

Thus, after multiplying Equation 1 by ds,

dp dp
gdz=VdV or + VdV + gdz=0 (Equation 5)

Integration of this equation gives:

dp V
+ + gz= constant (Equation
2

6)

The relation between pressure and density must be applied in this equation. For the special case

of incompressible flow, = constant, and Equation 6 becomes the Bernoullis Equation.

p V
+ + gz= constant (Equation 7)
2

Restrictions:

i. Steady flow
ii. Incompressible flow
iii. Frictionless flow
iv. Flow along a streamline

Bernoullis Law
 LAB 12: DEMONSTRATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM 3

Bernoullis law states that if a non-viscous fluid is flowing along a pipe of varying cross section,

then the pressure is lower at constrictions where the velocity is higher, and the pressure is higher

where the pipe opens out and the fluid stagnate. Many people find this situation paradoxical

when they first encounter it (higher velocity, lower pressure). This is expressed with the

following equation:

p v
+ +z = h* = Constant (Equation
g 2 g

8)

Where,

p = fluid static pressure at the cross section

= density of the following fluid

g = acceleration due to gravity

v = mean velocity of fluid flow at the cross section

z = elevation head of the center at the cross section with respect to a datum

h* = total (stagnation) head

The terms on the left-hand-side of the above equation represent the pressure head (h), velocity

head (hv), and elevation head (z), respectively. The sum of these terms is known as the total head

(h*). According to the Bernoullis theorem of fluid flow through a pipe, due to the friction and

other imperfections, as well as measurement uncertainties, the results will deviate from the

theoretical ones.
 LAB 12: DEMONSTRATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM 4

In our experimental setup, the centerline of all the cross sections we are considering lie on the

same horizontal plane (which we may choose as the datum, z = 0, and thus, all the z values are

zeros so that the above equation reduces to:

p v
+ = h* = Constant
g 2 g

(Equation 9)

This represents the total head at a cross section.

For the experiments, the pressure head is denoted as hi and the total head as h*I, where i

represents the cross sections at different tapping points.

Static, Stagnation and Dynamic Pressure

The pressure, p, which we have used in deriving the Bernoullis equation, Equation 7, is the

thermodynamic pressure; it is commonly called the static pressure. The static pressure is that

pressure which would be measured by an instrument moving with the flow. However, such a

measurement is rather difficult to make in a practical situation.

There was no pressure variation normal to straight streamlines. This makes it possible to measure

the static pressure in a flowing fluid using a wall pressure tapping, placed in a region where the

flow streamlines are straight. The pressure tap is a small hole, drilled carefully in the wall, with

its axis perpendicular to the surface. If the hole is perpendicular to the duct wall and free from

burrs, accurate measurements of static pressure can be made by connecting the tap to a suitable

pressure measuring instrument.

 LAB 12: DEMONSTRATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM 5

In a fluid stream far from a wall, or where streamlines are curved, accurate static pressure

measurements can be made by careful use of a static pressure probe. Such probes must be

designed so that the measuring holes are placed correctly with respect to the probe tip and steam

to avoid erroneous results. In use, the measuring section must be aligned with the local flow

direction.

In incompressible flow, the Bernoulli Equation can be used to relate changes in speed and

pressure along a streamline for such a process. Neglect elevation differences, Equation 7 become

p v
+ =constant (Equation 10)
2

If static pressure is p at a point in the flow where the speed is v, then the stagnation pressure, Po,

where the stagnation speed, Vo, is zero, may be computed from

p V p V
+ = + (Equation
2 2

11)

Therefore,

1
2
po = p + 2 V (Equation

12)

Solving the dynamic pressure gives:

 LAB 12: DEMONSTRATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM 6

1
V2 = p p (Equation
2 o

13)

Or

V = 2( p p)

(Equation 14)

Thus, if the stagnation pressure and the static pressure could be measured at a point,

Equation 14 would give the local flow speed.

Stagnation pressure is measured in the laboratory using a probe with a hole that faces

directly upstream. Such a probe is called a stagnation pressure probe (hypodermic probe)

or Pitot (pronounced pea-toe) tube.

Pressure Varies Along the Pipe

A number of factors can cause for pressure to vary along the pipe such as:

Friction from the pipes inner surface

Te diameter of the pipe; if it is small the pressure is lower because the velocity is increased

(Bernoullis Theory)
Density of the fluid in the pipe
The height of the pipe at which the pipe stands or the height at which the flow through i.e.

gravity
Turbulence of the fluid

Venturi Meter
 LAB 12: DEMONSTRATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM 7

The venture meter consists of a venturi tube and differential pressure gauge. The venturi tube has

a converging portion, a throat and a diverging portion. The function of the converging portion is

to increase the velocity of the fluid and lower its static pressure. A pressure difference between

inlet and throat is thus developed, which pressure correlated with the rate of discharge. The

diverging cone serves to change the area of the stream back to the entrance area and convert

velocity head into pressure head.

Objective:

To determine the discharge coefficient of the venturi meter.

Method:

1. The water is filled into the volumetric tank of the hydraulic bench until approximately

90% full.
 LAB 12: DEMONSTRATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM 8

2. The flexible inlet tube is connected by using the quick release coupling in the bed of

the channel. Then, a flexible hose is connected to the outlet and make sure that it is

directed into the channel.

3. The outlet flow control valve is partially opened.
4. The bench flow control valve, V1 is fully closed and then the pump is switched on.
5. V1 is opened gradually to allow the piping to fill with water until all air has been

expelled from the system.

6. The trapped bubbles in the glass tube are checked.
7. The water flow rate is increased and started to close the discharge valve when the

flow in the pipe is steady and there is no trapped bubbles to reduce the flow to the

maximum measurable flow rate.

8. The manometer tubes displayed the different level of water height. V1 is opened to

increase the static pressure. The outlet control valve is opened to lower the static

pressure.
9. To obtain a flow through the test section, V1 and the outlet control valve are adjusted.
10. The actual flow of water is measured by using the volumetric tank with a stop watch.
11. The hypodermic tube is withdrawn from the test section.
12. The discharge valve is adjusted to the maximum measurable flow rate of the venturi.
13. The water flow rate is measured by using volumetric method after the level is

stabilized. Then, the manometers reading are recorded.

14. Step 13 was repeated at least three decreasing flow rates by regulating the venturi

discharge valve.
15. The actual flow rate, Qa from the volumetric flow measurement method is obtained.
16. The ideal flow rate, Qi from the head difference between h1 and h3 is calculated by

using Equation (5).

17. Graph QaVs Qi is plotted. Finally, the discharge coefficient, Cd which is the slope is

obtained.
18. The calculation of velocity, ViB by using the Bernoullis equation is showed.
19. The calculation of velocity, ViC by using yhe continuity equation is showed.
20. The difference between two calculation velocities was determined.
 LAB 12: DEMONSTRATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM 9

Result:

Inlet diameter, D1 = 26 mm

Throat diameter, D2 = 16 mm

Inlet area, Ai = 5.31 x 10-4 m2

Throat area, At = 2.01 x 10-4 m2

g = 9.81 m/s2

= 1000 kg/m3

Readin Volume Time Water Head (mm)

hA hB hC hD hE hF hG hH
g no. (L) (s)
1. 5 13 222 187 16 122 150 184 242 97
2. 5 14 212 182 38 130 150 182 232 100
3. 5 15 202 184 55 132 150 177 220 107
4. 5 16 192 172 73 135 150 172 207 114
5. 5 19 182 174 88 137 150 167 194 120

Qav (x10-4), Water Head (mm) hA- hC Qi (x10-4),

hA hB hC hD hE hF
 LAB 12: DEMONSTRATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM 10

m3/s (mm) m3/s

3.85 222 187 16 122 150 184 206 4.37
3.57 212 182 38 130 150 182 174 4.01
3.33 202 184 55 132 150 177 147 3.69
3.13 192 172 73 135 150 172 119 3.32
2.63 182 174 88 137 150 167 94 2.95

Qa
Cd
Qav (x10-4), m3/s Qi (x10-4), m3/s Qi

3.85 x 10-4 4.37 x 10-4 0.88

3.57 x 10-4 4.01 x 10-4 0.89
3.33 x 10-4 3.69 x 10-4 0.90
3.13 x 10-4 3.32 x 10-4 0.94
2.63 x 10-4 2.95 x 10-4 0.89

Graph of Qav vs Qi
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
Qa, x10-4 (m3/s) 2
1.5
1
0.5
0
2.9499999999999997 3.32 3.69 4.01 4.37

Qi, x10-4 (m3/s)

i ViB,av (m/s) ViC (m/s) Difference

A 1.4681 0.7251 0.7430
B 1.4681 1.0506 0.4175
C 1.4681 1.9149 0.4468
D 1.4681 1.2255 0.2426
 LAB 12: DEMONSTRATION OF BERNOULLIS THEOREM 11

E 1.4681 1.0128 0.4553

F 1.4681 0.7251 0.7430
Discussion:

The graph shows that it is almost linear. From the calculation, we can see that the value of Q a is

lower than the value of Qi. This is because of frictional effects and consequent head loss between

inlet and throat. The value of Q is increase due to the decreasing of time.

Conclusion:

Based on the result, this experiment is considered not really successful because of some errors

occur during the experiment which error during taking the data.