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REVIEW ARTICLE
Starch: as simple as A, B, C?
Trevor L. Wang1, Tanya Ya. Bogracheva and Cliff L. Hedley
John Innes Centre, Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norwich NR4 7UH, UK
1 To whom correspondence should be addressed: Fax: +44 1603 456844. E-mail: wang@bbsrc.ac.uk
Fig. 2. A cluster model for the arrangement of amylopectin chains: (A, Biochemistry and molecular biology
B) indicate the position of A and B chains in one cluster and (C )
indicates the position of the C chain in the molecule with its reducing Intricate detail of the pathway and the enzymes involved
end, R. Based on Manners (1989).
will not be presented here since it has been reviewed
many times in recent years (Martin and Smith, 1995;
Nelson and Pan, 1995; Preiss and Sivak, 1996; Smith
(1984) reported that this mutant produced a starch frac- et al., 1997). Indeed in the most recent critique (Smith
tion similar in size to amylose, but branched like amyl- et al., 1997), it has been stated that our understanding
opectin. This fraction was termed intermediate material of the enzymes has outstripped the understanding of the
(see Genetics section). nature and regulation of the processes in which they are
The most common chemical characterization of amyl- involved and that predictive models are now required. It
ose and amylopectin relates to their interaction with could be argued equally that our understanding of the
iodine. Amylose reacts with iodine to give a bluish colour relationship between the enzymes and the function and
while the colour given with amylopectin is reddish brown. properties of the starches they create lags even further
This difference relates to the affinity that each compound behind. It is this relationship that is crucial to any
has for iodine, amylose binding on average 20% of its rational manipulation of starch. The current understand-
weight of iodine at 20 C, whereas amylopectin binds less ing of the general pathway and some of the species
than 0.2% (w/w). The difference in the ability to bind differences that have been identified from recent
Starch: as simple as A, B, C? 485
Fig. 3. Chromatographic separations of amylopectin chains in pea starch: (A, C ) size exclusion chromatography of wild type and rr mutant
biochemical and molecular studies (Martin and Smith, in the pathway is responsible for the synthesis of the
1995) and our own genetic data is presented here. substrate in all plant tissues (Smith et al., 1997) and the
There has been widespread acceptance that three other two for the production of the starch polymers.
enzymes are involved in the synthesis of starch in the Evidence for an alternative pathway (Okita, 1992) is
amyloplastADPglucose pyrophosphorylase, starch syn- much weaker and is not supported by current information
thase and starch-branching enzyme. The pathway for the from mutant analysis. ADPglucose pyrophosphorylase is
production of starch is shown in Fig. 4. The first enzyme also considered by many to be a key enzyme in the
regulation of the pathway since it is allosterically regulated
by both inorganic phosphate (an inhibitor) and
3-phosphoglycerate (an activator) (Preiss and Sivak,
1996). Furthermore, it may be an important enzyme by
which one can manipulate crop yields. Modification of
the enzyme in different ways can lead to either an increase
or a decrease in starch content (Muller-Rober and
Kossman, 1994). For example, the maize mutant, Rev6,
in which ADPglucose pyrophosphorylase activity is
decreased and displays reduced sensitivity to inorganic
phosphate, has an increase in seed weight without any
decrease in seed number (Giroux et al., 1996). The enzyme
consists of large and small subunits encoded by small
multigene families, the genes showing both temporal and
spatial differences in expression. This variation may
mirror the various ways in which starch synthesis may be
regulated (Smith et al., 1997). The small subunits are
considered to be the site of catalysis, whereas the large
subunits modulate the sensitivity of the small ones to
allosteric regulation (Preiss and Sivak, 1996).
Amylopectin and amylose polymers are generated by
Fig. 4. The pathway of starch biosynthesis in pea. The lesions in the the action of starch synthases and starch-branching
pathway represented by the pea mutants cited in the text are indicated
by double lines. The dotted lines indicate substrates that can be enzymes. There are a number of different isoforms of
imported into the plastid in other species (see text for further details). each enzyme, some of which show differences in organ-
486 Wang et al.
specificity and temporal regulation, but the contribution other species, or its loss may be lethal. Activities of two
of the different isoforms to the overall activity in most types of debranching enzyme, isoamylase and pullulanase,
tissues is not known. Both soluble and granule-activities however, have been found in pea embryos during develop-
are present in plant tissues, but whether an enzyme is ment ( Zhu, Hylton and Smith, personal communication).
exclusively or partly associated with the starch granule The supply of substrate to ADPglucose pyrophosphory-
appears to be an intrinsic property of the protein rather lase differs in different tissues and in different organisms
than the starch, as indicated by experiments using trans- ( Fig. 4). In is generally accepted that in storage tissues
genics ( Edwards et al., 1996; Smith et al., 1997). The such as the cotyledon or endosperm, hexose phosphates
major isoform of the granule-bound synthases, GBSSI, is are imported into the amyloplast whereas fructose-
believed to be responsible for the synthesis of amylose 6-phosphate from the reductive pentose phosphate path-
(Smith and Martin, 1993; Preiss and Sivak, 1996), since way is utilized in photosynthetic plastids ( Keeling et al.,
its elimination in a number of mutants (see below) greatly 1988; Bowsher et al., 1996). In cereals, there have been
decreases the amylose content of the starch. There is clear demonstrations that glucose-1-phosphate is the
evidence in pea, however, that there are other isoforms imported substrate ( Keeling et al., 1988; Bowsher et al.,
that potentially could take on this role, for example, in 1996) rather than ADPglucose or glucose-6-phosphate.
pea pods (Denyer et al., 1997; see later). Furthermore, This path is now believed to be of minor importance,
there is evidence from mutants that GBSSI is also involved however, since there is evidence from barley and maize
in amylopectin synthesis since the nature of the amylopec- that most ADPglucose pyrophosphorylase activity is loc-
tin in these mutants differs from that of the wild type ated outside the plastid and that ADPglucose is specific-
(Delrue et al., 1992; see also rug5 below). Starch- ally transported into the plastid by a protein, in the case
r ( WL200) rb ( WL1685) rug3-a (SIM1) rug4-a (SIM11) rug5-a (SIM51) lam-a (SIM501)
r-c (SIM53) rb-c (SIM14) rug3-b (SIM32) rug4-b (SIM91) rug5-b (SIM52) lam-b (SIM502)
r-d (SIM54) rb-d (SIM15) rug3-c (SIM41) rug4-c (SIM201A) rug5-c (SIM81) lam-c (SIM503)
r-e (SIM55) rb-e (SIM16) rug3-d (SIM42) lam-d (SIM504)
r-f (SIM56) rb-f (SIM101) rug3-e (SIM43) lam-e (SIM512)
r-g (SIM57) rb-g (SIM102)
r-h (SIM58) rb-h (SIM103)
r-i (SIM59) rb-i (SIM103W )
r-j (SIM61)
r-k (SIM71)
Table 2. Characteristics of pea starch loci and similar loci in maize and Chlamydomonas
Fig. 6. Scanning electron micrographs of starch grains from the wild type (A), r mutant (B), rug5 (C ) and a double rug4/rug5 mutant (D) of pea.
Not to scale.
starch granule which is thereby semi-crystalline, the (Patzelt, 1974), the background appearing pink ( Fig. 7).
remaining part being called the disordered (or amorph- Crystallites ordered differently with respect to the plane
ous) part. The amorphous part of the starch granule is of polarization, either towards or perpendicular to it, give
believed to consist of amylose and long chains from the rise to the different colours ( French, 1984; Morris and
amylopectin ( French, 1984). There is evidence that there Miles, 1994).
are alternate layers of semi-crystalline and amorphous A three-dimensional model has been proposed to
material in the starch granule ( French, 1984; Perez and describe the arrangement of crystallites in potato starch
Imberty, 1996). The presence of crystallites causes the granules (Fig. 8; Oostergetel and van Bruggen, 1993). In
Fig. 7. Starch granules in water viewed using polarized light in conjunction with a l plate. (A) Wild-type pea starch, (B) potato starch, (C ) maize starch.
Starch: as simple as A, B, C? 493
are found typically in the seeds of grain legumes, for
example, peas. A comparison between maize, potato and
pea starch granules using polarized light is shown in
Fig. 7.
It is possible, using wide-angle X-ray diffraction, to
calculate the proportion of the starch which is formed
into crystallites. In order to calculate total crystallinity
correctly it is necessary to measure a wide range of angles,
from at least 4 to 30 degrees 2h, and take into account
the fact that the diffraction pattern also contains a
contribution from the amorphous part. In the past, these
two criteria have not always been taken into considera-
tion, mainly because it is difficult to measure the amorph-
ous part. Recently, however, Cairns et al. (1997),
following the work of Chinachoti and Steinberg (1986),
have used a method for estimating the amorphous part
by recording wide-angle X-ray diffraction patterns of the
starches, whose crystalline part had been destroyed
Fig. 8. Schematic model for arrangement of amylopectin in potato ( Fig. 10). It has been shown by Hermans and Weidinger
starch. (A) model for an amylopectin molecule showing clustering of (1961) that the total crystallinity of semi-crystalline poly-
Fig. 10. (A) X-ray diffraction pattern of wild pea starch in native form
(a) and of amorphous starch (b) adjusted with reference to (a) according
Fig. 9. An illustration of the arrangements of amylopectin double to Cairns et al. (1997). (B) X-ray diffraction pattern of the crystalline
helices. (a) A-type and (b) B-type starch polymorphs. Each circle portion of wild pea starch obtained by the subtraction of pattern b
represents a view down the z-axis of a double helix. Adapted from from pattern a in (A). (C ) peak profiles for the X-ray pattern of the
Sarko and Wu (1978). Note the distances between helices are not to crystalline portion of wild pea starch in (B), calculated as described in
scale, absolute values for the distances can be found in Ring et al. (1993). Cairns et al. (1997).
494 Wang et al.
mers can be calculated using the formula below, once the usually called melting and gelatinization. Melting occurs
contribution from the amorphous part is known. in low moisture conditions ( less than 30% of water (w/w)
for most starches), when there is no free water in the
Q Q system, and gelatinization occurs in excess water (usually
% crystallinity= st am100% (1)
Q greater than 70% water), when there is an excess of free
st
water ( Evans and Haisman, 1982; Blanshard, 1987). Both
Where Q and Q are the measured areas under the
st am of these processes occur when starches are heated in
wide-angle X-ray patterns from the semi-crystalline and
intermediate conditions of moisture (between 30% and
amorphous samples, respectively.
70% water content). The DSC representative curves for
Wide-angle X-ray diffraction can also be used to deter-
the melting and gelatinization of potato starch are shown
mine if starches have A-, B- or C-type crystallinity. As
in Fig. 11. The melting endotherms are on the 0.28 and
with the calculation of total crystallinity, it is necessary
0.36 thermograms; gelatinization is on the 0.81 thermo-
to subtract the contribution made by the amorphous part
gram. The 0.45, 0.51 and 0.64 thermograms represent the
from the overall X-ray pattern. Using this procedure,
occurrence of both processes: the lower temperature peak
typical A- and B-type polymorph patterns have been
is characteristic of gelatinization and the higher one of
obtained for maize and potato starch, respectively (Cairns
melting. The character of the melting and gelatinization
et al., 1997). A computer peak fitting program has been
curves is very different: very wide endothermic peaks,
used to determine precisely the peak positions which are
with a peak temperature that is strongly dependent on
characteristic of A- and B-type polymorphs (Cairns et al.,
the moisture content of the sample, are characteristic of
1997). The polymorph composition of a given starch can
melting, whereas gelatinization produces large, relatively
C D
1 1 R V energy of a population of starch granules during heating
= u v x v2 (2)
T T0 DH V 1 1 1 will include the sum of: DG , DG , DG , and DG , where
m m u 1 1 2 3 4
DG is the change of free energy of disruption of crystal-
1
Where: T0 is the equilibrium melting point of crystallites line order within the granules; DG , the change of free
m 2
without diluent; T is the melting point in presence of energy of disruption of double helices within the granules;
m
diluent; R is the gas constant; H is the fusion enthalpy DG , the change of free energy following disturbance of
u 3
per polymer repeating unit; V is the molar volume of the interactions involving the amorphous parts of the
u
repeating unit of crystalline polymer; V is the molar granules; DG , the change of free energy during swelling.
1
Fig. 13. The DSC thermograms of starch from pea (var. Sproot) in
Fig. 12. The influence of the rate of heating on the peak temperature excess water and different concentrations of KCl: distilled water (a),
of DSC thermograms. The arrow indicates the temperature below 0.3 M KCl (b); 0.5 M KCl (c); 1.5 M KCl (d). Heating rate 1 K min1.
which Tp is independent of the heating rate. Redrawn from Shiotsubo Concentration of starch in suspension is 0.440.5% (w/w). Adapted
and Takahashi (1984). from Davydova et al. (1995).
Starch: as simple as A, B, C? 497
to the disruption of B polymorphs and the second to A change of 10 C min1, which are not quasi-equilibrium
polymorphs (Bogracheva et al., 1994, 1995, 1997; conditions and, therefore, must be viewed with caution.
Davydova et al., 1995). It has been possible by using As mentioned earlier, a number of pea mutants have
such additives coupled to heating and cooling cycles to been isolated and characterized with regard to their effects
completely distinguish the two transitions (Bogracheva on the biochemistry of starch synthesis. In addition, the
et al., unpublished data). effects of the mutations on the chemical composition of
the starches are known and have been discussed earlier.
Behaviour of starches from mutants With regard to the granular structure and gelatinization
properties of the starches, most information is available
A wide range of mutants have been described which have for the r and rb mutants, which have been known for
lesions affecting the content and composition of starch. many years, and for the double mutant, r/rb (Bogracheva
Many of these mutants have been characterized with et al., 1995, 1997; Hedley et al., 1996, 1997). There is less
regard to their biochemical effects on starch synthesis and information on the starches from the most recently char-
their chemical effects on amylose and amylopectin and acterized pea mutants (rug3, rug4, rug5 and lam;
these have been discussed earlier in this review. There are Bogracheva et al., 1997; Hedley et al., 1997).
few reports, however, of the effects of such mutations on In relation to granular structure, there is no significant
starch granule structure and physico-chemical properties, effect of the rb mutation, the total crystallinity and the
most of them have been on maize ( Wang Y.-J. et al., proportions of A and B polymorphs being similar to
1992, 1993a; Katz et al., 1993; Campbell et al., 1995; those found in starch from the wild type. The gelatiniz-
Kasemsuwan et al., 1995; Shi and Seib, 1995) and rela- ation behaviour, however, differs from the wild type in
Conclusions
Starch is an extremely important part of our diet. It is
becoming increasingly significant as an industrial raw
material, yet we are a considerable distance from under-
Fig. 14. DSC thermograms for starches of the near-isogenic pea lines
in excess water. Genotype and the concentration of starch suspension:
standing the link between the functional properties
awild-type starch, 0.54%; br mutant starch, 0.50%; crb mutant required for starch use and the effects of individual genes,
starch, 0.07%; dr/rb double mutant starch, 0.80%. Heating rate despite rapid advances in our knowledge of its biosyn-
1 K min1. Reproduced from Bogracheva et al. (1995) with permission
of the journal.
thesis. It is clear, however, that some features of the
physical properties that dictate the functionality of starch
can be ascribed to specific genetic differences.
Starch is a far more complex structure than its chem-
when starches are processed. It is important, therefore, istry would imply. There are A, B and C glucan chains
to understand the basis of gelatinization behaviour. It in amylopectin, A and B polymorphs in granules, A and
can be suggested that gelatinization is in some way B granules in some species and there are A, B and C
determined by the amylose content of the starch. It is types of starch. Learning your A, B, C might seem trivial
apparent, however, that when the amylose content is low, to some of those involved in starch science, but to the
as in waxy maize starch and in starch from the lam child, learning your A, B, C seems extremely difficult.
mutant in pea, the changes in gelatinization properties Furthermore, in trying to relate starch structure to gene
can be either positive or negative compared with starch action, we are all still children. Our inability to escape
from their respective wild type. For example, the Tp for the first three letters of the alphabet has also not helped.
waxy maize starch is higher than for normal maize Go learn your A, B, C!
starch, while the Tp for lam starch is lower than for
normal pea starch. In addition, when the amylose content
Acknowledgements
is high, as in starch from ae maize and from r mutant
and r/rb double mutant pea, this can result either in an We should like to thank the BBSRC, MAFF and Unilever for
increase in Tp, as in the r/rb starch, or in the lack of a supporting our work on peas. Thanks also to Sandra Cumming
narrow peak transition, as in the r and ae starches. It can (The Royal Society) and Liz Atchison (JIC ) for their help with
the works of Antony van Leewenhoek, to Rod Casey and
be concluded from these examples, therefore, that the Alison Smith for reading parts of the manuscript, to Chris
amylose content in starches is not the direct reason for Harrison and Lorraine Barber for unpublished data and for
their gelatinization behaviour. reading the manuscript, and to our many other colleagues
Starch: as simple as A, B, C? 499
especially at IFR, Norwich and ATO-DLO, Wageningen, past Boyer CD, Garwood DL, Shannon JC. 1976. The interaction of
and present for providing information for this review. the amylose-extender and waxy mutants of maize Zea mays
L. Starch 28, 40536.
Brown RC, Lemmon B, Doan D, Linnestad C, Olsen O-A. 1996.
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