A Survey of Metaphysics
E. J. Lowe
CONTENQUP, 2002
What smeaphysct
The thea of ai
‘The objation from naturale estemoogy
Kant andthe posi of metapysie
Metaphysics sd empire nomielge
Posi, concept and semantis
‘Ontlogy and oto eater
Askar oatine of hit hok
PART I IDENTITY AND CHANGE
Numeral and alae identi
Compost objets and hang of parts
‘he pal ofthe shi of Thee,
“wo rai solutions wo the pure
beter slson?
Teague entity pone?
‘Thepardor of he thousand and one eat
QUALITATIVE CHANGE AND THE DOCTRINE OF
Leib’ Law ad he role fq change
“Tye temporl eat sation to he problem
-Achieaon of header slton
Pendrace ver endurance
‘he notion of taper pars
Aproiem or pearance hres
“Temporal part athe ontien
2
”
proé
ening od cing xe
Can ieee icing bj?
lative vert ey
Temporal parm cincing obi
Same alton oh robe of incienee
Inéeene of ncn obs
enya eostaton
The paben of Tier spd 1
PART Hf: NECBSSITY, BSSENCE, AND POSSIBLE WORLDS
“Tro ins of pstty
obi deri of tinton
xm or te ney ey
Some bets othe argue
igi digo
Trew ey
Cink wo bjs hve ben oe
The ect of ey ad the nd-body pb
ei and aside prope,
ei proper and he nce fen
set properties andthe ble of transvoe iety
Indiv merce and nsetien
Mourne argument forthe neces oon
‘The necro cman
Abele ing
ence nd convention
ereey
eeThe ngage of posse wok
Modal agian thi nterpretaton
Aces rein and eerie thse
How shoul we ndend kf pone won
Adeltioray view
Mol tno
Rest ores fps woes
abt ea andthe inde conception of aaty
CAUSATION AND CONDITIONALS
‘jon versie condone
Counter corti nd poe works
Condon exe mile and igh cteractals
The nsion a loess eee pose mos
The probe of Gaerinic wre
acrckng suerte and content dependency
Analernatve ani counteract
The’ Human ana of tation ad its poems
‘The counterticl ppoich ent aston
Prob vt coation
Contry cases and kgonndconons
The iapshot Argument
Polen tthe Sings Argument
The snp court nals of een casio
Sen ica the singe nase
The poe of sl nedterinaton
Some posible sponses tothe probes
The complex ctrl nla of een cation
Genelec tthe coum approach
The cc tection
PART IV: AGENTS, AC
IONS, AND EVENTS
Te fried agent cation
"he robe il
Mtl ssn, tone, and edo of ton
ic cton and acrd conan
The cone prof sentation
‘Anan of een eration
pions or hoon cai
Chern of en
“The ndviuton of eton and evens
‘Neal eterno en for een
‘Sime pnts the ey abgtonretin ange
aretha abject vets
‘Redaction vera linn
Ismoton can of stance?
Prospects for none lai of hing an ens
Can there tie without chang?
Shoemaker’ agunent
PART V: SPACE AND TIME
Dimensional and he structure of sce
Space the void versus space sa "penu
Newton ste pace
“The iting backeeerimen and Mack objection
"he ger ho experiet
Object Macs pation
“The areal theory of ela andthe ntare of pce
“These theory fetta the ef ie
Sittin elton an rancendetal den
‘Thearuest om incngrn counters
Kans umpc of he lary and
‘Nt dimensona egy
Mobi be adie apology pac
ow ry dein oo pee?
Dont ac dente an cto gat
Isiandedese propery?
EEEGE
a
ety an he pearance change
The Prelate Raease
Inthe paras eating
‘An ered ein ofthe parade
‘Neamimon srt ajoon othe pron
‘Wy does the pardon er compeling?
More oid wean othe pnrador
“he Padre Moving Soca rte pase
“The Asser the Bees
Magarin ee sea fine
Doe the Ase x onan?
Tee ad theres probler
Algo of Menger tae
The thors onetime nd ene
lethe page fie sry?
‘ya cnepions ft a he ey fhe ate
‘Temporal asym and the sree of ine
“Temporal army ond he psge ie
Caution and tepocal spneey
Sahar xuton atime it the pst
fect the ps vers ning he pst
“Teron ne exer tne
Prohens fle aon nh mile oop ay
‘The Granite aad rd the bl of tal opt
‘Timer gee tnt inonmtonalaop
‘hela of theme and thea aimePART VE: UNIVERSALS AND PARTICULARS
‘The disicion beeen nivel and parcrs
[Asgtemporl acount ofthe iiacton
Insentaton snd an seat oun,
‘Nominal era eat
Pretiat ahd proper,
Resa cus and eseblince nominal
Some problens fo wsenbie nominal
Thebund tiey
The protien of sence
“wo nts of cnee ani the wat of apes
The saiempral nd cu era of stares
sun in spac ad ine
ow tae oat obs psi?
The aspen argent
Matete tad tematic
‘Theansogal ater of ate
The ono atu of pole weeds
Univers and in of sre
‘Aree aba comer obj?
‘Theertalopal atu ffl eh ats of is
ingen
ef
PREFACE
4s i tle nes, he sop Fis bok is oad my iter being
tha it should be eapable of eving a coe tex for taden of mang
‘tess, covering all of the est important ois tha they ae ely
to encounter in atypical metaphysics sure les smd einai
lntermediate and advanced undergrad stadt of pilosa
ttuents who hae already ben intduced o some ie nap
reurn to ts vigil shape upon being stretched An empl tt can
nin eel wheter ot aot ashi property one can sing
Semp to sec the objet and sce whether seta to its ogi
Shape But sch 2 tet taste wo perfor, dest provide an
npr ean of detent cera tie, tht a abject eta
th time Thin why laciy is ot el Speakng, x percep prop
‘ny ofan jc nthe ese Tha jst defined. By contrast we can ery
ten detect nots colour or shape ata certain time simply by observ
tng a it at that ime which why cloor an shape re, this ene
pecptble prope. Thee consieration sage a altough may
Fee case ht the state andthe amp of bronze are empirical indi
fingaishbl ring the ine of the coinciene thi sti eaes scope for
them to pote diferent propre from one another during thst ine
ndbece tobe stinguhbl ins broader ease Hwee i emains 0
te sex whee, nd if 30 how, hs possibilty canbe exploited by the
chante af spatiotemporal colcienc.
Tal suggested tat ome pilonphers nd tdi to understandhow two numerical sine objets could Be exactly alk in vespec of
"he nop historkal and non-modal propre at» crn tne and yet
ier for one another in respect of thee hor and. med
roperin paral a apposed the ate wth hese and
the inp of bronze, the two objet in question sre compose of exehy
‘hesame mac partes Now it icertsinly oe thatthe ste andthe
Jump ofbonze enna be expected to dif rmmone anothers repect of
‘het physi dispositions popes during the Une af esincdene If
the bone i ctrl conducive and seule sulphur ed 50 00
vel be the sate, Tht ts bese sich dpoiionl properties a
fuounded i oF “uperiene upon’ the properies and rltion: of the
nui pares composing the sate ad them of boa. However,
tot all mods properties ate We such dapostional properties in this
resect Some ofan objet’ moda properties are ot rr ts materia
station bt oni ersten corti whic deen wat sorts
fof dung the objet can and cannot suvine-and this mate of what
indo bject the objects A sate for instance, kind bet which,
nike lamp of one, cannot ive much chang oe shape Con
‘ect a lump of onze aking of obj whic lke a state, anno
vive any change ttl compost,
‘There modal pops othe obetsn gosto re eidenty not tobe
explain by eference ote properties and relations ofthe materia pa.
"slew open tales ad ep of bone respective Suck mol
propaties sr not realy pire proper atl ut athers roe one
Hat are rounded in categoria ditions of metaphyseal matere i
sna fit Wat that what equi fora emp af romeo persist ver
lime Br certain bana presto Be united together fo 3 peso of
tie, witht ay ofthe being seated rom the sto being replaced
‘yran ew prices Eq ts a8 roth tht whats roqie for
state to persist vein forse many rer pres —but
rot neces the some material partes to Be united togtie for 2
Dering of time wile constantly exiting crtsin over shape, The
once of lamp oF bronze and ofa te ate precy the cops of
Dssing abject of Kinde governed bythe foregoing psisenc cond
dons The emsequece that one cant in pine tly spy
‘samising an objet empirical 3 cru momento in, hat
tate or lunp of brane For wheter a ot something qualifies aan
‘jet oF one of these Kinds ta certain moment of tne partly «mater
‘of ha the case at exer a aer moments of tne by chance,
lage nue of brome partis were to came ogee for just a moment
inthe shape ofa satus mediately to be doped gana moment ater,
that woud ot imp ta the a np of bone on bronze ate ad
tse or hat moment for no petting ob compare of hoe Pr
‘ees oul have buen cet nti espe, the proper of Beng
Jump of bronze ad Being a ste at sin sent the property of
‘ring in motion. Wouter not am objet im motion at erin
moment fine cannot beetle simply an mpl examiation
tthe oet est in, Deca is pay a mater of what isthe ase a
face and later moments of tine—namely, wheter the objet ina
‘dient postin at eater an iter moments fue. (Orit seas: Dt
‘wes ein Copter 6 thatthe metaphysis of mation comeoversa
‘oped
"We ow hve than the materia with wich to answer the objections
hat ae been od sit the notin ofthe ptotenpora coincidence
‘of pening objet, sch the state andthe lump of rome iste
tha a any hen moment ofthe coineidenc, che sate athe rp oF
‘woe do not ifer inept fay property whos poses by them
is determined ely by what te sea tt moment of ine, without
ny erence to what he aan rater moments oie Ti
‘iy the aa andthe imp of brie aeindiingiabe i spc of
thei perceptible pret a any sorent ftir enincdence is aso
{eve thatthe stat and thelanpofbrone dona dif, sany moment oF
their coincidence, in respect of any of the pha dspostiona
‘ropetiee—undertanding these tobe dispositional properties tat ae
{pounded inthe properties an rltions ofthe mate prices compos
ing ther, Hower it can be tue tat the satue andthe mp of
Ione dif, at anymore ftir coinciene in eget af many
their modal an histori properts: for the posestion of thse rope
tis snot determined ey by wh ithe eae he ime tick they
poses them, or ate these properties grounded inthe properties and
Feats ofthe materi prtes composing te ate andthe Lump of
‘rome
Here iis imports to pps tht modal and historia properties,
seie generally ae only rable object vie of the fact that
‘srtsin appropiate prssence conditions are asin o thos abject.
Cl, we cannot popes of = tain presen exising objec that
something eel tin he pst ott would behave in sich nd such 2
vay inthe aureif were to beacted on tain sion, unless we ean‘sy nucle wha egied for ha oro exit th not and
| the pasa bth noo at inthe acl or pos) ate. One con
sequence ofthis that the state ad he ump afro can in lier
from one another, during the tine of ti coincidence een in respec of
ces of ei dspstinal propererthe plication bing that nt all
‘ofthe dispostonl properties se imply grounded the properties snd
reno ofthe ate paris which compove then. Fer erp we
‘nay ofthe statue thts ipod to cast shadow’ of cera shape,
eping that were oe sen theron and expo slight
shadow ofthat eae would be aston the ground tf fot Ba we
zona ofthe amp of bron, ithout qalistion, tht i posed
tocasta shadow of any pata hee Fo, wets the atu, so ong
itera not resin a cersin constant shape, ths ne tae of he aap
‘of bronzs—thee fas being consequences ofthe respective persience
‘anion ofthe save ad the an of bone.
That ten cscs pint defend the view tat we namely
line peritng objects om crinci,beau, ough me soe
Sealy seem pela ny lente view ern a ive sill ore pecs
oneguences Raps th iw epee inp, cat com
fosed wid aot, much les ely deeb view namely that t90
numerically ditinct persiting objects of racy the same kind an
Coincide, The ies that wa states, or kp of rns, cadet in
‘acl the we place atthe sie tine seems very strange indes—
koh are have sen, ome accounts feb spd the peretence
require ws sy pect thik! The view that Ihave defended resis
{Guesof patotemporal coincidence Between pesiting abst ons
‘whchabe abject question pone dierent perstence condone nd
se consequently abject of gute diferent Ks fone were to tk 3
‘elinay member ofthe plc whale er not tw diferent bjs cold
exit ithe same place st these time, one might wl recive a
fnphatic "No! for an ansver—but tht I think 8 ony Because the
‘erpndent woud nt have mid the kindof cate thi we have Be
‘hncsing
{sft om, ne ne ie Ce eis.
Identity and constitution
If we aca that the stu and the lump of rome are two pumerily
isin objects even when they coined» question sl reins concern
ing the elaonshi a ene another when they dei ht eationsip
tone of enya hen i A standard answer would bet that
the elatoship sone of constant lp of bone omits the
Ste ring the peo ofthe coincidence? Cnttton understood
tobe an asynetal elation that sa cones B then doesnot
onsite The sate, for instance doesnot conte the lamp of
trent. But how do we desde which object constes which? That gues
tio cam pepe ony be answered saistactory by providing am nays
‘or dfn ofthe consittin elation, which sp easy mater 1 shall
hot attempt to present + deine assert, though 1 do want to
‘mention one ate promising yop The pepo aus, 5cen$
‘esonbl tha he selon of contin only ever eas between
pessiing cbt which ate compost, at ae the slau ad the lamp of
‘rome Aad the propos thi that ne compte bj consis
hohe compose objet at atin atin cae wand beac oincie
and every component pat of wat is component part ba bt
to every component pat of bat «component pr of at. This
Afni has the stable fare a impyng tha consthuton is an
‘symmetieaton, But may be wondered how i said i he
{iba ofthe state and he lamp oboe Theanine sth while ts
Peet toy thal every component pat ofthe lump of brome is 2
fomponent pat ofthe sate fr example ech pre of bronze iit
isan plas ay tht there ae crn prof the ate which ate
Imecommponet prs ofthe mp rn am hiking of och arts of
the ssue shed,ars egh ad 0 forth Each of thee prt of the
ste seems right os cna at f the lap of brome,
but snot eal with that prt of he lmyp of Brome, forthe re
‘eso the testo els potential withthe lump of rome 2
ttle—amn, case a prt of he state wah bts ead has iret
Deistenceconons om tose ofthe part ofthe amp of bonz which
tly councies ith tha part fe statue. Ths els to explain why it
nity seems wong t sty thatthe ead ofthe statue 3 prof theump of brome at 2 whole. But fll defence of this propo would
ree moc ure dispenser it ber rely at atti of
ow one might to nae he elation consston
‘The problem of Tibbles and Tib
(Our discusion of sputitemporl coincidence would not be compet
tout consieration of another kind of ease which thretent 0 Be,
tome ways, ven aor ouing than that of hee and the ump of
brane Let rec fm Chapter end Tih thet. Tibi, ihe
any nor ct ha tak which we ea al, ite simp "Tal Tal i
leary 4 component per of Tbles Rat now consider the rest of
"ible the hole of Ties part fom Tila et wal his 18
Whether there rely apy sch ect a Ti sa debate mat, we
shal, bt for he te being eto stre tht tere ie” Thea Tb
‘would alo appear be x cmponent art of Tle Clay, bles ad
Tit are not nt with one another for Tes has Tul at pat
‘whee ib doesnt. However, crt can survive the se ofthe als
‘oppose ht Tbe loses a pehaps nam acide. Since Tal Was no
pao Ty the sso" Tl can apparel have no beating onthe exitence
‘or non-stece fT So when Tbs oes Tui, that Ti mt
sullen fo, howeve then iis ow the case hat Tes ond Ti erethy
‘einide wit one avater. And he question: how sips fr them
‘acy ctncde and yet to remain numerically aint fom one
ober
‘Ones inl thooght might be tha this ino ely ay diferent fom
thecate ofthe sate andthe amp of bone: can my th a elon
fT Tb constinae Tiber and conmation no en But iis
ot ceartht sch sn ane iin ct tala to us nthe beset
Fe ot clear tht Tip and Tibbs re objects fleet hinds in the ese
a posenng dierent persence ondions fom une athe Tbs not
Ike the lary of brome in being something which cannot undergo
nge of ter cmpontion, Noe does appear tat we ch
svn ina a pia Qty hpi is
hg aan ais no weg ome Ce Ps
‘uta te Poe ural ag on | =
Pest sy afte the of Tl hat Tiles has ay component pat
ich tao lo «component prt of Ta wl a ice vers So the
“nin ofthe consttion retin hat f fled 4 moment ogo would
ot em oper us oy thst TH const Tiles afer the ls of
Tal
Asuna seca ote lations to his problem, of ayng plas,
can be ng A proponent ofthe dorine of emporl pars ean sy
‘hater he loss of Ta, bles and have hei temporal pats
tommon, 30 tht they are ourdinensional’ objects which esc
Coin ith oe anesthe at but ot Before, cern mare of ne
‘nother posts tos that T docs feral ces text when Tail
istost Yt anoter pouty so say that mo sc bjt a8 THD ever
‘stead perhaps sch objet Tl eer Bat ny pain oe
tion to he pb sould tbe to acount 8 fll aiaions. 1
‘oltion defends he view tht after he los af Ta THD apd Tiles ae
two umes dint objects which eal oie with ane another,
then t mst io defend th possibilty f thee Being ay mmf of ach
‘aly coinciding objets, The secre we can ely mpi sts
Sow of lois of path of 3 ea each one of which woud generate a
lion tothe name fest concing object: Fr isan, et
the lor of Tas Tales an Tb might wer the Toss of ays that
tow ter objects exact colcide Tiley, Th 26d the put of Tb and
“The that didnt inca Ft.
thin there ry Be something tobe si fo he pgs hat TS
aes exit prio thes fT bu ceases et theres Bot isl
regu sto sy that Th doe ot ater al ate he sue sort of psi
Eee conn 8 Tbs the at dace However once we doy hat then
‘tpeeaps booms nore quewionable whether we should adit the exit
one of Taal. Tb’ enstence oad be hard deny if tha om
Inte us o denying alo the execs of Tih Beco an ate of
oman sense tha ats ave als mong thi compoeat pts. Ho
ser ity wel be pose to day tat the existence af Tb and that of
“il and or fl together Tal ceruiny as 9 cam to being genuine
omprnent prt of beth it Being vreting wich Bp 0
ompoe Tbe because ts Mestsabl independently of TBs an,
inde could continue oes even Tbs were to cette (Recall
em charecternation nthe previous chapter of omponsnt pars 0
nese tems) Buti i ery dol tat the ame canbe said fr the
pata abject Th For Tb wat only intoduced to eat the tofPART I: NECESSITY, ESSENCE, AND
76 | wenrry ano ewanor
‘Tiles apart om hla a he "free heoneen we oer
ject, Tiber nd Tl is ot es he, that wear provided with any
sey of ening the putative object Tb independently of Ties and
Tila wo soe lea that Ti, even if ext, could qualify as «
euine component part of ke (Cerny tis aed Se how Tb
ul continee ext ven if Tle were cesses othe way hat
Tipit could) Bt once we deny Tie role, becomes qutonabe
wy we should acknowledge Tbs ester a al And if we deny Tis
‘sence then of course thee 0 guest of Tb nal enc with
hes fer the los of Ti: he probe is dsohed
JOSsIBLE WORLDS
csr tn ad ey Dg &
eto ence ety &
Some etn toeargment &
Gat ses eben oe? *
‘evvesiy fey he ids poe *
sservaa115 “
en nd niet popes
cna popertier nd he eet ei ”
tid poperes anh pron fans ieity 300
Inde enced hss ‘
‘Agra eomparion wn ce eas ”
i ening =
Fea cpmetomln o
5
NECESSITY AND IDENTITY
Two kinds of possibility
tn the preceding thre chapters, ny cent thome as ee the entity
tet time of prsiting abject capable of undergoing varios Keds of|
‘hangin ime nthe courte of my dco sometine ad ocasion
tol about the modal properties of essing objets suck at the modal
property thet lump of Bonne he fring ale o survive a change of|
Shape Closely sae to this odal propery ofthe ump of bona
nother kind of modal property: the property a, at any ven moment
tin, of being sucht ul have had» ferent Spe fom the
Shope tata has tte, ley hat has hs property at
fiver moment of ine diferent from ayng hat as tthe ne he
Property of being sich that cul change ts shape and thus cull
uit diferent shape from thease sth at ht time nthe er
tau, we ate ling aboot 2 posta hang ve tme, Not so in he
farmer atthe ne ae alg about what might have ee he aes
‘he nein contrs witht acl the eas a use ne Ts
[ite kindof psbiity we may cl counteract possi. The
ner kind f possibilty poss f change ones time-—e could pe
aps cl tempor! poy (There homewares in which
the er ‘coumeracal possi’ s potently ending: a 5
{gt tht ony wht nota the ase can be poasble this Sense,
heres inte wat oy hat what i actualy he case or Da
very reson, something which «ould hve bor the case and 50 i
‘suterfactealy posi’ in theses ited)
How ae the two Kinds of posbiityvelted to exh the? Does a
possibly of ether Kind imply» eoresponding pssbty ofthe other
Fn ds note en Cansr tthe question af whether counter
factual pst implies a coresponding emporal possi. Gen hatsomething could have had diferent shape now from the shape that i
etaly hao, dos fallow hat that hig ea aie ha ent
‘Shape the fur? don thinks. Forename, sculptor cool perhaps
have gen somewhat ferent shape tet Re as ut made
bt doe lw thatthe state can now be made to take om tha
erent ape, Equal sens cee that temporal pou does nt
imply a conesponting countefcaa pony a Bena» hing cn
‘ge ifeen shape Inthe ftre eo the shape that actly os
tow dae flow that end bare hed dilerest spe nov: For
‘ample, eg be tht a plat of rain ind mas posses certain
Shape a erin sige of ts exbtence for tance, hen i «sed —
‘ren though tis poser io changeit shape deer In thease of
‘ch pln i te oy of een eed hat cold ot ave
a fret shape frm the shape that ctl bas tha moment
erie etsy of that ic cgi nev shape the Ft.
Possibility as a dimension of variation
In tisand he pest two chapter shal ems concerned wet what
hve jos cle "counteract possi, Although T have jst con
teased sich possbies wih temporal” possi, hee are certain
tempting anges between the notin of enunerca posbty and
the potion of ine al cae ofthe pervasive phenomens of emporal
‘hang tine ian thought ofa Belg certain Kind of eens of
‘atone the dimensions of apace ar even more avon ines
Sons af ration In th gneric ea: pty extended igs cn
ince nays along hr with, bent, or ep For arpa er
tetsroaier it apyoacher te ea and per whose tipi tk are
fetter ngs length, Whether merely a dmersion of variation
Es conestious ise dicusion of which must be postponed ui we
reach Fat ofthis bole But let ur aceptthe spgestion fr present
nye. n tht ct, some ofthe paral dat we maybe trp
thaw between ine and counteract posslty—or os pai posi,
1 nl cl ifm sow on ret upon or bng able ee oss.
toy at a kind of dimension of variation fa at we thi of «persisting
tlic a exiting “st ilerent tines, which ate onde in a eat
ewe or air tier 0 ea think of moet as eising in
lifer pou situations, which rao ordered ia sme way: we may.
for instance, think of sme ofthese possible stuatons a being more
“remote (ies close’ thane But we mos be sal ot to pee ch
manly oof, sen fe deem 0 be biel ound or thee i
relly reton ovr ht ‘pole stusions—nastever exactly we
‘tk ofthis aioncanbe rdeed into near sequence inthe wy hat
times can. Nor plausibly & this beawbe possi not jse ne
imension as wn but more He space having several dient
‘mensions Rather te bcs the only tenble potion of ‘loser
becween possible stuationsappents co be based on considerations of
Siilarip—an emis of ay ge kind can nema be deemed sir
to or dima rom one anther in indiniely many erent aps
pending on which estes of them we chooe tfc pon.
Thve Ben peaking of posible sation, a though thes ae Res
that can be ened in certain ways 0 esa plas he lates beng
spatiotemporal Tosti and he orzer beings we might putt md
“Tato Apa the analogy can at bet eo aoe ane Apa From
anything eke,» mods neato’ or posse ststion, wil nora
‘lade is owe spaouepral tare. Whea we speak of 2 pombe
sition i wich certain jc exit hat sustion lets are
tobe on in which the objet ent a rts tie apd in erin plc,
Mest Ut ob sme concrete such aa Ue ofa ilo 3
‘moun: for thee no posible situation sn wich ee, ut
sn spatiotemporal location. After fc to noice that pole
siuaton, a we have Ben speaking of them sofa are not neces
rut incompatible very oe, both of wo diet possible stuaons
«ould obtain together—for insane possible ston in whic J smu
"ch and pose station in wich you ar poor Thin ju that,
in acon t here being wo sich ple stations thee is posible
station in whic am ih nd you ae poo Dy contrat ato hee
{both poe situation in which {am sich ad spoil ain ia
hich am at ih there publ situations which Tam bot ch
tila,
Possible worlds
Mole modal metaphysics ls great emphasis upon = erin sei
das of posible situations, designating thee pole wore Ponte
‘ord nie pon situntions in nea ae—by definition, nell
|tly comple This because they ate cased of beng
‘maxi possible situations. posi ststion minal” js in case
it sis the fling condition fo any propos, peer is the
‘ase that pi teu inthe station in gusto, oF ds isthe cs that pi
ot tre and hee tha tp is re) inthe tation i guetion.
should be aio why any one msm posse stustion se mata
incompatible th, or excludes any oer maximal posible sisation Fee
‘mo nainal posible situations il be numeral distin only ifthe
some propston, which strc one of them bu ot train he the
Bur then Tee canot be posi stuston which plas bs of thee
main posile situations, because it would ave be one in which p
‘sb ra not toe -and thee io ich posible uation.
Fnporant no to cone the condition that Ihave ut stated fr the
Iavialy of « posible situation with nother condition wich ery
pose station mst satis namely his fo any proposio, isthe
{Ger ha ete porno pi tue in the situation in gusto. The erie
ulin impli that fe were tit al the propositions hat ae ren
pee asia pose station, the, fo any proposition we would
sla nd in he ist ite the proposition pits re the proposition
‘ot (but not of couse, bath a them). The ater condition mere
Spies tha if we were to lst all he prposons that ae tein any
sible situation what hetero not its axial), we shal lays
Fin inthe it the propostion eter por notp. This second conan
simply onton whch any stuntion mas sty to be posible
Suton, wheres te former condition i the condo ‘ich any
owe tuations sty tito be mci
Nevessary truths and necessary beings
Because prose wos ae maxi pow setions, each ponte
srk i were cee may that everyting coal be in Chapter
‘real look more loaf he ontological impleaton of ale about
Fs wave nd examine several diferent theories concerning thei
ote tthe oe they shold pay nthe mts of my. Foe
the tne being, ower we all adopt ak of sch words rete
neil, scepting Ua es convient means of endetng
‘tpcuout crn ids of rod im. In thie connection, the Br
"hing oie shat there ate some propasitions ha are Wut i ee)
posible world, These propositions are necsary rth. A reltiey
‘inconroversl example woul be any propostion fhe form th po
ts puch the proposition tht either grat i geen rit nthe ease
‘hat onsen Tat this propotion ea nee rath esate
bythe lave log, which hold in every possible word (Lam suing
re that the ole law of ec idl—of which the propostion
jum cid ian instance—is coe, Tis as Ben dapat by some lg
‘inst hough logins nay dgpte what exact the wr ofa,
tha thre are sone sacha sh es pent pate) Rather more
inereting examples of neces eth ae supple! by msthemstics for
inetanee any proposition of elementary ame sich a the prop
ston he pls tre equal (Some philoaphers of mathematic
tn that mathematic nai et boy feu: howerer, most
‘iho do accept tht ti body ofthe would a cep tht i body
of mcr trtheand ths is the ve that Tay assuming for present
proses shal return a he sue f mathemati ath ip Cape 20)
‘Anna more conversa example of pti neces tt wold be
the proposton that God exist though many phlsophers and theo
logis ave tainted hat i is «gemine exile. at ater ae
cesar trute-propeitions hat ae trae in every pose wort—s0
there are poe rats. these beg propostions that re te in some
posible word. Any proposition which i actualy tae ie fr ha ery
eon apostle ruth, bea the stl worlds ils possible wl
ut man propositions ta re ata se re, none the ess, pose
‘rhe, being tre i some possible wold oe heb the acl wor A
plese example wold be he propoton tht Iam ior ahough
fam tin iti surly could ase Been. Nove that ay nasty
truth fata posse th besa fa proportion ue every
ssl wor then ta foto te in ame possible world Fly. we
‘inte psuble-weld allo character theca of ong! prop
‘one thee are propositions hte rein ome posible wold bt
turin other
‘A well 8 sng the language of posible worst characterize the
rl sta of popoeions we can weit characte the modal sais
beings For empl a mary ing someting which exits in very
pose worl a posting i srethng wish ex in wme poe
‘ov and oningent being isomnething wich xs in some pone
‘revs bat orn oer. only, Ga as Ben taken te pate
gn xpi of: ners being, bt ess contentious examples ae sore4 | necessiny essence, an vosstaLe WoRtDS
‘ofthe abst bjt of tematic thing such the turnin
bers Many metaphysics also seard propations as being abstract
objet that are neesry Bigs However, we st ect tad
Eonfasion which may aie. Tair eharceiaed » necesary th
being proposition hat itr inewey posible word and pose rath
being» proportion that rue in some pole wr The guation of
{ propositon's modal nin th ete guile fren ro the que
tion of whether propor ae seciary beings Ia propstion i
recs being tose every possle word Dutta i gute
dren mater om that proposition bea tue in every pose woe
Some propositions indeedsuch a he conalctry propostion pad
pot pe not Wve in ny pssible weld: and yet i roosts are
ecesary beings hese propositions etn every posse wou
An argument for the necessity of identity
‘We are win postion wo posed to the main busine oft chaper
‘which oersmin the modal sta of speci das of ropstions—
"esiypropostions. An est proposition ie any popoion tata
objet ae emia with am bj where a and bare any objets what
‘er Facevemle the proposion ht George Orel iets with ie
Die ian ent proposition one that actualy tue. Some Mey
ropostons ae, ofcourse, actualy fale, such 2 the proposition that
‘Geovge Orel sent with D-H Lawrence. And ome ce quit psialy
ees tet sucha the aint ienttyproposton tha fe
eal wih fie An interesting question, howee wheter thee ae
‘coming deny propostions thai ny Went propstion hat
{ne tte in sme pose wos But not tae in otere. Many modal
Inet cider tha thee are no cntinget entity propo
tins, asi jodgement on 2 am argument or prot wich seems
to ave been desoped indent by Ruth Brean Marcas apd Sal
phe
fares se
ecessry ano oeneery | 85
The argument has wo premises bath of which are then to be necessary
twat, The fist premise i ht exeryhing sneer identi with
isthe ping of the nec of aden. The sean premiei
Tein’ Law-the principle tht whatever ste of something trae of
ying Mec with tht thing Spore ten that» Sey
proposition ey the proposition tht ar ential wih where
nd bare any ej hater Now by the prince ofthe nec of|
‘tides, we can sy that nieces enc with From si
folios tht tue of tht ecstatic wih a But fom
ths ad the asumpion that ai identi wets Bit lls, by Lebo
Lams tht i also tr of that neces dt wth om
wich folie tht pce iericl wits What me sce ave
Proved the ith tse that ai enc with then Ri er
‘pte at identi with band consquealy hat thee cannot bean
entity proposton thts mes cntngenty tue (ein woe pone
ods but non other).
"tay be hpi to et ou the foregoing argument in rather owe
formal fhio, flows, ech numbered line consiuting a ep inthe
root. Lins (0) and (2) ae the two premises ofthe argument each
Ioumed tobe # acer th, Line (3 has he sat of am spon
crhypotbe
(a) Por any objet tie eer the asta sent with
Ite neexty of dey)
(0) Forany objets cand if iideiea wih. hen tever tue
ofits tro [Lens Lae]
(0) andes with [asmption
neces he cae thats identical with [om]
Itc ofthat itis neces dete with fiom (0)
(6) ais ides wih then whatever ists fails ta of
om (2
(>) Whatever tebe of wi te of [fom () an (6
0
6)
“Therefor,
eistue obs Risaecesriyenical with: [om (9 and
ence he ath sient thom (8)
(io) ides with then ti neces he case tat ais
encal with‘The cons, (1) rs on the it ht fom ce astumpion mae in
line) we can dvive the ain made i ine)
"Tere aremany eos hy th ncn of his argument iin
ing and phage een npg, One i thatthe argument caret i
shows ut hat here tn be nce tts ta ae oot wale pir,
that not ovale dependently of expr evidence, Take the PrOp-
siti that Hespeas is ientical with Phosphor thee beig the ate
Greek names forthe morning sar and the eening star respectively
-Atonones noe kaow a ous, tht te moan tar and the eveing
strane and the same heavenly body, namely he planet Ves. the
aran-Kegke poof i ores ecnry tah tat Hesperus i
enti with Phosporas: bt, play ae whose uth sad
hd he, diconered empire, by mas of stromal observation,
The epneroloi sits f thi ety proposition sth que die
ot fou ht of he deny popes tat Hesperas seta with
Hesperus wich isan pio th of lop. This plication of the
Bare Repte prof renders i supiis ithe eyes af some pho
snes especialy tose who dink tat neesity cannot resem the
"ature of things theses, independently ofthe ways which we on
‘tlre thing or describe them i language, Hower, Lm ata
Sypatatitthe er view of the nate of eset a hope | made
‘let in Chop 0 sl ie objection othe Bean -Kepe rot
from he etn,
‘Some objections to the argument
sth an-Arpe roo val Most nl logins woe ape tat i
‘Ye tmay be poe oot that it isa question begging hati
that i imply asnes precily wtf supposed to prove! The
tet at hase in ena focuses onthe step fom ine (4) te rot
olin) tt i rm the proposition that ti ery thease hat
‘siden ith othe propostn tht steve feta ti ecery
‘enti ght be bested that al tht rely fellows fm the
‘over propostin ihe mich wel oreqsence at tise a ata
‘is neces enc with el Aer al ie ) i deived diet
a ei 9M es of ey i
fiom the princi ofthe eset of ening (0), which simpy he
pinch evrything csi iene wt st rom this we
rely ean conde tn is te of in pst, that isnecesry
ideal with lEbut is pot peeaps so ler that we an concade
that iis eo tha its ese ie with To sume that we
“an once the ater maybe ad ety ust to ase tat ry
truth of enti concerning ata ecesary rah, which the ey thing
to be proved If ths jection scone, Ue (3) a he proof should be
replaced by the allowing lie:
(6°) Wistve ofthat its necessary aie wth (om (0)
This means iat tin (8 0 the pro must be changed to:
(a) ists tat itis ese emi with isa [om (5
nd)
“This um mean tat ne (ofthe prowl be plac by
(6°) tis neces the case tht bidet wit fom (8)
‘And ("of courses 2 wholly unitreting nd unsrpiing 2 prior
wrath,
‘en ifthe Harcan-Kephe proofs subly question begging tat dos
ot mean, of cure thats celine just that ibs not provi
{wth good penser fr thinking that ts conson stra. Tht cone
lon recal sth any te Henitypropostion is neces tre. The
Implication i for intunce, thet af Hespris seed with
Penphoas—i he afin fal one andthe sme abect—then Hesperus
fin Phosphor ed ot hare en stint nthe guage of possible
‘orl Heypers and Phosphor ar one and the same object in the
ual wr then theres noposble ws in which Hesperus and Pos
phorus te two dst objets (OF couse, tere are wots in wich
spe and Phorphorus donot ext atl sine Hesperus and Pho
‘hors re not meses ings bat the cami that any word which
‘ihe of them exis word in which oth of hem ext and they are
identical wines thes) Against his dim maybe rgd that one an
evel ine» posse wold in which astonamers coves ha
Fespers and Phosphorus are wo distin planets Hwee tat on in
Inane + situation doesnot scsi ply hat a enuiney pos
‘bie stuation, We con peta main tne waver going back othe
stand changing te cure of story! bat mt gecinly posetchange the couse of history tha 10 mae it the ease that someting
‘eich happened as not happened fo his voles a contradiction,
(ewe sal sein Chapter i i nportat To distinguish between
‘hg the pst which st possible, amd etn the pas which may
te) Farherore when iti urged tht one an iagine 3 posible world
in hich astonomers dice that Hesperss and Phaiboras are wo
isnt planets may be uetione whether thi rely does caraerie
the content of posible ac of imaginsion:perhapeal hat we a relly
imagine ts pole wel in which there ext te plant ery dar 0
espera ad Phosphorus, which he astronomer f tha or discover
tobe two din planets
Te alo unatisctry to objet to the des tat any tue entity
proposition neces tae that ths ‘ounterexampe! such 36 he
fog i tue, bt not acer, tht Ue age ple ia he
solar system is enn with he planet which i ih nearest othe sn,
‘he proposiion in question i erally tue since Jopiter i bth he
lage net inthe seer ste a th planet which nears he
sun And the propesion eat nec trae, hath beau the sl
syste cold have ha ager plane than Topter and because ptr
‘ould have Bed» diferent ort sound te an Hlowere sch 4 pop
ition mt penne ent pops’ inthe Sense at we have
een dscssng Eater, [id tht ap entity proposition is a pop
ction that a bets enti with an jc where and te
bec ehteer auld be udertood that he term ahi sch
2 conten serve purely orl to the objets) qbston and tec
Contribute nothing else to the proposition expresed wi thir ao
called te descspions-—noun phrases such asthe lest plan in
‘he salir sytem’ andthe plant which i fh nearest to the nde
na hve «pr fete Fnctin: they make + farther conttion
to proportions that are expe with their ad, im re of ther
Alscitive content in every Language, sere elle proper
tunee-aich at Taper, Hesperat and Ese Bla serve purely 0
‘eferto cern objects and mse no dsrpie contribution 1 he fo
rons ta ate expres ith thei sd Hence, propositions sich
the prpostion that espe i Phosphorus and the proposton thi
George Orwell is Fe Blair ae genuine sntty propostions In the
Setended seme. Ks propeions sah as these that ae alleged fo be
seen trae if re a al (Some philosophers of lange, must
be etsonledged, have enined that everyday proper names such 4s
secessty ano meeriry | 9
“jupiter in at ‘gut deft descriptions, ofr abbreviaion
for sich devetion. This implausible though the si to Leto
fo int ere. Sue sy taf thi ew of everyday proper names
tere correct then propoionsexresed wth thei aid woud no be
Temi propstios in the intended sense thr mould etait not
np tae tere are no suck propostions and would have no det
trarng on the chim that ive Hentiy proposions in this sense are
ecary tv. Fr preset paryse, thet sal sume ta this iw
‘keverday proper name I ile and cominue to we ther in ode 10
‘expe denty propositions)
Rigid designators
In thisconnecton iti ten aimed by rroponent of the thes hat any
teu ety proptioni ecensriy us, Dat every proper nes
neigh design singe angusge of posible wii des
itor standard efined to be tern which dexgates the sme abet
never posible word in which tdsgates ating Call However. iit
‘S nove stipulated that a entity propionate mended sense i
fey propaton that expres y mean sentence ofthe orm i
identical with where and ate gd designators then the thesia
ty teeny propson is essay rue isin danger of bing
Aled Fria ileneal with iste nd hence and designate the
‘aie objet inthe actual woe, et weal stipulate hat both '@ and"
lg same abject nan ther posse word then we appear 0
option bu oy tha tere pole worl is which and
‘dsgnate deren objets and hence that “ei ie with Bi
secs tue However, try secured by thee means woul Bea
allow one. The ten of the est of deny nly of metaphysical
inteeattit isa suetntive one tht pdt barged ft rather than ut
‘eonsequeneso ing putin. Thats why Thave not iat
thre tems used expres a ety proposition muse ii dei
tors inthe sense ja define, bt aly tat ese tems us ere
pure to rls certinabjet and conte nothing ee to the po
Frcons expressed with thei ab tre oot tat the Hess of De
Prcesiy fey core then twill uen ou tat ach ers ay be