thiamine, riboflavin and niacin) and inorganic elements (calcium, magnesium, manganese, phosphorous, potassium, chlorine, copper, iron, sodium and zinc). Some spices also contain fatty acids, starch, sugars, cholesterol and fiber (Lewis, 1984; Farrell 1985; Leung and Foster 1996). Spices are not used only in countries where the plants grow. However, the proportion of the use of spices is higher in countries where spices grow (Billing and Sherman, 1998). Use of spices in cooking is the oldest form of aromatherapy that stimulates gastric secretion and creates appetites, stimulates the body, creates positive moods, relieves cold symptoms and respiratory problems, and eases muscle pains. The active components in spices are considered as powerful tools to create a state of wellness such as stimulate production of enzymes that detoxify carcinogens, inhibit cholesterol synthesis, block estrogen, lower blood pressure and prevent blood clotting (Uhl, 2000). Many herbs have antioxidant properties and reduce the deterioration of color of meat by reducing the degree of oxidation of fat in the meat (Lewis, 1984). ‘There is no common method to classify spices. However the most common classification (Clark, 1970) is based on the flavor and color, i.e. hot (pepper), pungent (garlic), aromatic (cinnamon, clove), coloring (turmeric), and herbaceous (rosemary, sage). Spices are also classified according to their taste such as sweet, spicy, sour, bitter and astringent, The aroma is due to volatile essential oils of different chemical compositions such as terpenes, sesquiterpenes, aldehydes, ketones, phenols, esters, ethers, oxides, etc. (Lewis, 1984). Extracts of plants, spices and herbs play an important role in promoting human health by their anticancer, antioxidative and antiflamatory properties. Flavonoids from tea 6beverages act as free radical-scavengers and antioxidants (Wiseman et al., 1997). Anthocyanins and flavonoids from teas and cherries possess antiallergic, antiviral, anticancer and anticarcinogenic properties, and prevent cardiovascular diseases and aging (Balentine et al., 1999). Components in spices also possess colorant, bioactive (i.e. antioxidant and antimicrobial), acidulant and sweetener effects (Chang et al., 1977; Pszezola, 1999; Mansour and Khalil, 2000; Wang et al., 2000). Essential oils (volatile oils) are distilled parts of spices by mostly steam, and also by cold, dry and vacuum distillation methods (Giese, 1994a). Oleoresins, solvent extracts of spices, contain both volatile and nonvolatile fraction of spices (Farrell, 1985). A. History Spices are primarily condiments used in cooking in modem life but in ancient times they were used as basic ingredients of incense, embalming preservatives, ointments, perfumes, antidotes against poisons, cosmetics and medicines, and were valued as condiments in cooking to a limited extend. Spices were used as condiments in food for the first time, in the first century AD in Rome. Medieval Europeans used spices to flavor the drab and partially decomposed food, to provide fragrance and to mask noxious odors. The demand for spices played an important role in world history; which stimulated the exploration of globe, the discovery of continental America by Europeans, and the initiation of trade and cultural interaction between the countries of East and West (Rosengarten, 1969). ‘The first recorded use of spices was dated from the Pyramid Age in Egypt (2600 BC). Onions were fed to laborers as medicinal herbs to preserve their health duringconstruction of pyramids. The spices and herbs used today as condiments such as anise, caraway, cassia, coriander, fennel, cardamom, onions, garlic, thyme, mustard, sesame, fenugreek, saffron, and poppy seed were used in medicine, cosmetics, cooking and embalming. In China, the first authentic record of the use of cassia was found in the Ch’u Ssu (Elegies of Chu) in the fourth century BC. The great philosopher Conficius (551-479 BC) mentioned the use of ginger in his Analects. Excavations in the Indus Valley show that spices and herbs have been used since the first millennium BC (Rosengarten, 1969). In the ancient Greece, spices and herbs played an important role in medical science and as condiments in food. They imported some Eastem spices such as pepper, cassia, cinnamon and ginger, and also used spices and herbs grown in Mediterranean area such as anise, caraway, poppy seeds, parsley and marjoram. Hippocrates (460-377 BC), the “Father of Medicine”, wrote many treatise on medicinal plants and their use. The Greek philosopher and scientist Theophrastus (327-287 BC), sometimes called the “Father of Botany”, wrote two books, On Odors and An Enguiry into Plants, that gathered the botanical information of spices and herbs (Rosengarten, 1969). The transportation of spices and other goods from East to West created several ancient trade routes; the “Incense Route” and the “Silk Route”. High demand and cost of spices in the Middle Ages encouraged the Europeans to find the new routes to primarily spice growing regions in Orient, Marco Polo, Pedro Cabral, Vasco da Gama, Ferdinanad Magellan, Christopher Columbus and Hemando Cortes were the pioneers who established new routes for spice trading (Parry, 1969). The crucial role of spices in the countrys’ economy resulted in the discovery of new lands, wars between countries, and raids of spice growing countries (Farrell, 1985; Parry, 1969) 8Although most of the spices came from the East, some popular spices were introduced to Europe and Asia after discovering the New World. Chili peppers, sweet peppers, allspice, annatto, chocolate, epazote, sassafras, and vanilla were used by Aztecs, Mayans, and Incas to flavor their food and drinks, and for medicinal purposes (Uhl, 2000). B. Use of Spices in Food Spices and herbs, aromatic vegetable materials, have long been used in foods not only for their flavoring, but also for their medicinal and preservative properties (Davidson et al, 1983). Spices also stimulate appetite by increasing salivation, carminative action, and preserve the food by their antimicrobial and anti-oxidant properties (Lewis, 1984). More than 400 spices are used in the different countries in the world. Since ancient times, spices and herbs have been used for preventing food spoilage and deterioration, and for extending shelf life of food, as well (Nakatani, 1994), Spices are used to enhance the flavor and palatability of food. Billing and Sherman (1998) evaluated several critical predictions in order to address the question of why people use spices. The authors evaluated the prediction of the use of 43 spices in 4578 meat-based recipes from 36 countries, They concluded that in hot climate countries the proportion of recipes with spices, number of spices used in each recipe, total number of spices, and the use of most antimicrobial spices were higher. Spices are used to enhance food flavor and palatability. Countries with high mean annual temperature use numerous spices compared to countries with low mean annual temperature. In hot climate countries spices are more frequently used at higher amounts than cool climate countries. 9Spices with strong antimicrobial activity such as garlic, onion, capsicum, cinnamon, and cumin are used more frequently in countries with hot climates than countries with cooler climates. Furthermore, hot country cuisines and spicier cuisines have more antimicrobial potent against foodborne microorganisms (Billing and Sherman, 1998). Billing and Sherman (1998) had two hypotheses about how people started using spices. First, people who used spices, especially in hot countries, suffered less from foodborne illnesses and stored their food for longer period of times. Second, adding spices changed the taste and flavor of food, and made it more palatable and safe for consumption. of 30 different Billing and Sherman (1998) compared the antimicrobial propertit spices and summarized the antibacterial spectrum of each spice. All of the spices evaluated inhibited the growth of some bacteria, 80% of spices inhibited more than 50% of bacteria tested, 50% of spices inhibited more than 75% of bacteria tested, and 13% of spices inhibited all of bacteria tested (Figure 1). The antibacterial spectrum of the most commonly used spices is given in Table 1 ‘The amount of spice extracts used in food systems range from 0.05 to 0.1% (500 to 1000 ppm; Salzer, 1982). Billing and Sherman (1998) calculated that meat recipes contained roughly 0.25-3.0 g/kg of spices (250-3000 ppm). Although many of the spice essential oils have antimicrobial effects against bacteria less than 1000 ppm (Hubtanen, 1980; Kivanc and Akgul, 1986; Zaika, 1988), some spices require higher concentration to exhibit antimicrobial effect. 10‘sage Sadun ee ‘juno eodeie eatsded Tadod voe:8 Sapueue® oot hea S388 woe 28333333358 sadiooy [iv $0 Uoodold Proportial inhibitory properties of spices (adapted from Billing and Sherman, Figure 1 1998), uTable 1. Antimicrobial spectrum of spices Bacteria inhibited Bacillus subtilis Clostridium botulinum Escherichia coli Listeria monocytogenes Serratia marcescens Bacteria not inhibited None References Hargreaves ct al, 1975 Hefnawy etal, 1993, Huhtanen, 1980 Shelef et al., 1980 Basil “Acinetobacter caleoaceticus Alcaligenes faecalis Beneckea natriegens Citrobacter frewnait Enterobacter aerogenes Enwinia carotovora Flavobacterium suaveolens Klebsiella pneumoniae Leuconostoc eremoris Pseudomonas aeruginosa Salmonella Pullorum Serratia marcescens Aeromonas hydrophila Bacillus subtilis Brevibacterium linens Brochothrix thermosphacta Clostridium sporagenes Escherichia coli Lactobacillus plantarum Micrococcus luteus Proteus vulgaris ‘Staphylococcus aureus Streptococcus faecalis Yersinia enterocolitica Deans and Ritchie, 1987 Bay Leaves Acinetobacter caleoacetius ‘Aeromonas hydrophila Alcaligenes fazcalis Bacillus subtilis Beneckea natriegens Brochothrix thermosphacta Citrobacter freunai Clostridium botulinum Enterobacter aerogenes Erwinia carotovora Escherichia coli Flavobacterium suaveolens Klebsiella pneumoniae Lactobacillus plantarum Leuconostoc cremoris Proteus vulgaris Pseudomonas aeruginosa Salmonelta Pllorara Serratia marcescens Staphylococcus aureus Vibrio parahaemolyticus Yersinia enterocolitica ‘Brevibacterium linens Clostridium sporogenes Micrococcus luteus Salmonella Typhimurium Streptococcus faecalis “Alkiug and Karapinas, 1986 Beuchat, 1994 Deans and Ritchie, 1987 Hargreaves etal, 1975 Huhtanen, 1980Cinnamon Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Closiridium sporogenes ‘Azzouz and Bullerman, Aeromonas hydrophila Enterobacter aerogenes 1982 Alcaligenes faecalis Pseudomonas aeruginosa Bayoumi, 1992 Bacillus anthracis Sireptococeus faecalis Beuchat, 1994 Bacillus cereus Deans and Ritchie, 1987 Bacillus subtilis EL-Kady et al, 1993 Beneckea natriegens Ting and Deibel, 1992 Brevibacterium linens Hargreaves ct al, 1975 Brochothrix thermosphacta Habtanen, 1980 Citrobacter freundli Islam et al., 1990 Erwinia carotovora Ismaiel and Pierson, Escherichia coli 1990a Flayobacterium suaveolens Shelef et al, 1984 Lactobacillus bulgaricus Zaika, 1988 Lactobacillus plantarum Leuconostoc cremoris Listeria monocytogenes Micrococcus luteus Proteus vulgaris Pseudomonas fluorescens Pseudomonas pyocyanea Saimonelta Paratyphi Salmonetta Putlorum Serratia marcescens Serratia rhadnit Staphylococcus aureus Streptococeus nasi Streptococcus thermophilus Yersinia enterocolitica Clove ‘Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Clostridium sporogenes ‘Azzouz and Bullerman, Aeromonas hydrophila Bacillus anthracis Bacillus cereus Bacillus subtilis ‘Beneckea natriegens Citrobacter freundit Clostridium botulinum Clostridium perfringens Enterobacter aerogenes Enwinia carotovora Escherichia coli Flavobacterium suaveolens Klebsiella pneumoniae Lactobacillus bulgaricus Lactobacillus plantarum Leuconostoc cremoris Listeria monocytogenes Micrococcus futeus Mycobacterium phlei Proteus morganii Proteus vulgaris Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pseudomonas fluores Salmonella Entertidis Micrococcus (Sarina) Pseudomonas pyocyanea ‘Salmonelia Paratyphi Serratia rhadnii 3 1982 Bayoumi, 1992 Beuchat, 1994 Briozzo et al, 1989 ‘Deans and Ritchie, 1987 El-Kady et al, 1993, Ting and Deibel, 1992 Farag etal, 1989b Hargreaves et al, 1975 Hubtanen, 1980 Ismaiel and Pierson, 19902 Jay and Rivers, 1984 Ramadan et al., 1972 Shelef et al, 1984 Stecchini et al., 1993 Zaika, 1988Clove (eon) ‘Salmonella Pulloram ‘Serratia marcescens Staphylococcus aureus Streptococcus faecalis Streptococeus nasi Sireptococeus thermophilus Yersinia enterocolitica Cumin “Aerobacter aerogenes Bacillus anthracis Bacillus cereus Bacillus coagulans Bacillus subtilis Closcridium botulinum Enterobacter aerogenes Lactobacillus plantarum Leuconosotoc mesenteroides Listeria monocylogenes Micrococcus (Sarcina) Proteus vulgaris Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pseudomonas fluorescens Salmonelta Entertidis Salmonelta Paratyphi Serratia marcescens Staphylococcus albus ‘Staphylococeus aureus Streptococcus nasik ‘Klebsiella prowmaniae Pseudomonas pyocyanea Serratia rhadnti “Azzouz and Bullerman, 1982 El-Kady et al., 1993 Farag et al, 1989b Hassan et al., 1989 Hefrawy etal, 1993, ‘Hubtanen, 1980 Kivane and Akgul, 1986 Kivanc et al, 1991 Ramadan et al, 1972 Saxena and Vyas, 1986 Shetty et al., 1994 bil “Acinetobacter calcoaceticus ‘erobacter aerogenes ‘Aeromonas hydrophila ‘Brevibacterium liners Citrobacter freundit Enterobacter aerogenes Erwinia carotovora Flavobacterium suaveolens Klebsiella pnewmoniae Proteus vulgaris Pseudomonas aeruginosa Serraia marcescens Staphylococcus albus Staphylococeus aureus “Alcaligenes jaecalis ‘Beneckea natriegens Brochothrix thermosphacta Clostridium botulinum Clostridium sporogenes Lactobacillus plantarum Leuconostoc cremoris ‘Micrococcus luteus Salmonella Pullorum ‘Staphylococcus faecalis Yersinia enterocolitica Deans and Ritchie, 1987 Hargreaves et al, 1975 Hubtanen, 1980 Kivane and Akgul, 1986 Ramadan etal, 1972 Fennel ‘Aerobacter aerogenes Bacillus cereus Bacillus subilis Citrobacter freundit, Enterobacter aerogenes Epwinia carotovora Flavobacterium suaveolens Leuconostoc cremoris Proteus vulgaris Salmonella Enteritidis “Alealigenes faecalis Beneckea natriegens Brevibacterium linens Brochothrix thermosphacta Clostridium botulinum Clostridium sporogenes Klebsiella pneumoniae Lactobacillus plantarum ‘Micrococcus luteus Yersinia enterocolitica 4 Deans and Ritchie, 1987 Hargreaves etal, 1975 Hubtanen, 1980 Kivane and Akgul, 1986 Ramadan et al., 1972Fennel (con) Salmonella Pullorum Serratia marcescens Staphylococcus albus Staphylococcus aureus Garlic Bacitus coreus None ‘Abdou et al, 1972 Bacillus subtilis Beuchat, 1994 Campylobacter jejuni EL-Khateib and El- Clostridium perfringens Rahman, 1987 Enterobacter cloacae Ting and Deibel, 1992 Enterococcus faecalis Gandi and Ghodekar, Enterococcus faecium 1988 Escherichia coli Hargreaves et al,, 1975 Klebsiella aerogenes Hetnawy et al,, 1993 Klebsiella pneumoniae ‘Hughes and Lawson, Lactobacillus acidophilus 1991 Lactobacillus plantarum Huhtanen, 1980 Listeria monocytogenes Ismaiel and Pierson, Pediococeus pentosaceus 19908 Proweus mirabilis Rees et al, 1993 Proteus morganii Sato etal, 1990 Proteus vulgaris Shelef, 1984 Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pseudomonas fluorescens Salmonella Dublin Salmonella Enteritidis Salmonelta Typhimurium Serratia marcescens Staphylococcus aureus ‘Staphylococcus epidermidis Swreptococeus agalactiae Vibrio mimicus Vibrio parahaemolyticus Yersinia enterocolitica Lemongrass Bacillus cereus “Sireptococcus faecalis ‘Onawunmi and Ogulana, Bacillus subtilis 1986 Escherichia cali Ramadan, 1972 Pseudomonas aeruginosa Salmonella Enteritidis ‘Staphylococcus auerus Mint Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Alealigenes faecalis “Akiug and Karapinar, Aeromonas hydrophila Brevibacteriwn linens 1986 Bacillus subtilis Erwinia carotovora Bayoumi, 1992 Beneckea natriegens Brochothrix thermosphacta Citrobacter freundii Clostridium sporogenes Enterobacter aerogenes Escherichia coli Klebsiella pneumoniae Lactobacillus plantarum Proteus vulgaris Psoudomonas agruginosa Flayobacterium suaveolens Lactobacillus bulgaricus Leuconostoc cremoris Micrococcus luteus Salmoneita Typhimurium Staphylococcus aureus Streptococcus thermophilus Beuchat, 1994 Deans and Ritchie, 1987 El-Kady ctal, 1995