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Heat transfer and phase transition in the selective laser melting process
Yingli Li a,b, Kun Zhou a,, Shu Beng Tor a, Chee Kai Chua a, Kah Fai Leong a
a
Singapore Centre for 3D Printing, School of Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, 50 Nanyang Avenue, Singapore 639798, Singapore
b
School of Traffic & Transportation Engineering, Central South University, Changsha 410082, PR China
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: This paper investigates the heat transfer and phase transition during the selective laser melting (SLM)
Received 8 October 2016 process under a moving volumetric heat source. Specifically, our objective is to study the heating, melt-
Received in revised form 21 January 2017 ing, vaporization and cooling processes. The model initiatively incorporates a phase function to differen-
Accepted 23 January 2017
tiate the powder phase, melting liquid phase, dense solid phase and vaporized gas phase. The dependence
of material properties on temperature and phase is also accounted for. The model involves the volume
shrinkage induced by the density change during the melting process. The problem is formulated using
Keywords:
the heat transfer equation and solved by the finite difference method. The results show the detailed tem-
Selective laser melting
Additive manufacture
perature evolution during the SLM process. The phase transition of the material can be tracked and the
3D printing melting pool can be predicted according to the phase function. The process parameter study reveals that
Rapid prototyping the melting pool with low scan velocity or high laser power has large width and length, and deep pen-
etration. The unified model proves neglecting of vaporization or temperature dependence of material
properties leads to results overestimating the shape and volume of the melting pool.
2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction transition on the melt pool dimension. Verhaeghe et al. [10] stud-
ied the effect of the vaporization phenomenon on temperature dis-
Selective laser melting (SLM) is a type of additive manufactur- tribution. Papadakis et al. [11] studied the thermo-mechanical
ing process that uses three-dimensional (3D) computer aided effect. Gusarov [12] investigated the temperature distribution of
design (CAD) data as a digital information source and energy in the laser-powder interaction zone by considering the volumetric
the form of a high-power laser beam to create metal components heat source. Loh et al. [13,14] analyzed the effect of the laser beam
by selectively fusing fine metallic powders together [13]. The profile on the melt width and melt penetration of the molten mate-
SLM technique [47] holds a great potential for the rapid manufac- rial. Wu et al. [15] achieved test specimens with high density by
turing of high-quality engineering metal components that cannot optimizing the process parameters based on modeling results.
be easily fabricated by other conventional processing methods. However, most of the previous works have focused only on the
The quality of the product built by SLM is significantly affected quasi-steady-state solution of the heat transfer problem. The pre-
by its process parameters such as the laser power and scan speed. sent work develops a model to study both the transient and steady
Undesirable effects such as delamination and voids in the final pro- states of the temperature evolution. An SLM-printed object is com-
duct caused by inadequate laser power penetration or overheating posed of layers and tracks, and solidification of every track involves
can be minimized by properly controlling or optimizing these pro- transient evolution of temperature, thus the transient analysis of
cess parameters. A good understanding or prediction of the tem- temperature is of great significance. A phase function is introduced
perature field of the powder bed and the underneath substrate or to track the various phase transitions including melting and vapor-
proceeding layers could help to achieve such control and ization. The powder layer shrinks in volume during melting as the
optimization. molten metal seeps through pores. If the energy density deposited
Investigation of the temperature evolution phenomena in SLM is high, vaporization will occur to the molten metal when the boil-
have drawn extensive attention. Hussein et al. [8] predict the tem- ing point is exceeded. Therefore, this study accounts for shrinkage
perature and stress fields of stainless steel 316L using the finite and vaporization. The horizontal fluid flow in the molten pool dri-
element method (FEM). Yin et al. [9] studied the effect of powder ven by the surface tension for shape evolution of the liquid bath is
neglected. Findings of this investigation provide better under-
standing of the SLM process and constructive guidance for optimal
Corresponding author. process parameter setting.
E-mail address: kzhou@ntu.edu.sg (K. Zhou).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijheatmasstransfer.2017.01.093
0017-9310/ 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Y. Li et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 108 (2017) 24082416 2409
v
Laser beam z
y
z
x Shrinkage
y Melting pool
Powder L
Powder layer
Penetration
equal to 0 in the powder phase, 1 in the molten liquid phase and 2 Then, the governing equation can be obtained by substituting
in the dense phase. The phase function / = 3 is used to model the Eqs. (5), (8), and (10) into Eq. (1), that is
vaporization and volume shrinkage of the melting pool caused by
@ qcT @ qcT @ @T @ @T @ @T
density change during melting. Then, the phase function of the w k k k
powder bed can be expressed as @t @z @x @x @y @y @z @z
8 @ q DH @ qDH
> 0 T < T m Powder phase U w : 12
>
>
<
@t @z
1 T m < T < T v Liquid melting phase
/x;y;z; T : The boundary conditions and the initial conditions are intro-
>
> 2 T < T m Dense solid phase after melting and cooling
>
: duced to solve the heat conduction Eq. (12). The initial tempera-
3 T P T v Vapor phase or shrinkage ture condition is
7
Tx; y; z; 0 T 0 ; 13
where T m and T v denotes the melting and boiling temperature
respectively. Considering that the temperature ranges for the pow- and the initial condition for the phase function is
der phase and dense phase in Eq. (7) overlap, the judgment criterion
0 0 < z < L Powder bed
for the phase function / = 0 or 1 is whether the temperature of the /x; y; z; T : 14
1 L 6 z 6 Z Substract or formed part
point has ever exceeded the melting point since interaction with
the laser beam. The computation domain of the heat conduction problem is
The enthalpy H in Eq. (1) is expressed as a sum of the sensible taken as fx; y; zj X 6 x 6 X; 0 6 y 6 Y; 0 6 z 6 Zg. Due to the
heat Hs and the latent heat DH : symmetry with respect to the center plane (y = 0), the temperature
H Hs DH; 8 field is computed on only half of the domain (y > 0). The bound-
R aries x X, y Y and z Z are assumed to be isolated walls, that
where Hs cdT c T with c being the specific heat. The latent is,
heat DH in Eq. (8) is given by
8 @T
T < T m dT 1 ; / 0; 2 x X; y 0; Y; zZ: k 0: 15
>
> 0 @n
>
> Hm
>
> T m dT 1 6 T 6 T m dT 1 ; mushy region
< 2 In Eq. (15), the symbol n is the normal to the corresponding
DH H m T m dT 1 < T < T v dT 2 ; / 1 ; 9 face, i.e. n x; y or z. The temperature gradient @T=@n 0 indicates
>
>
>
> Hm H2v T v dT 2 6 T 6 T v dT 2 ; mushy region no heat transformation across the boundary. No heat travels across
>
>
: the plane y = 0 due to the symmetry about y axis.
Hm H v T v dT 2 < T; / 3
At the top surface of the domain z 0, that is the laser radiation
In Eq. (9), Hm and Hv are the latent heats at phase transitions of surface, the natural boundary condition is taken as
melting and boiling respectively. The phase transition process is
@T ^ T 0 r
assumed to occur over a range of phase transition temperature, z0:k q hT ^ ^eT 4 T 40 : 16
named as mushy region. Eq. (9) includes mushy regions @z
T m dT 1 6 T < T m dT 1 and T v dT 2 6 T 6 T v dT 2 for the phase In the right side of Eq. (16), the term q refers to the heat flux
transition at melting and boiling. ^ T 0 is the convection boundary, where
intensity. The term hT
The thermal conductivity and specific heat of metal vary in the ^ is the surface convective heat transfer coefficient. The last term
h
temperature above the room temperature. Thus, the temperature
and phase dependence of the material properties have to be con- r^ ^eT 4 T 40 represents the radiation heat transfer, where r^ is the
sidered. Let subscripts p, l, s, and v denote the material properties Stefan-Boltzmann constant (r ^ 5:670 108 W=m2 K4 ) constant
in the powder phase, molten liquid phase, dense solid dense phase and ^e is the emissivity.
and vapor phase. For instance, cp , cl , cs , and cv denotes the specific The finite difference scheme is adopted to discretize the coordi-
heat of the material in powder, molten liquid, dense solid and nate space and time history in order to solve the partial differential
vapor phases. The specific heat for powder phase cp is assumed governing Eq. (12) and the associated boundary conditions in Eqs.
to be cp 1 ecs , where e denotes the porosity. (15) and (16). The space computational domain is divided into
Similarly, kp , kl , ks and kv are the thermal conductivities for dif- N x N y N z rectangular cells with the sizes of dxi , dyj , and dzk
ferent phases. Thermal conductivity of metallic powder kp is about with (i 1; 2; . . . ; N x ; j 1; 2; . . . ; N y ; k 1; 2; . . . ; N z ). In order to
100 times less than that of dense material ks [20]. Experimental get an accurate result, a non-uniform grid mesh is generated by
works and estimations in the literature [21] suggest that the effec- introducing dxi e1 dxi1 , dyj e2 dyj1 , dzk e3 dzk1 . The time
tive thermal conductivity in the presence of thermocapilary flow is step dt is restricted by the stability condition for explicit schemes
at least twice the stationary melt kl aks , where a is the correction and is of the order of 107 s. The numerical model is tested to
factor. ensure its convergence and accuracy.
The model in Eq. (1) also includes the volume shrinkage caused
by the density change from powder to liquid melting pool. In the
3. Numerical simulation and discussion
liquid melting phase, the velocity w in Eq. (1) induced by shrinkage
is expressed as
( In order to validate the modeling approach in this study, Table 1
@s
1 z
e z 6 s; / 1 compares the melting pool size for Aluminum alloy 6061 obtained
@t
w s
; 10 by the current method with experimental results [13] by setting
0 Z > s; / 0; 2
the corresponding material and process parameters the same as
where sx; y; t is the vertical location of solid-liquid interface, those in the experiment. Three sets of SLM process parameters
which is determined by the temperature distribution. The top sur- are considered: high laser power with high scan speed (HH), low
face of the powder lowers after melting, and the shape of the top laser power with low scan speed (LL) and low laser power with
surface is described by s0 , which is determined as high scan speed (LH). The high and low laser powers refer to
350 W and 150 W respectively, while the high and low scan speeds
s0 x; y; z; t esx; y; z; t: 11
are 1140 mm/s and 500 mm/s, respectively. The spot diameter of
Y. Li et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 108 (2017) 24082416 2411
Table 1
Comparison of present results with experiment results in Ref. [13].
HH LL LH
Penetration (lm) Experimental results 43.8 32.1 22.2
Present results 42.2 34.3 24.1
Width (lm) Experimental results 140 126 97
Present results 144.1 128.2 98.2
the laser beam is 80 lm and the single lines are scanned with a 3500
layer of 50 lm powder. The comparison demonstrates that the x =0 m
x =70 m
proposed numerical model can provide good predictions on the 3000
x =140 m
penetration and width.
In order to simulate the existence of the empty space created by 2500
shrinkage of the powder bed after solidification, assume the ther-
mal conductivity in the empty space after shrinkage is equal to 2000
T (K)
zero. The empty space generated due to vaporization of the molten
liquid exceeding the boiling temperature is treated the same way 1500
as the shrinkage. When the temperature exceeds the boiling point
T v , assume the temperature does not increase any more. 1000
In the following simulations, the material properties in refer-
500
ence [22] are employed for the stainless 316L steel at dense solid
or liquid phases. The thermal conductivity of the powder is 0.0 t0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
kp = 0.3 W/Mk, the reflectivity q ^ = 0.7, and the optical thickness t (ms)
k 2 [12]. Herein, the porosity e of the powder bed is approxi-
Fig. 2. Temperature evolution of three points A (0, 0, 0), B (70, 0, 0), and C (140, 0, 0).
mated as 0.4. The initial preheated temperature T 0 = 473 K, melting
temperature T m = 1700 K, and boiling temperature T v = 3200 K.
The latent heat of melting Hm = 2.18 GJ/m3 and for vaporization Fig. 3(b) shows that there exist both excessive vaporization and
Hv = 47.5 GJ/m3. Parameters for the natural boundary conditions unmelted powder around the interface at the beginning of the
are ^e = 0.2, and h^ = 12 W/m2 K. SLM process, which is detriment for the bonding of the new track
In the SLM process, the powder thickness L = 50 lm, the laser to the substrate or proceeding layers. At the steady state, the melt-
beam power P varies from 50 W to 200 W and the range for scan ing pool penetrates into the substrate and reaches the depth of
speed v is 50250 mm/s. Process parameters P = 125 W and 78 lm (shown in Fig. 3(b) and (c)), which is favorable for decreas-
v = 150 mm/s are the default SLM process parameter setting for ing the possibility of delamination. Penetration of the melting pool
the following simulation unless otherwise specified. Full radius into the substrate also increases the wetting ability of the melting
of the Gaussian laser beam is R = 40 lm. pool, reducing the occurrence of balling phenomenon.
As the energy of the laser beam is absorbed by the powder bed, To optimize the process parameters and avoid defects in the
the temperature of the point under irradiation increases with time SLM process, The melting pool shape is one of our major concerns.
due to thermal conduction. When the laser beam moves away, the Fig. 4 shows the melting pool shape together with the temperature
temperature decreases. Fig. 2 presents the heating and cooling gradient at t = 2.8 ms. The two contours present the isotherms of
sequence of three points at x axis located at x = 0 lm (solid curve), melting and boiling temperatures. The width and length of the
70 lm (dashed curve) and 140 lm (dotted curve). t0 is the time melting pool is 134.6 lm and 339.6 lm from Fig. 4(a) and the
required to heat up the powder at origin x = 0 lm. Note that the depth of the melting pool is 78 lm by observation of Fig. 4(b).
solid curves exceed the melting point 1700 K, but does not reach The arrows show the magnitude and direction of the tempera-
the boiling point 3200 K; whereas the temperatures of the other ture gradient. The surface tension of the melting pool is a function
two curves surge from the preheated temperature to the melting of temperature. The top surface of the liquid melting pool is pre-
point, and finally reach the boiling temperature. The point is sented to be concave in Figs. 3 and 4(b) and also in the upcoming
assumed to be melted and changed into liquid phase after its tem- figures. The surface tension gradient and buoyancy force will drive
perature surpasses the melting temperature. After the temperature the melting fluid flow to form flat or even sphere surface. Once the
decreases below the melting temperature, the material solidifies. geometry of the melting pool is determined, whether balling phe-
Although the specific heat and thermal conductivity of the solidi- nomenon will occur can be predicted by the stability condition in
fied 316L steel is much higher than those in the powder phase, reference [23].
the heating rate is much sharper than the cooling rate, due to the To better understand the temperature distribution of the pow-
heat influence of the laser beam movement. Movement of the laser der bed, Fig. 5 shows the temperature profile in the x-y plane at dif-
beam towards the positive direction of x axis leads to heat accumu- ferent moments. The black circle is the projection circumference of
lation at the wake of the laser beam. the laser beam. In Fig. 5(a), the temperature profiles are not exact
The powder experiences phase transition with the temperature circles due to the influence of the left boundary and transient tem-
evolution. The phase function defined in Eq. (7) is presented in perature evolution. The unsmoothy in the isotherm of 3000 K is
Fig. 3 from different views. The gray region represents / = 0 for caused by the discontinuity of enthalpy and latent heat during
the powder phase, the pink one is / = 1 for the melting liquid boiling shown in Fig. 5(a)(e). The temperature profiles enlarge
phase, the blue denotes the dense solid region with / = 2, and and change into ellipses with time increasing. The reason that
the white indicates the empty or removal of material because of the shape of the temperature contours are ellipses instead of cir-
the shrinkage and vaporization. The interface at z = 50 lm is cles is the heat accumulation in the movement of the laser beams
the interface between powder bed and the substrate. A uniform as shown in the melting pool in Fig. 4. Once the shape of the tem-
and straight solidified track is formed as depicted in Fig. 3(a). perature profile become stable and does not change with time, it is
2412 Y. Li et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 108 (2017) 24082416
Fig. 5. Temperature profile in x-y plane at t = 0.56, 1.12, 1.68, 2.24 and 2.8 ms.
2000 interface is the melting pool and the left side is the solidified
new track.
1500 Note that at the beginning of the track the penetration of melt-
ing pool is not as deep as that when it reaches steady state. Thus,
1000
when printing the edge of a product the power should be set a little
500 higher than that for printing within the product.
The melting pool obtained by considering the shrinkage is dee-
-100 0 100 200 300 400 500
per than the one without shrinkage. Involvement of the shrinkage
x (m)
velocity w in Eq. (12) leads to an arc bottom of the melting pool
Fig. 6. Temperature distribution along x direction at different time t = 0.93, 1.87 (solid curves), whereas the melting pool without shrinkage has a
and 2.8 ms. flat bottom (dashed curves). The shrinkage also results in a wider
2414 Y. Li et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 108 (2017) 24082416
Fig. 7. Effect of scan velocity (a) v = 50 mm/s and (b) v = 250 mm/s on the melting pool shape with P = 125 W. The melting pool for v = 50 mm/s has width of 240.4 lm,
penetration of 80.7 lm, and length of 378.9 lm. The width of the melting pool in (b) is108.36 lm, the penetration is 16.74 lm, and the length is 282.2 lm.
Fig. 8. Effect of laser beam power (a) P = 50 W and (b) P = 200 W and v = 150 mm/s on the melting pool shape. The melting pool in (a) has width of 99.04 lm, penetration of
9.62 lm, and length of 149.3 lm. The width of the melting pool in (b) is 168.82 lm, the penetration is 45.96 lm, and the length is 393.67 lm.
melting pool as denoted with solid curves. The difference in the tion. As shown in Fig. 5, the center of the melting pool has the high-
molten depth shown in Fig. 9 is not as magnificent as the compar- est temperature and the part over boiling temperature vaporizes.
ison of Figs. 5 and 6 in Ref. [24]. The reason is that in the reference In experiment, the vaporization does occur and the fume can be
the vaporization of the melting pool is neglected. A large portion of observed even with optimal process parameters.
the melting pool is removed by vaporization. In the following, the In Fig. 11, one compares the results with temperature and phase
effect of vaporization will be addressed. dependence of the material properties and those with constant
Fig. 10 compares the results of interfaces with/ without consid- thermal conductivity k and specific heat c. The neglecting of tem-
ering vaporization. The case without considering vaporization perature dependence of material properties results in an overpre-
overestimates the depth of the solidified track. Fig. 10 shows a flat diction of the size and volume of the liquid pool. The melting
platform at the top surface of the melting pool without vaporiza- pool is larger than its actual shape and the volume of vaporization
Y. Li et al. / International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer 108 (2017) 24082416 2415
0
0
-10 Shrinkage
-20 -20
-30 Vaporization
-40 Top surface -40
z (m)
z (m)
-50 Powder
Liquid Substrate -60
-60 Solid
-70 -80
-80 Bottom surface
-90 With shrinkage -100
Without shrinkage Temperature and phase dependence of k and c
-100 Constant k and c
-100 0 100 200 300 400 500 -120
(a) x (m)
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 1 5
y (m)
-20
evolution and phase transition during the SLM process. The results
showed the effect laser beam power and scan velocity on the shape
z (m)
-40 and size of the melting pool, which can be adopted for process
Powder
parameter optimization.
Substrate The results revealed some useful findings. Movement of the
-60
laser beam leads to heat accumulation at the wake of the laser
beam. The introduction of phase function enables us to track the
-80 With shrinkage phase transition of the material and determine the shape of the
Without shrinkage
melting pool. The temperature gradient is more drastic at the
-150 -100 -50 0 50 100 15
(b) heading direction of the laser beam than that at the wake of the
y (m) laser beam. The melting pool with low scan velocity or high laser
Fig. 9. Effect of shrinkage on the SLM process in (a) x-z plane and (b) y-z plane. power has larger width and length, and penetrates into the sub-
strate deeper, which also may lead to excessive vaporization. High
scan velocity or low laser powder leads to insufficient bonding of
the new track to the substrate. The shrinkage effect leads to a
0
wider melting pool. Modeling without considering vaporization
or temperature dependence of material properties overestimates
-20
the shape and volume of the melting pool.
-40
Acknowledgements
z (m)
-60
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support
-80 from the National Research Foundation Medium Sized Center, Sin-
gapore through the Marine and Offshore Program.
-100
With vaporization References
-120
Without vaporization
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