1

Aerosol - any mass of solids or liquid particles suspended in a gas.

I. FORMS OF AEROSOL

1. Dust- solid particulate matter suspended in a gas

-constitute the most common aerosol problem in the mineral industries
- formed by fragmentation process such as drilling, crushing and grinding but can also result
from resuspension
- dust particles vary from 1 to 100 m in diameter, but the size range is normally 1-20 m

2. Fumes- solid products that result from the physicochemical process of combustions,
sublimation or distillation
- less than 1 m in diameter
- important category of aerosol in mining because diesel engines generate fume material known
as diesel particulate matter (DPM)

3. Smoke- formed by incomplete combustion

- 0.01-1.0 m particles are usually visible and are distinguished from fumes by the fact that they
do not result from condensation processes.

4. Fog - aerosol of liquid particles in a gas formed by the condensation of liquid or the dispersal
of small liquid droplets
-essentially the same as a mist
-few m to 100 m in diameter
-normally occur in underground mines as a result of condensation of moisture due to
temperature changes in the mine air

5. Smog smoke + fog

-contains photochemical reaction products combined with water vapor
-associated with populated areas
-submicrometer (<1m) particles

6. Haze - similar to smog, a haze consists primarily of submicron solid particles associated with
water vapor.

II. DYNAMIC BEHAVIOR OF AEROSOLS

Purposes of Understanding Dynamic Behavior:

1. To enhance the control processes for aerosols
2. To provide other means of dealing with mine aerosols

A. Brownian Motion
-Controls behavior of aerosol particles whose diameter < 0.1 m and are suspended in a
quiescent (still) fluid
-Random movements wherein: Aerosol Particles + Gases = Diffusion
 2

Diffusion - collects particles through agglomeration or impaction on solid surfaces

B. Stokes Law
- Used to determine settling velocity of particles:
- diameter > 1 m
- falling in quiescent fluid
- Reynolds number 1
- Settling velocity is determined by:
a. For spherical particles: Drag Force = Force of gravity
- most adequate method showing less than 10% error
b. For non-spherical: use Stokes diameter
- diameter of a hypothetical spherical particle that has the same density and settling velocity
as a non-spherical particle.

C. Behavior of Aerosols in Moving Airstream

Dust concentrations downwind of a dust source are functions of the following factors:
1. Rate of convection
2. Diffusion
3. Tendency of the dust to agglomerate
4. Other depositional factors

III. CLASSIFICATION OF MINERAL DUSTS AND OTHER RELEVANT AEROSOLS

The following aerosols are listed in order of decreasing harm:

1. Fibrogenic dusts - capable of producing fibrosis or scarring of the lung surfaces

a. Silica (quartz, cristobalite, tridymite, chert)
b. Silicates (asbestos, talc, mica, sillimanite)
c. Metal fumes
d. Beryllium ore
e. Tin ore
f. Iron ores
g. Carborundum
h. Coal (bituminous, anthracite)

2. Carcinogenic aerosols
a. Asbestos
b. Radon daughters (attached to any dust)
c. Arsenic
d. Diesel particulate matter (a suspected carcinogen)
e. Silica (a suspected carcinogen)

3. Toxic aerosols - poisonous to body organs, tissue, etc.

a. Dusts of ores of beryllium, arsenic, lead, etc.
b. Mists and fumes of organic and other body-sensitizing chemicals

4. Radioactive dusts
a. Ores of uranium, radium, and thorium (injurious because of alpha and beta radiation).
b. Dusts with radon daughters attached (source of alpha radiation)

5. Explosive dusts - combustible when airborne

 3

a. Metallic dusts (magnesium, aluminum, zinc, tin, iron)

b. Coal (bituminous, lignite)
c. Sulfide ores
d. Organic dusts

6. Nuisance dusts - little adverse effect on humans

a. Gypsum
b. Kaolin
c. Limestone
IV. PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF MINERAL DUSTS
- Primarily targets the human respiratory system

HOW?
1. Air contaminated with aerosols (dust, pollen, bacteria, fumes, etc.) enters the nose or mouth.
2. Smaller particles not filtered by mucus and nose hairs flow into the nasopharynx region where
it is warmed
3. Such air passes through the trachea (windpipe), the bronchi (two short branches of trachea)
and the bronchioles (branches of the bronchi) and into the alveoli (terminal lung sacks where
the oxygen is transmitted into the bloodstream). Medium sized-particles along the trachea are
swept by cilia and deposits on the throat.
4. Smaller particles in the alveoli are deposited on lung surfaces by settling, impaction and
Brownian motion.

Defense mechanism: Phagocytes (wandering scavenger cells) called alveolar macrophages

act to engulf the invading particles and isolate them in the lung or transport them to the lymph
nodes for disposal

Success of alveolar macrophages depends on:

1. Dust concentration
2. Composition of dust
3. Persons Health

Particles based on bodily entry:

Inspirable Particles: diameter < 100 m; inhaled through nose or mouse during breathing
Thoracic aerosol: particles that go beyond the mouth and nose
Tracheobronchial Particles: 5-25 m; deposited on the mucous membranes in the trachea
and bronchi
Respirable dust: diameter < 5 m that enters alveolar region of lungs; exhalable
Alveolar aerosol: primary cause of lung diseases; deposited in the alveoli

Bottom line: increase in particle size results to increase in % of respirable particles

Respiratory Ailments and Diseases
General:
 4

Pneumoconiosis: most common form of lung dysfunction among miners by formation of fibrous
tissue in the lungs

Specific:
Silicosis (severe: acute silicosis)
Silicate Pneumoconiosis
Asbestosis
Coal Workers Pneumoconiosis (Black lung)
Beryllium disease
Siderosis

Carcinogenic aerosols: Asbestos, Radon, Diesel Particulate Matter and Silica

V. FACTORS THAT DETERMINE DUST HARMFULNESS

1. Composition
- The chemical or mineralogical make up of a given dust or aerosol is the most significant
variable in the determination of whether an aerosol is harmful to human beings.
2. Concentration
- While the average concentration allowed for various mineral is different, reducing
concentrations of any given dust will ordinarily also reduce the incidence of lung disease.
3. Particle Size
- Size of dust particles controls the location in the respiratory tract where the dust particles will
reside. Particles < 5 m are penetrate into the lungs and become trapped in the alveoli.
4. Exposure Time
- Most of the diseases associated with breathing mineral dusts manifest themselves normally 10
years or more of occupational exposure. Even asbestosis, one of the more dreaded forms of
mineral-induced diseases, is thought to take 10 years to develop. One exception to this general
rule is silicosis, which can develop after only a few years of exposure.
5. Individual Susceptibility
- One important modifier that impacts on individual susceptibility is the smoking habits of the
worker. It is clear that this will affect the probability of serious medical consequences of
exposure to aerosols.
VI. EXPLOSIVE DUSTS
Dust ignition occurs because of:
1. Point source (open flame, electric arc, discharge of explosives, ignition of methane)
2. Auto ignition (self-ignition from dust being heated above critical temperature)
2 Types of Explosions:
1. Detonating Explosions propagate through the air-methane mixture about the speed of
sound (340 m/s).
2. Deflagrating Explosions mixtures advance much slower with the flame speed (10 m/s),
where shock wave moves away from source faster than flame.

COAL DUST EXPLOSIONS

Composition:
 5

Coal Rank Volatile Matter Autoignition

Content, % Temperature, deg. C

Lignite 30-43 425-600

Anthracite 4-8 675-780

Bituminous and 8-29 601-674

Sub-bituminous

Higher volatile matter, lower ignition T, more ready explosion

Particle Size:
- Diameter > 100 m will not readily explode at any concentration
- Smaller particles (<20 m) will explode at much lower concentrations than those 20-100 m in
diameter. Most dusts in coal mines have diameters < 20 m
Concentration:
- Lower Explosive Limit by wt. = 60 g/m which occurs if there is methane ignition
Flammable Gas:
- At 5%, methane can auto-ignite and any coal dust in the air will simply provide more fuel for
the reaction.
Moisture Effects:
- Moisture in air (little effect) and moisture in coal; increased moisture reduces explosibility and
pressure generated by an explosion.
Presence of Incombustible Material:

- Rock dust: used to reduce explosibility of dust mixture due to the heat-absorbing capability of
the dust. This is a limestone dust <200-mesh

Generally, explosions of noncoal dusts are relatively rare. Examples are oil shale, sulfides and
gilsonite.

VII. THRESHOLD LIMIT VALUES (TLV)

Threshold limit values (TLVs) are guidelines that refer to the airborne concentrations of
various substances to which it is believed that nearly all workers may be repeatedly exposed
day after day and suffer no adverse health effects

VIII. AEROSOL MEASUREMENT

A. Dust Monitors
- Direct-reading instruments in which a sample is not collected.
Light-scattering photometer is commonly used UG
2 versions:
1. SIMSLIN II (Safety in Mine Scattered Light Instrument)
2. Model RAM (Real-time Aerosol Monitor) I
 6

B. Aerosol Samplers
- Devices that gather a sample of the aerosol from the atmosphere in order to read indirectly the
concentration or characteristics of the aerosol through the use of instantaneous samplers or
samplers that integrate the sample over time.
2 Principal Ways of using Samplers:
1. Personal Sampling aerosol sample is taken on or near a worker
2. Area Sampling workplace or equipment location is sampled to measure effectiveness
of controls

Mine Aerosol Sampling Packages

1. Cyclone /elutriator + filter assembly package
2. Gravimetric sampler + pump
3. Impactors
4. Impingers
IX. SAMPLING OF DIESEL PARTICULATE MATTER (DPM)

Diesel particulate consists of fumes or soot resulting from incomplete combustion. These
fumes are normally rounded particles less than 1 m in diameter. The particles form clusters
that resemble bunch of grapes under microscopic analysis. The primary constituent of DPM is
carbon.

DPM Control Technology

Two methods of controlling DPM:

1. Use of a ceramic filter on the diesel exhaust of underground equipment

-The ceramic element is constructed in a honeycomb fashion with many thin, porous walls that
are capable of trapping DPM particles. This ceramic element is placed in the exhaust as close
to the engine as possible so that the DPM will eventually combust and regenerate the filter. To
enhance the capability for doing this, the filter is normally catalyzed to reduce the temperature at
which the regeneration process is initiated. Filtering efficiencies of greater than 90% have been
achieved.

2. Use of a low-temperature disposable filter in the diesel exhaust stream

- This is successful for coal mine applications where filters consist of a pleated filter media
similar to paper, which is encased in a metal frame for proper sealing into the exhaust system.
The filters have been used on diesel haulers, coupled with a waterbath scrubber system to keep
the exhaust temperatures at a safe level. These filters can achieve efficiencies of 90% when
properly used, greatly reducing the DPM in the mine air. The main disadvantage is their
relatively short life of a shift or so.

Future DPM Control Technologies of Interest:

 7

1. Electronic engine controls

2. Catalytic emission control system

X. SOURCES OF DUSTS IN MINES

Underground Coal Mining
If an operation produces or creates a dust through some disintegration process, it is termed a
primary dust source. If it agitates or redisperses dust already created, it is termed a
secondary source. (+) signifies a major source, a minus (-) signifies a minor source, and a
zero (0) signifies a negligible source.

Underground Non-Coal Mining

Surface Mining
- Sources of surface mine dust often exist out of the breathing atmosphere of the workers.
 8

Milling and Bagging Operations

XI. AEROSOL CONTROL TECHNOLOGY

Basic dust control strategies:

1. Prevention
2. Removal
3. Suppression
4. Isolation
5. Dilution

The cardinal rule of dust control is to prevent dust from occurring. This can be
accomplished by altering the mined material or the mining process to keep dust from forming, or
to suppress dust immediately to prevent it from becoming airborne.

Water-Based Control Measures:

1. Water or steam for infusion of the mineral deposit prior to the mining process so that the
mineral is wetted and less likely to become airborne. The infusion process is normally
accomplished through boreholes in the coal seam drilled ahead of the mining operation.
2. Use of water in drilling, cutting, and continuous mining operations
- Wet drilling became the norm in many mines after the problem of silicosis was publicized in the
1930s. The method can achieve efficiencies of nearly 100% in many situations.

Once dust gets in the air, use of water becomes less efficient as the particulate matter becomes
more difficult to wet. A variety of sprays are available as an aid in dust control.

Sprays for dust control:

1. Solid Stream- This spray nozzle provides a solid stream of water with a spray angle of 0. It
is used as a shearer drum spray on longwalls, including duty as a pick-point spray.
2. Flat Spray - This spray provides a narrow, approximately rectangular, spray pattern with
spray angles of up to 110. It provides large droplets and is used to wet coal before belt
discharge points and to clean coal particles from the side of the belt in contact with the drive and
idlers.
 9

3. Full Cone - The full-cone nozzle produces a uniform distribution of large droplets over a
circular area, finding use in wetting minerals on conveyor belts and for cleaning the
nonconveying side of conveyor belts.
4. Hollow Cone - A hollow-cone spray is characterized by a conical spray pattern with a hollow
center and with most of the droplets concentrated around the perimeter. It is utilized at transfer
points, on shearers, and in crushers to knock down dust that has become airborne.
5. Atomizing Spray- Atomizing sprays are also useful for reduction of airborne dusts, using
higher pressures to produce very small water droplets. The resulting mist is less likely to create
a flowline pattern that will move dust particles rather than collide with them, achieving greater
efficiency in dust knockdown. In some mining applications, atomizing sprays are more effective
if they are generated by two-phase (air-water) spray systems.
6. Venturi Spray - The venturi nozzle is a conventional nozzle mounted inside a venturi shroud.
The spray entrains air in the shroud and results in the movement of air with the water droplets,
thus providing the capability of aiding in methane removal at a face as well as keeping dust
down.

Foam generators can be used to contain or envelop dust on continuous miners, shearers,
drills, cutting machines, and crushers. While the use of foam is effective, the cost of using foam
is often cited as the reason it is not more widely used.

Surfactants (wetting agents) also fall in the category of supplemental means for improving
dust control using water. The effectiveness of surfactants varies, and there is disagreement as
to whether the agents act mostly to prevent dust from becoming airborne or improve the
collection of the dust after it becomes airborne.

Dust Collectors:
Surface mines: cyclone
UG Mines:
1. Flooded-fibrous bed scrubbers- often referred to as flooded-bed scrubbers. These
scrubbers are now widely used on continuous miners and are highly successful in reducing the
amount of dust that is released at the working face in coal mining operations. Efficiencies for
removal of respirable dust run from 90 to 95 %.

2. Exhaust filter system - used for roof drilling in underground coal mines. Roof drills are
provided with suction through the drill rods, which draws the drill cuttings through the rod and
into a dust collection system. Most of the dust is gathered in the dust box and is removed once
or twice a shift by the operator.
XII. PERSONAL PROTECTION DEVICES

1. Respirators
 10

- A device to protect the respiratory tract from any irritating or toxic gases, fumes, smokes, or
dusts in the environment.
- For protection from dusts, the simplest type of respirator is a filter mask that fits tightly over the
mouth and nose to filter the air taken in by breathing.
- If a disposable filter mask is used, only 60% of the dust is filtered out because leakages
around the filter allow the escape of significant quantities of dust past the mask

2. Powered positive-pressure respirators

- used in very dusty conditions exist, such as in dusty processing plants or bagging operations.
- The pump supplies filtered air under positive pressure to minimize the amount of dusty air that
leaks past the face mask.
- Efficiencies of more than 90% can be achieved.

3. Air helmets
- This unit consists of a helmet and a battery pack worn on the belt.
- The helmet is somewhat cumbersome but provides both cranial and respiratory protection.
- The battery powers a fan in the helmet that provides filtered air to the plastic face enclosure.
- If the face enclosure fits the contour of the face fairly closely, dust exposure reductions greater
than 90% are possible.

XIII. MEDICAL AND LEGAL MEANS OF DUST CONTROL

The Federal Coal Mines Health and Safety Act of 1969 serves as an example of both medical
and legal means of reducing the health effects due to dust in the coal mine atmosphere. The
regulations inherent in that act required that respirable dust levels be reduced in all coal mines
to 3.0 mg/m3 by June 1970 and to 2.0 mg/m3 after December 1972.