Heat

This article is about a mode of transfer of energy. For

other uses, see Heat (disambiguation).

In physics, heat is that amount of energy owing from one

body to another spontaneously due to their temperature
dierence, or by any means other than through work or
the transfer of matter.[1][2][3][4][5][6] The transfer can be
by contact between the source and the destination body,
as in conduction; or by radiation between remote bodies;
or by conduction and radiation through a thick solid wall;
or by way of an intermediate uid body, as in convective
circulation; or by a combination of these.[7][8][9]
Because heat (like work) represents a quantity of en- The Sun and Earth form an ongoing example of a heating pro-
ergy being transferred between two bodies by certain cess. Some of the Suns thermal radiation strikes and heats the
processes, neither body has a denite amount of heat Earth. Compared to the Sun, Earth has a much lower tempera-
(much like a body in itself doesn't have work); in con- ture and so sends far less thermal radiation back to the Sun. The
trast, a body indeed has properties (state functions) such heat of this process can be quantied by the net amount, and di-
as temperature and internal energy. Thus, energy ex- rection (Sun to Earth), of energy it transferred in a given period
changed as heat during a given process changes the (inter- of time.
nal) energy of each body by equal and opposite amounts.
The sign of the quantity of heat can indicate the direction
of the transfer, for example from system A to system B;
1 History
negation indicates energy owing in the opposite direc-
tion. Physicist James Clerk Maxwell, in his 1871 classic The-
ory of Heat, was one of many who began to build on
While heat ows spontaneously from hot to cold, it is pos-
the already established idea that heat has something to
sible to construct a heat pump or refrigeration system that
do with matter in motion. This was the same idea put
does work to increase the dierence in temperature be-
forth by Benjamin Thompson in 1798, who said he was
tween two systems. Conversely, a heat engine reduces
only following up on the work of many others. One of
an existing temperature dierence to do work on another
Maxwells recommended books was Heat as a Mode of
system.
Motion, by John Tyndall. Maxwell outlined four stipula-
Historically, many energy units for measurement of tions for the denition of heat:
heat have been used. The standards-based unit in the
International System of Units (SI) is the joule (J). Heat is It is something which may be transferred from one
measured by its eect on the states of interacting bodies, body to another, according to the second law of ther-
for example, by the amount of ice melted or a change in modynamics.
temperature.[10] The quantication of heat via the tem-
perature change of a body is called calorimetry, and is It is a measurable quantity, and so can be treated
widely used in practice. In calorimetry, sensible heat mathematically.
is dened with respect to a specic chosen state vari-
able of the system, such as pressure or volume. Sensible It cannot be treated as a material substance, because
heat causes a change of the temperature of the system it may be transformed into something that is not a
while leaving the chosen state variable unchanged. Heat material substance, e.g., mechanical work.
transfer that occurs at a constant system temperature but
Heat is one of the forms of energy.[11]
changes the state variable is called latent heat with re-
spect to the variable. For innitesimal changes, the total
incremental heat transfer is then the sum of the latent and From empirically based ideas of heat, and from other
sensible heat. empirical observations, the notions of internal en-
ergy and of entropy can be derived, so as to lead
to the recognition of the rst and second laws of

1
2 3 PRACTICAL OPERATING DEVICES THAT HARNESS TRANSFERS OF ENERGY AS HEAT

thermodynamics.[12] This was the way of the historical working body, the hot reservoir, the cold reservoir, and
pioneers of thermodynamics.[13][14] the work reservoir. A cyclic process leaves the working
body in an unchanged state, and is envisaged as being
repeated indenitely often. Work transfers between the
2 Transfers of energy as heat be- working body and the work reservoir are envisaged as
reversible, and thus only one work reservoir is needed.
tween two bodies But two thermal reservoirs are needed, because transfer
of energy as heat is irreversible. A single cycle sees en-
Referring to conduction, Partington writes: If a hot body ergy taken by the working body from the hot reservoir
is brought in conducting contact with a cold body, the and sent to the two other reservoirs, the work reservoir
temperature of the hot body falls and that of the cold body and the cold reservoir. The hot reservoir always and only
rises, and it is said that a quantity of heat has passed from supplies energy and the cold reservoir always and only
the hot body to the cold body.[15] receives energy. The second law of thermodynamics re-
quires that no cycle can occur in which no energy is re-
Referring to radiation, Maxwell writes: In Radiation,
ceived by the cold reservoir. Heat engines achieve higher
the hotter body loses heat, and the colder body receives
eciency when the dierence between initial and nal
heat by means of a process occurring in some intervening
[16] temperature is greater.
medium which does not itself thereby become hot.
Maxwell writes that convection as such is not a purely
thermal phenomenon.[17] In thermodynamics, convec- 3.2 Heat pump or refrigerator
tion in general is regarded as transport of internal energy.
If, however, the convection is enclosed and circulatory, Another commonly considered model is the heat pump
then it may be regarded as an intermediary that trans- or refrigerator. Again there are four bodies: the work-
fers energy as heat between source and destination bod- ing body, the hot reservoir, the cold reservoir, and the
ies, because it transfers only energy and not matter from work reservoir. A single cycle starts with the working
the source to the destination body.[9] body colder than the cold reservoir, and then energy is
taken in as heat by the working body from the cold reser-
voir. Then the work reservoir does work on the working
3 Practical operating devices that body, adding more to its internal energy, making it hot-
ter than the hot reservoir. The hot working body passes
harness transfers of energy as heat to the hot reservoir, but still remains hotter than the
heat cold reservoir. Then, by allowing it to expand without
doing work on another body and without passing heat to
another body, the working body is made colder than the
In accordance with the rst law for closed systems, energy cold reservoir. It can now accept heat transfer from the
transferred solely as heat leaves one body and enters an- cold reservoir to start another cycle.
other, changing the internal energies of each. Transfer,
between bodies, of energy as work is a complementary The device has transported energy from a colder to a
way of changing internal energies. Though it is not log- hotter reservoir, but this is not regarded as being by an
ically rigorous from the viewpoint of strict physical con- inanimate agency; rather, it is regarded as by the har-
cepts, a common form of words that expresses this is to nessing of work . This is because work is supplied from
say that heat and work are interconvertible. the work reservoir, not just by a simple thermodynamic
process, but by a cycle of thermodynamic operations and
Cyclically operating engines, that use only heat and work processes, which may be regarded as directed by an ani-
transfers, have two thermal reservoirs, a hot and a cold mate or harnessing agency. Accordingly, the cycle is still
one. They may be classied by the range of operating in accord with the second law of thermodynamics. The
temperatures of the working body, relative to those reser- eciency of a heat pump is best when the temperature
voirs. In a heat engine, the working body is at all times dierence between the hot and cold reservoirs is least.
colder than the hot reservoir and hotter than the cold
reservoir. In a sense, it uses heat transfer to produce work. Functionally, such engines are used in two ways, distin-
In a heat pump, the working body, at stages of the cycle, guishing a target reservoir and a resource or surrounding
goes both hotter than the hot reservoir, and colder than reservoir. A heat pump transfers heat, to the hot reservoir
the cold reservoir. In a sense, it uses work to produce as the target, from the resource or surrounding reservoir.
heat transfer. A refrigerator transfers heat, from the cold reservoir as
the target, to the resource or surrounding reservoir. The
target reservoir may be regarded as leaking: when the
3.1 Heat engine target leaks hotness to the surroundings, heat pumping
is used; when the target leaks coldness to the surround-
In classical thermodynamics, a commonly considered ings, refrigeration is used. The engines harness work to
model is the heat engine. It consists of four bodies: the overcome the leaks.

4 Macroscopic view of quantity of
energy transferred as heat
According to Planck, there are three main conceptual ap-
proaches to heat.[18] One is the microscopic or kinetic
theory approach. The other two are macroscopic ap-
proaches. One is the approach through the law of conser-
vation of energy taken as prior to thermodynamics, with
a mechanical analysis of processes, for example in the
work of Helmholtz. This mechanical view is taken in this
article as currently customary for thermodynamic theory.
The other macroscopic approach is the thermodynamic
one, which admits heat as a primitive concept, which con-
tributes, by scientic induction[19] to knowledge of the
law of conservation of energy. This view is widely taken
as the practical one, quantity of heat being measured by
calorimetry.
Bailyn also distinguishes the two macroscopic approaches
as the mechanical and the thermodynamic.[20] The ther-
modynamic view was taken by the founders of thermo-
dynamics in the nineteenth century. It regards quantity
of energy transferred as heat as a primitive concept co-
herent with a primitive concept of temperature, mea-
sured primarily by calorimetry. A calorimeter is a body
in the surroundings of the system, with its own temper-
ature and internal energy; when it is connected to the
system by a path for heat transfer, changes in it mea-
sure heat transfer. The mechanical view was pioneered
by Helmholtz and developed and used in the twentieth
century, largely through the inuence of Max Born.[21] It
regards quantity of heat transferred as heat as a derived
concept, dened for closed systems as quantity of heat
transferred by mechanisms other than work transfer, the
latter being regarded as primitive for thermodynamics,
dened by macroscopic mechanics. According to Born,
the transfer of internal energy between open systems that
accompanies transfer of matter cannot be reduced to
mechanics.[22] It follows that there is no well-founded
denition of quantities of energy transferred as heat or
as work associated with transfer of matter.
Nevertheless, for the thermodynamical description of
non-equilibrium processes, it is desired to consider the
eect of a temperature gradient established by the sur-
roundings across the system of interest when there is no
physical barrier or wall between system and surroundings,
that is to say, when they are open with respect to one an-
other. The impossibility of a mechanical denition in
terms of work for this circumstance does not alter the
physical fact that a temperature gradient causes a diu-
sive ux of internal energy, a process that, in the thermo-
dynamic view, might be proposed as a candidate concept
for transfer of energy as heat.
In this circumstance, it may be expected that there may tions. An early [28][29]
also be active other drivers of diusive ux of inter-
nal energy, such as gradient of chemical potential which
drives transfer of matter, and gradient of electric potential In statistical mechanics, for a closed system (no transfer
3
which drives electric current and iontophoresis; such ef-
fects usually interact with diusive ux of internal energy
driven by temperature gradient, and such interactions are
known as cross-eects.[23]
If cross-eects that result in diusive transfer of inter-
nal energy were also labeled as heat transfers, they would
sometimes violate the rule that pure heat transfer occurs
only down a temperature gradient, never up one. They
would also contradict the principle that all heat transfer is
of one and the same kind, a principle founded on the idea
of heat conduction between closed systems. One might
to try to think narrowly of heat ux driven purely by tem-
perature gradient as a conceptual component of diusive
internal energy ux, in the thermodynamic view, the con-
cept resting specically on careful calculations based on
detailed knowledge of the processes and being indirectly
assessed. In these circumstances, if perchance it hap-
pens that no transfer of matter is actualized, and there
are no cross-eects, then the thermodynamic concept and
the mechanical concept coincide, as if one were dealing
with closed systems. But when there is transfer of mat-
ter, the exact laws by which temperature gradient drives
diusive ux of internal energy, rather than being exactly
knowable, mostly need to be assumed, and in many cases
are practically unveriable. Consequently, when there is
transfer of matter, the calculation of the pure 'heat ux'
component of the diusive ux of internal energy rests
on practically unveriable assumptions.[24][quotations 1][25]
This is a reason to think of heat as a specialized concept
that relates primarily and precisely to closed systems, and
applicable only in a very restricted way to open systems.
In many writings in this context, the term heat ux is
used when what is meant is therefore more accurately
called diusive ux of internal energy; such usage of the
term heat ux is a residue of older and now obsolete
language usage that allowed that a body may have a heat
content.[26]
5 Microscopic view of heat
In the kinetic theory, heat is explained in terms of the mi-
croscopic motions and interactions of constituent parti-
cles, such as electrons, atoms, and molecules.[27] The im-
mediate meaning of the kinetic energy of the constituent
particles is not as heat. It is as a component of internal
energy. In microscopic terms, heat is a transfer quantity,
and is described by a transport theory, not as steadily lo-
calized kinetic energy of particles. Heat transfer arises
from temperature gradients or dierences, through the
diuse exchange of microscopic kinetic and potential
particle energy, by particle collisions and other interac-
and vague expression of this was made by
Francis Bacon. Precise and detailed versions of it
were developed in the nineteenth century.[30]
4 8 INTERNAL ENERGY AND ENTHALPY

of matter), heat is the energy transfer associated with a
disordered, microscopic action on the system, associated
with jumps in occupation numbers of the energy levels
of the system, without change in the values of the energy
levels themselves.[31] It is possible for macroscopic ther-
modynamic work to alter the occupation numbers with-
out change in the values of the system energy levels them-
selves, but what distinguishes transfer as heat is that the
transfer is entirely due to disordered, microscopic action,
including radiative transfer. A mathematical denition
can be formulated for small increments of quasi-static
adiabatic work in terms of the statistical distribution of
an ensemble of microstates.
8 Internal energy and enthalpy
For a closed system (a system from which no matter can
enter or exit), one version of the rst law of thermody-
namics states that the change in internal energy U of
the system is equal to the amount of heat Q supplied to
the system minus the amount of work W done by sys-
tem on its surroundings. The foregoing sign convention
for work is used in the present article, but an alternate
sign convention, followed by IUPAC, for work, is to con-
sider the work performed on the system by its surround-
ings as positive. This is the convention adopted by many
modern textbooks of physical chemistry, such as those
by Peter Atkins and Ira Levine, but many textbooks on
physics dene work as work done by the system.

6 Notation and units U = Q W .

This formula can be re-written so as to express a denition

As a form of energy heat has the unit joule (J) in the
of quantity of energy transferred as heat, based purely on
International System of Units (SI). However, in many ap-
the concept of adiabatic work, if it is supposed that U
plied elds in engineering the British thermal unit (BTU)
is dened and measured solely by processes of adiabatic
and the calorie are often used. The standard unit for the
work:
rate of heat transferred is the watt (W), dened as one
joule per second.
The total amount of energy transferred as heat is con- Q = U + W.
ventionally written as Q (from Quantity) for algebraic
purposes.[32] Heat released by a system into its surround- The work done by the system includes boundary work
ings is by convention a negative quantity (Q < 0); when (when the system increases its volume against an external
a system absorbs heat from its surroundings, it is positive force, such as that exerted by a piston) and other work
(Q > 0). Heat transfer rate, or heat ow per unit time, is (e.g. shaft work performed by a compressor fan), which
denoted by Q . This should not be confused with a time is called isochoric work:
derivative of a function of state (which can also be writ-
ten with the dot notation) since heat is not a function of
state.[33] Heat ux is dened as rate of heat transfer per Q = U + Wboundary + Wisochoric .
unit cross-sectional area, resulting in the unit watts per
square metre. In this Section we will neglect the other-" or isochoric
work contribution.
The internal energy, U, is a state function. In cyclical
processes, such as the operation of a heat engine, state
functions of the working substance return to their initial
7 Estimation of quantity of heat values upon completion of a cycle.
The dierential, or innitesimal increment, for the inter-
Quantity of heat transferred can be measured by nal energy in an innitesimal process is an exact dier-
calorimetry, or determined through calculations based on ential dU. The symbol for exact dierentials is the low-
other quantities. ercase letter d.
Calorimetry is the empirical basis of the idea of quantity In contrast, neither of the innitesimal increments Q nor
of heat transferred in a process. The transferred heat is W in an innitesimal process represents the state of the
measured by changes in a body of known properties, for system. Thus, innitesimal increments of heat and work
example, temperature rise, change in volume or length, are inexact dierentials. The lowercase Greek letter delta,
or phase change, such as melting of ice.[34][35] , is the symbol for inexact dierentials. The integral of
A calculation of quantity of heat transferred can rely on any inexact dierential over the time it takes for a system
a hypothetical quantity of energy transferred as adiabatic to leave and return to the same thermodynamic state does
work and on the rst law of thermodynamics. Such calcu- not necessarily equal zero.
lation is the primary approach of many theoretical studies As recounted below, in the section headed Entropy, the
of quantity of heat transferred.[36][37][38] second law of thermodynamics observes that if heat is
8.1 Heat added to a body at constant pressure 5

supplied to a system in which no irreversible processes 8.1 Heat added to a body at constant pres-
take place and which has a well-dened temperature T, sure
the increment of heat Q and the temperature T form the
exact dierential If a quantity Q of heat is added to a body while it does
expansion work W on its surroundings, one has
Q
dS = ,
T
H = U + (P V ) .
and that S, the entropy of the working body, is a function
of state. Likewise, with a well-dened pressure, P, behind If this is constrained to happen at constant pressure with
the moving boundary, the work dierential, W, and the P = 0, the expansion work W done by the body is given
pressure, P, combine to form the exact dierential by W = P V; recalling the rst law of thermodynamics,
one has

W
dV = ,
P U = Q W = Q P V and (P V ) = P V .
with V the volume of the system, which is a state variable.
Consequently, by substitution one has
In general, for homogeneous systems,
H = Q P V + P V
dU = T dS P dV.
Associated with this dierential equation is that the in- =Q pressure. constant at
ternal energy may be considered to be a function U (S,V)
of its natural variables S and V. The internal energy rep-
In this scenario, the increase in enthalpy is equal to
resentation of the fundamental thermodynamic relation is
the quantity of heat added to the system. Since
written
many processes do take place at constant pressure, or
approximately at atmospheric pressure, the enthalpy
U = U (S, V ). [39][40] is therefore sometimes given the misleading name of
'heat content'.[43] It is sometimes also called the heat
If V is constant function.[44]
In terms of the natural variables S and P of the state func-
T dS = dU (V constant) tion H, this process of change of state from state 1 to state
2 can be expressed as
and if P is constant
S2 ( ) P2 ( )
H H
H = dS + dP
T dS = dH (P constant) S1 S P P1 P S

with H the enthalpy dened by

S2 ( )
H
= dS pressure. constant at
S1 S P
H = U + P V.
The enthalpy may be considered to be a function H (S,P) It is known that the temperature T(S, P) is identically
of its natural variables S and P. The enthalpy representa- stated by
tion of the fundamental thermodynamic relation is writ-
ten ( )
H
T (S, P ) .
H = H(S, P ). [40][41] S P
Consequently,
The internal energy representation and the enthalpy rep-
resentation are partial Legendre transforms of one an-
other. They contain the same physical information, writ- S2
ten in dierent ways. Like the internal energy, the en- H = T (S, P )dS pressure. constant at
S1
thalpy stated as a function of its natural variables is a ther-
modynamic potential and contains all thermodynamic in- In this case, the integral species a quantity of heat trans-
formation about a body.[41][42] ferred at constant pressure.
6 9 ENTROPY

9 Entropy or 'compensates, the change, S, of entropy in the sur-

roundings, and a further increment, S that may be con-
Main article: Entropy sidered to be 'generated' or 'produced' in the system, and
In 1856, German physicist Rudolf Clausius, referring to is said therefore to be 'uncompensated'. Thus

S = S + S .

This may also be written

Ssystem = Scompensated +Suncompensated with Scompensated = Ssurro

The total change of entropy in the system and surround-

ings is thus

Soverall = S + S S = S .

This may also be written

Soverall = Scompensated +Suncompensated +Ssurroundings = Suncompensated

It is then said that an amount of entropy S has been

transferred from the surroundings to the system. Because
entropy is not a conserved quantity, this is an exception
to the general way of speaking, in which an amount trans-
ferred is of a conserved quantity.
The second law of thermodynamics observes that in a nat-
ural transfer of energy as heat, in which the temperature
Rudolf Clausius
of the system is dierent from that of the surroundings,
it is always so that
closed systems, in which transfers of matter do not oc-
cur, dened the second fundamental theorem (the second
law of thermodynamics) in the mechanical theory of heat
(thermodynamics): if two transformations which, with- Soverall > 0.
out necessitating any other permanent change, can mu-
For purposes of mathematical analysis of transfers, one
tually replace one another, be called equivalent, then the
thinks of ctive processes that are called 'reversible', with
generations of the quantity of heat Q from work at the
the temperature T of the system being hardly less than
temperature T, has the equivalence-value:"[45][46]
that of the surroundings, and the transfer taking place at
an imperceptibly slow speed.
Q Following the denition above in formula (1), for such a
. ctive 'reversible' process, a quantity of transferred heat
T
Q (an inexact dierential) is analyzed as a quantity T dS,
In 1865, he came to dene the entropy symbolized by S, with dS (an exact dierential):
such that, due to the supply of the amount of heat Q at
temperature T the entropy of the system is increased by
T dS = Q.
Q This equality is only valid for a ctive transfer in which
S = (1)
T there is no production of entropy, that is to say, in which
In a transfer of energy as heat without work being done, there is no uncompensated entropy.
there are changes of entropy in both the surroundings If, in contrast, the process is natural, and can really oc-
which lose heat and the system which gains it. The in- cur, with irreversibility, then there is entropy production,
crease, S, of entropy in the system may be considered with dS > 0. The quantity T dS was
to consist of two parts, an increment, S that matches, termed by Clausius the uncompensated heat, though
 7

that does not accord with present-day terminology. Then

one has

T dS = Q + T dSuncompensated > Q.

This leads to the statement

T dS Q (second law) .

which is the second law of thermodynamics for closed

systems.
In non-equilibrium thermodynamics that approximates
by assuming the hypothesis of local thermodynamic equi-
librium, there is a special notation for this. The transfer
of energy as heat is assumed to take place across an in-
nitesimal temperature dierence, so that the system el-
ement and its surroundings have near enough the same
temperature T. Then one writes

dS = dSe + dSi , Joseph Black

where by denition

Sensible heat, in contrast to latent heat, is the heat trans-

Q = T dSe and dSi dSuncompensated . ferred to a thermodynamic system that has as its sole ef-
fect a change of temperature.[54]
The second law for a natural process asserts that
Both latent heat and sensible heat transfers increase the
[47][48][49][50] internal energy of the system to which they are trans-
dSi > 0.
ferred.
Consequences of Blacks distinction between sensible and
latent heat are examined in the Wikipedia article on
10 Latent and sensible heat calorimetry.

In an 1847 lecture entitled On Matter, Living Force, and

Heat, James Prescott Joule characterized the terms latent
heat and sensible heat as components of heat each aect-
ing distinct physical phenomena, namely the potential and
kinetic energy of particles, respectively.[51][quotations 2] He
described latent energy as the energy possessed via a dis-
tancing of particles where attraction was over a greater 11 Specic heat
distance, i.e. a form of potential energy, and the sensible
heat as an energy involving the motion of particles or what
was known as a living force. At the time of Joule kinetic Specic heat, also called specic heat capacity, is dened
energy either held 'invisibly' internally or held 'visibly' ex- as the amount of energy that has to be transferred to or
ternally was known as a living force. from one unit of mass (kilogram) or amount of substance
Latent heat is the heat released or absorbed by a chemical (mole) to change the system temperature by one degree.
substance or a thermodynamic system during a change of Specic heat is a physical property, which means that it
state that occurs without a change in temperature. Such depends on the substance under consideration and its state
a process may be a phase transition, such as the melting as specied by its properties.
of ice or the boiling of water.[52][53] The term was intro- The specic heats of monatomic gases (e.g., helium) are
duced around 1750 by Joseph Black as derived from the nearly constant with temperature. Diatomic gases such
Latin latere (to lie hidden), characterizing its eect as not as hydrogen display some temperature dependence, and
being directly measurable with a thermometer. triatomic gases (e.g., carbon dioxide) still more.
8 13 RELATION BETWEEN HOTNESS AND TEMPERATURE

12 Relation between heat and tem- wood in his pyrometer. The temperature reached in a
process was estimated by the shrinkage of a sample of
perature clay. The higher the temperature, the more the shrinkage.
This was the only available more or less reliable method
Before the discovery of the laws of thermodynamics, of measurement of temperatures above 1000 C. But such
quantity of energy transferred as heat was measured by shrinkage is irreversible. The clay does not expand again
changes in the states of the participating bodies. on cooling. That is why it could be used for the measure-
ment. But only once. It is not a thermometric material in
Some general rules, with important exceptions, that will
the usual sense of the word.
be indicated noted in following paragraphs of this section,
can be stated as follows. Nevertheless, the thermodynamic denition of absolute
temperature does make essential use of the concept of
Most bodies, over most temperature ranges, expand on
heat, with proper circumspection.
being heated. Mostly, heating a body at a constant vol-
ume increases the pressure it exerts on its constraining
walls, and increases its temperature. Also mostly, heat-
ing a body at a constant pressure increases its volume, and
increases its temperature.
13 Relation between hotness and
Beyond this, most substances have three ordinarily recog-
temperature
nized states of matter, solid, liquid, and gas, and a fourth
less obviously recognized one, plasma. Many have fur- According to Denbigh, the property of hotness is a con-
ther, more nely dierentiated, states of matter, such as cern of thermodynamics that should be dened without
for example, glass, and liquid crystal. In many cases, at reference to the concept of heat. Consideration of hot-
xed temperature and pressure, a substance can exist in ness leads to the concept of empirical temperature.[55]
several distinct states of matter in what might be viewed All physical systems are capable of heating or cooling
as the same 'body'. For example, ice may oat in a glass others.[56] This does not require that they have ther-
of water. Then the ice and the water are said to con- modynamic temperatures. With reference to hotness,
stitute two phases within the 'body'. Denite rules are the comparative terms hotter and colder are dened by
known, telling how distinct phases may coexist in a 'body'. the rule that heat ows from the hotter body to the
Mostly, at a xed pressure, there is a denite temperature colder.[57][58][59]
at which heating causes a solid to melt or evaporate, and If a physical system is inhomogeneous or very rapidly or
a denite temperature at which heating causes a liquid to irregularly changing, for example by turbulence, it may
evaporate. In such cases, cooling has the reverse eects. be impossible to characterize it by a temperature, but still
All of these, the commonest cases, t with a rule that heat- there can be transfer of energy as heat between it and
ing can be measured by changes of state of a body. Such another system. If a system has a physical state that is
cases supply what are called thermometric bodies, that regular enough, and persists long enough to allow it to
allow the denition of empirical temperatures. Before reach thermal equilibrium with a specied thermometer,
1848, all temperatures were dened in this way. There then it has a temperature according to that thermome-
was thus a tight link, apparently logically determined, be- ter. An empirical thermometer registers degree of hot-
tween heat and temperature, though they were recognized ness for such a system. Such a temperature is called
as conceptually thoroughly distinct, especially by Joseph empirical.[60][61][62] For example, Truesdell writes about
Black in the later eighteenth century. classical thermodynamics: At each time, the body is as-
There are important exceptions. They break the obvi- signed a real number called the temperature. This number
is a measure of how hot the body is.[63]
ously apparent link between heat and temperature. They
Physical systems that are too turbulent to have tempera-
make it clear that empirical denitions of temperature are
tures may still dier in hotness. A physical system that
contingent on the peculiar properties of particular ther-
mometric substances, and are thus precluded from the passes heat to another physical system is said to be the
title 'absolute'. For example, water contracts on beinghotter of the two. More is required for the system to have
heated near 277 K. It cannot be used as a thermomet- a thermodynamic temperature. Its behavior must be so
ric substance near that temperature. Also, over a certain
regular that its empirical temperature is the same for all
temperature range, ice contracts on heating. Moreover, suitably calibrated and scaled thermometers, and then its
many substances can exist in metastable states, such ashotness is said to lie on the one-dimensional hotness man-
with negative pressure, that survive only transiently and
ifold. This is part of the reason why heat is dened fol-
in very special conditions. Such facts, sometimes called
lowing Carathodory and Born, solely as occurring other
'anomalous, are some of the reasons for the thermody- than by work or transfer of matter; temperature is advis-
namic denition of absolute temperature. edly and deliberately not mentioned in this now widely
In the early days of measurement of high temperatures, accepted denition.
another factor was important, and used by Josiah Wedg- This is also the reason why the zeroth law of thermo-

dynamics is stated explicitly. If three physical systems,
A, B, and C are each not in their own states of internal
thermodynamic equilibrium, it is possible that, with suit-
able physical connections being made between them, A
can heat B and B can heat C and C can heat A. In non-
equilibrium situations, cycles of ow are possible. It is
the special and uniquely distinguishing characteristic of
internal thermodynamic equilibrium that this possibility
is not open to thermodynamic systems (as distinguished
amongst physical systems) which are in their own states
of internal thermodynamic equilibrium; this is the rea-
son why the zeroth law of thermodynamics needs explicit
statement. That is to say, the relation 'is not colder than'
between general non-equilibrium physical systems is not
transitive, whereas, in contrast, the relation 'has no lower
a temperature than' between thermodynamic systems in
their own states of internal thermodynamic equilibrium
is transitive. It follows from this that the relation 'is in
thermal equilibrium with' is transitive, which is one way
of stating the zeroth law.
Just as temperature may undened for a suciently in-
homogeneous system, so also may entropy be undened
for a system not in its own state of internal thermody-
namic equilibrium. For example, 'the temperature of the
solar system' is not a dened quantity. Likewise, 'the
entropy of the solar system' is not dened in classical
thermodynamics. It has not been possible to dene non-
equilibrium entropy, as a simple number for a whole sys-
tem, in a clearly satisfactory way.[64]
14 Rigorous denition of quantity
of energy transferred as heat
It is sometimes convenient to have a rigorous denition
of quantity of energy transferred as heat. Such a deni-
tion is customarily based on the work of Carathodory
(1909), referring to processes in a closed system, as
follows.[36][65][66][67][68][69]
The internal energy UX of a body in an arbitrary state X
can be determined by amounts of work adiabatically per-
formed by the body on its surrounds when it starts from
a reference state O. Such work is assessed through quan-
tities dened in the surroundings of the body. It is sup-
posed that such work can be assessed accurately, with-
out error due to friction in the surroundings; friction in
the body is not excluded by this denition. The adia-
batic performance of work is dened in terms of adia-
batic walls, which allow transfer of energy as work, but no
other transfer, of energy or matter. In particular they do
not allow the passage of energy as heat. According to this
denition, work performed adiabatically is in general ac-
companied by friction within the thermodynamic system
or body. On the other hand, according to Carathodory
(1909), there also exist non-adiabatic walls, which are
postulated to be permeable only to heat, and are called
9
diathermal.
For the denition of quantity of energy transferred as
heat, it is customarily envisaged that an arbitrary state of
interest Y is reached from state O by a process with two
components, one adiabatic and the other not adiabatic.
For convenience one may say that the adiabatic compo-
nent was the sum of work done by the body through vol-
ume change through movement of the walls while the
non-adiabatic wall was temporarily rendered adiabatic,
and of isochoric adiabatic work. Then the non-adiabatic
component is a process of energy transfer through the
wall that passes only heat, newly made accessible for the
purpose of this transfer, from the surroundings to the
body. The change in internal energy to reach the state
Y from the state O is the dierence of the two amounts
of energy transferred.
Although Carathodory himself did not state such a def-
inition, following his work it is customary in theoreti-
cal studies to dene the quantity of energy transferred as
heat, Q, to the body from its surroundings, in the com-
bined process of change to state Y from the state O, as
the change in internal energy, UY, minus the amount of
work, W, done by the body on its surrounds by the adia-
batic process, so that Q = UY W.
In this denition, for the sake of conceptual rigour, the
quantity of energy transferred as heat is not specied di-
rectly in terms of the non-adiabatic process. It is dened
through knowledge of precisely two variables, the change
of internal energy and the amount of adiabatic work done,
for the combined process of change from the reference
state O to the arbitrary state Y. It is important that this
does not explicitly involve the amount of energy trans-
ferred in the non-adiabatic component of the combined
process. It is assumed here that the amount of energy
required to pass from state O to state Y, the change of in-
ternal energy, is known, independently of the combined
process, by a determination through a purely adiabatic
process, like that for the determination of the internal en-
ergy of state X above. The rigour that is prized in this
denition is that there is one and only one kind of energy
transfer admitted as fundamental: energy transferred as
work. Energy transfer as heat is considered as a derived
quantity. The uniqueness of work in this scheme is con-
sidered to guarantee rigor and purity of conception. The
conceptual purity of this denition, based on the con-
cept of energy transferred as work as an ideal notion, re-
lies on the idea that some frictionless and otherwise non-
dissipative processes of energy transfer can be realized in
physical actuality. The second law of thermodynamics,
on the other hand, assures us that such processes are not
found in nature.
10 16 HEAT TRANSFER IN ENGINEERING

15 Heat, temperature, and thermal Carathodory way regards calorimetry only as a sec-
ondary or indirect way of measuring quantity of energy
equilibrium regarded as jointly transferred as heat. As recounted in more detail just
primitive notions above, the Carathodory way regards quantity of energy
transferred as heat in a process as primarily or directly
Before the rigorous mathematical denition of heat based dened as a residual quantity. It is calculated from the
on Carathodorys 1909 paper, recounted just above, dierence of the internal energies of the initial and nal
historically, heat, temperature, and thermal equilibrium states of the system, and from the actual work done by
were presented in thermodynamics textbooks as jointly the system during the process. That internal energy dif-
primitive notions.[70] Carathodory introduced his 1909 ference is supposed to have been measured in advance
paper thus: The proposition that the discipline of ther- through processes of purely adiabatic transfer of energy
modynamics can be justied without recourse to any hy- as work, processes that take the system between the ini-
pothesis that cannot be veried experimentally must be tial and nal states. By the Carathodory way it is pre-
regarded as one of the most noteworthy results of the re- supposed as known from experiment that there actually
search in thermodynamics that was accomplished during physically exist enough such adiabatic processes, so that
the last century. Referring to the point of view adopted there need be no recourse to calorimetry for measurement
by most authors who were active in the last fty years, of quantity of energy transferred as heat. This presuppo-
Carathodory wrote: There exists a physical quantity sition is essential but is explicitly labeled neither as a law
called heat that is not identical with the mechanical quan- of thermodynamics nor as an axiom of the Carathodory
tities (mass, force, pressure, etc.) and whose variations way. In fact, the actual physical existence of such adi-
can be determined by calorimetric measurements. James abatic processes is indeed mostly supposition, and those
Serrin introduces an account of the theory of thermo- supposed processes have in most cases not been actually
dynamics thus: In the following section, we shall use veried empirically to exist.[76]
the classical notions of heat, work, and hotness as primi-
tive elements, ... That heat is an appropriate and natural
primitive for thermodynamics was already accepted by 16 Heat transfer in engineering
Carnot. Its continued validity as a primitive element of
thermodynamical structure is due to the fact that it syn-
thesizes an essential physical concept, as well as to its suc-
cessful use in recent work to unify dierent constitutive
theories.[71][72] This traditional kind of presentation of
the basis of thermodynamics includes ideas that may be
summarized by the statement that heat transfer is purely
due to spatial non-uniformity of temperature, and is by
conduction and radiation, from hotter to colder bodies.
It is sometimes proposed that this traditional kind of pre-
sentation necessarily rests on circular reasoning"; against
this proposal, there stands the rigorously logical mathe-
matical development of the theory presented by Truesdell
and Bharatha (1977).[73]
This alternative approach to the denition of quantity of
energy transferred as heat diers in logical structure from A red-hot iron rod from which heat transfer to the surrounding
that of Carathodory, recounted just above. environment will be primarily through radiation.
This alternative approach admits calorimetry as a primary
or direct way to measure quantity of energy transferred The discipline of heat transfer, typically considered an
as heat. It relies on temperature as one of its primitive aspect of mechanical engineering and chemical engineer-
concepts, and used in calorimetry.[74] It is presupposed ing, deals with specic applied methods by which thermal
that enough processes exist physically to allow measure- energy in a system is generated, or converted, or trans-
ment of dierences in internal energies. Such processes ferred to another system. Although the denition of heat
are not restricted to adiabatic transfers of energy as work. implicitly means the transfer of energy, the term heat
They include calorimetry, which is the commonest prac- transfer encompasses this traditional usage in many en-
tical way of nding internal energy dierences.[75] The gineering disciplines and laymen language.
needed temperature can be either empirical or absolute Heat transfer includes the mechanisms of heat conduc-
thermodynamic. tion, thermal radiation, and mass transfer.
In contrast, the Carathodory way recounted just above In engineering, the term convective heat transfer is used
does not use calorimetry or temperature in its primary to describe the combined eects of conduction and uid
denition of quantity of energy transferred as heat. The ow. From the thermodynamic point of view, heat ows

into a uid by diusion to increase its energy, the uid
then transfers (advects) this increased internal energy (not
heat) from one location to another, and this is then fol-
lowed by a second thermal interaction which transfers
heat to a second body or system, again by diusion. This
entire process is often regarded as an additional mecha-
nism of heat transfer, although technically, heat transfer
and thus heating and cooling occurs only on either end of
such a conductive ow, but not as a result of ow. Thus,
conduction can be said to transfer heat only as a net re-
sult of the process, but may not do so at every time within
the complicated convective process.
Although distinct physical laws may describe the behav- [14] Truesdell, C. (1980), page 15.
ior of each of these methods, real systems often exhibit a
[15] Partington, J.R. (1949), p. 118.
complicated combination which are often described by a
variety of mathematical methods. [16] Maxwell, J.C. (1871), p. 10.
17 See also
Eect of sun angle on climate
Heat death of the Universe
Heat diusion
Heat equation
Heat exchanger
Heat wave
Heat ux sensor
Heat transfer coecient
History of heat
Sigma heat
Shock heating
Thermal management of electronic devices and sys-
tems
Thermometer
Relativistic heat conduction
Waste heat
18 References
[1] Born, M. (1949), p. 31.
[2] Pippard, A.B. (1957/1966), p. 16.
[3] Landau, L., Lifshitz, E.M. (1958/1969), p. 43
[4] Callen, H.B. (1960/1985), pp. 1819.
[5] Reif, F. (1965), pp. 67, 73.
11
[6] Bailyn, M. (1994), p. 82.
[7] Guggenheim, E.A. (1949/1967), p. 8
[8] Planck. M. (1914)
[9] Chandrasekhar, S. (1961).
[10] Maxwell, J.C. (1871), Chapter III.
[11] Maxwell, J.C. (1871), p. 7.
[12] Planck, M. (1903).
[13] Partington, J.R. (1949).
[17] Maxwell, J.C. (1871), p. 11.
[18] Planck, M. (1897/1903), p. viii.
[19] Hintikka, J. (1988), p. 180.
[20] Bailyn, M. (1994), pp. 65, 79.
[21] Born, M.(1949), Lecture V.
[22] Born, M. (1949), p. 44.
[23] De Groot, S.R., Mazur, P. (1962), p. 30.
[24] Denbigh, K.G. (1951), p. 56.
[25] Fitts, D.D. (1962), p. 28.
[26] Gyarmati, I. (1970), p. 68.
[27] Kittel, C. Kroemer, H. (1980).
[28] Bacon, F. (1620).
[29] Partington, J.R. (1949), page 131.
[30] Partington, J.R. (1949), pages 132136.
[31] Reif (1965), pp.67-68
[32] Jensen, W.B. (2010).
[33] Baierlein, R. (1999), p. 21.
[34] Maxwell J.C. (1872), p. 54.
[35] Planck (1927), Chapter 3.
[36] Carathodory, C. (1909).
[37] Bryan, G.H. (1907), p. 47.
[38] Callen, H.B. (1985), Section 1-8.
[39] Callen, H.B., (1985), Section 2-3, pp. 4042.
[40] Adkins, C.J. (1983), p. 101.
[41] Callen, H.B. (1985), p. 147.
[42] Adkins, C.J. (1983), pp. 100104.
[43] Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983), p. 46.
12
[44] Bailyn, M. (1994), p. 208.
[45] Clausius, R. (1854).
[46] Clausius, R. (1865), pp. 125126.
[47] De Groot, S.R., Mazur, P. (1962), p. 20.
[48] Kondepudi, D, Prigogine, I. (1998), p. 82.
[49] Kondepudi, D. (2008), p. 114.
[50] Lebon, g., Jou, D., Casas-Vsquez, J. (2008), p. 41.
[51] Joule J.P. (1884).
[52] Perrot, P. (1998).
[53] Clark, J.O.E. (2004).
[54] Ritter, M.E. (2006).
[55] Denbigh, K. (1981), p. 9.
[56] Baierlein, R. (1999), p. 349.
[57] Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983), p. 34.
[58] Pippard, A.B. (1957/1966), p. 18.
[59] Haase, R. (1971), p. 7.
[60] Mach, E. (1900), section 5, pp. 4849, section 22, pages
6061.
[61] Truesdell, C. (1980).
[62] Serrin, J. (1986), especially p. 6.
[63] Truesdell, C. (1969), p. 6.
[64] Lieb, E.H., Yngvason, J. (2003), page 190.
[65] Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983).
[66] Mnster, A. (1970).
[67] Pippard, A.B. (1957).
[68] Fowler, R., Guggenheim, E.A. (1939).
[69] Buchdahl, H.A. (1966).
[70] Lieb, E.H., Yngvason, J. (1999), p. 10.
[71] Serrin, J. (1986), p. 5 .
[72] Owen, D.R. (1984), pp. 4345.
[73] Truesdell, C., Bharatha, S. (1977).
[74] Maxwell, J.C. (1871), p. v.
[75] Atkins, P., de Paula, J. (1978/2010), p. 54.
[76] Pippard, A.B. (1957/1966), p. 15.
18 REFERENCES
18.1 Quotations
[1] Denbigh states in a footnote that he is indebted to cor-
respondence with Professor E.A. Guggenheim and with
Professor N.K. Adam. From this, Denbigh concludes It
seems, however, that when a system is able to exchange
both heat and matter with its environment, it is impossi-
ble to make an unambiguous distinction between energy
transported as heat and by the migration of matter, with-
out already assuming the existence of the 'heat of trans-
port'. Denbigh K.G. (1951), p. 56.
[2] Heat must therefore consist of either living force or of at-
traction through space. In the former case we can conceive
the constituent particles of heated bodies to be, either in
whole or in part, in a state of motion. In the latter we
may suppose the particles to be removed by the process
of heating, so as to exert attraction through greater space.
I am inclined to believe that both of these hypotheses will
be found to hold good,that in some instances, particu-
larly in the case of sensible heat, or such as is indicated
by the thermometer, heat will be found to consist in the
living force of the particles of the bodies in which it is in-
duced; whilst in others, particularly in the case of latent
heat, the phenomena are produced by the separation of
particle from particle, so as to cause them to attract one
another through a greater space. Joule, J.P. (1884).
18.2 Bibliography of cited references
Adkins, C.J. (1968/1983). Equilibrium Thermody-
namics, (1st edition 1968), third edition 1983, Cam-
bridge University Press, Cambridge UK, ISBN 0-
521-25445-0.
Atkins, P., de Paula, J. (1978/2010). Physical
Chemistry, (rst edition 1978), ninth edition 2010,
Oxford University Press, Oxford UK, ISBN 978-0-
19-954337-3.
Bacon, F. (1620). Novum Organum Scientiarum,
translated by Devey, J., P.F. Collier & Son, New
York, 1902.
Baierlein, R. (1999). Thermal Physics. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-65838-6.
Bailyn, M. (1994). A Survey of Thermodynam-
ics, American Institute of Physics Press, New York,
ISBN 0-88318-797-3.
Born, M. (1949). Natural Philosophy of Cause and
Chance, Oxford University Press, London.
Bryan, G.H. (1907). Thermodynamics. An Intro-
ductory Treatise dealing mainly with First Princi-
ples and their Direct Applications, B.G. Teubner,
Leipzig.
Callen, H.B. (1960/1985). Thermodynamics and an
Introduction to Thermostatistics, (1st edition 1960)
2nd edition 1985, Wiley, New York, ISBN 0-471-
86256-8.
18.2 Bibliography of cited references
Carathodory, C. (1909). Untersuchungen ber die Kondepudi, D. (2008), Introduction to Modern Ther-
Grundlagen der Thermodynamik. Mathematische
Annalen. 67: 355386. doi:10.1007/BF01450409.
A translation may be found here. A mostly reliable
translation is to be found at Kestin, J. (1976). The
Second Law of Thermodynamics, Dowden, Hutchin-
son & Ross, Stroudsburg PA.
Chandrasekhar, S. (1961). Hydrodynamic and Hy-
dromagnetic Stability, Oxford University Press, Ox-
ford UK.
Clark, J. O. E. (2004). The Essential Dictionary of
Science. Barnes & Noble Books. ISBN 0-7607-
4616-8.
Clausius, R. (1854). Annalen der Physik (Poggend-
os Annalen), Dec. 1854, vol. xciii. p. 481;
translated in the Journal de Mathematiques, vol. xx.
Paris, 1855, and in the Philosophical Magazine, Au-
gust 1856, s. 4. vol. xii, p. 81.
Clausius, R. (1865/1867). The Mechanical Theory
of Heat with its Applications to the Steam Engine
and to Physical Properties of Bodies, London: John
van Voorst, 1 Paternoster Row. MDCCCLXVII.
Also the second edition translated into English by
W.R. Browne (1879) here and here.
De Groot, S.R., Mazur, P. (1962). Non-
equilibrium Thermodynamics, North-Holland, Ams-
terdam. Reprinted (1984), Dover Publications Inc.,
New York, ISBN 0486647412.
Denbigh, K. (1955/1981). The Principles of Chemi-
cal Equilibrium, Cambridge University Press, Cam-
bridge UK, ISBN 0-521-23682-7.
Greven, A., Keller, G., Warnecke (editors) (2003).
Entropy, Princeton University Press, Princeton NJ,
ISBN 0-691-11338-6.
Guggenheim, E.A. (1967) [1949], Thermodynam-
ics. An Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physi-
cists (fth ed.), Amsterdam: North-Holland Pub-
lishing Company.
Jensen, W.B. (2010). Why Are q and Q Used
to Symbolize Heat?" (PDF). J. Chem. Educ.
87 (11): 1142. Bibcode:2010JChEd..87.1142J.
doi:10.1021/ed100769d. Retrieved 23 Mar 2015.
J. P. Joule (1884), The Scientic Papers of James
Prescott Joule, The Physical Society of London, p.
274, Lecture on Matter, Living Force, and Heat. 5
and 12 May 1847.
Kittel, C. Kroemer, H. (1980). Thermal Physics,
second edition, W.H. Freeman, San Francisco,
ISBN 0-7167-1088-9.
13
modynamics, Chichester UK: Wiley, ISBN 978-0-
470-01598-8
Kondepudi, D., Prigogine, I. (1998). Modern
Thermodynamics: From Heat Engines to Dissipative
Structures, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, ISBN 0-
471-97393-9.
Landau, L., Lifshitz, E.M. (1958/1969). Statistical
Physics, volume 5 of Course of Theoretical Physics,
translated from the Russian by J.B. Sykes, M.J.
Kearsley, Pergamon, Oxford.
Lebon, G., Jou, D., Casas-Vzquez, J. (2008).
Understanding Non-equilibrium Thermodynamics:
Foundations, Applications, Frontiers, Springer-
Verlag, Berlin, e-ISBN 978-3-540-74252-4.
Lieb, E.H., Yngvason, J. (2003). The Entropy of
Classical Thermodynamics, Chapter 8 of Entropy,
Greven, A., Keller, G., Warnecke (editors) (2003).
Maxwell, J.C. (1871), Theory of Heat (rst ed.),
London: Longmans, Green and Co.
Partington, J.R. (1949), An Advanced Treatise on
Physical Chemistry., volume 1, Fundamental Princi-
ples. The Properties of Gases, London: Longmans,
Green and Co.
Perrot, Pierre (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-856552-6.
Pippard, A.B. (1957/1966). Elements of Classical
Thermodynamics for Advanced Students of Physics,
original publication 1957, reprint 1966, Cambridge
University Press, Cambridge UK.
Planck, M., (1897/1903). Treatise on Thermody-
namics, translated by A. Ogg, rst English edition,
Longmans, Green and Co., London.
Planck. M. (1914). The Theory of Heat Radiation,
a translation by Masius, M. of the second German
edition, P. Blakistons Son & Co., Philadelphia.
Planck, M., (1923/1927). Treatise on Thermody-
namics, translated by A. Ogg, third English edition,
Longmans, Green and Co., London.
Reif, F. (1965). Fundamentals of Statistical and
Thermal Physics. New York: McGraw-Hlll, Inc.
Ritter, M. E. (2006). The Physical Environment:
an Introduction to Physical Geography.
Shavit, A., Gutnger, C. (1995). Thermodynamics.
From Concepts to Applications, Prentice Hall, Lon-
don, ISBN 0-13-288267-1.
Truesdell, C. (1969). Rational Thermodynamics: a
Course of Lectures on Selected Topics, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, New York.
14 19 EXTERNAL LINKS

Truesdell, C. (1980). The Tragicomical History of

Thermodynamics 18221854, Springer, New York,
ISBN 0-387-90403-4.

18.3 Further bibliography

Beretta, G.P.; E.P. Gyftopoulos (1990). What is
heat?" (PDF). Education in thermodynamics and en-
ergy systems. AES. New York: American Society of
Mechanical Engineers. 20.

Gyftopoulos, E. P., & Beretta, G. P. (1991). Ther-

modynamics: foundations and applications. (Dover
Publications)
Hatsopoulos, G. N., & Keenan, J. H. (1981). Prin-
ciples of general thermodynamics. RE Krieger Pub-
lishing Company.

19 External links

Heat on In Our Time at the BBC. (listen now)

Plasma heat at 2 gigakelvins Article about ex-
tremely high temperature generated by scientists
(Foxnews.com)

Correlations for Convective Heat Transfer ChE

Online Resources
 15

20 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

20.1 Text
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ona1, Staszek Lem, Abhyaa, Donner60, Usb10, ChuispastonBot, RockMagnetist, Koolsam24, Sunshine4921, VNonesuch, Herk1955, Sven
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izationsAreBad, Supdiop, Unicornsarepink, KasparBot, Batgirl11111, Josh8795989787835482957803, Hanan Qasim, Hello12345789,

Phansexualtrash94, Maybenotemily, Zebrasnooks, Olivvybyram, Wonderer1104, CLCStudent, SisisSasa, Pickle gerard, Anareth, Jfklds-
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