Cosmology

For other uses, see Cosmology (disambiguation).
former is concerned with the Universe as a whole while
the latter deals with individual celestial objects. Modern
physical cosmology is dominated by the Big Bang theory,
which attempts to bring together observational astronomy
and particle physics;[5] more specically, a standard pa-
rameterization of the Big Bang with dark matter and dark
energy, known as the Lambda-CDM model.
Theoretical astrophysicist David N. Spergel has described
cosmology as a historical science because when we
look out in space, we look back in time due to the -
nite nature of the speed of light.[6]

1 Disciplines
Nature timeline
view discuss
13
The Hubble eXtreme Deep Field (XDF) was completed in
September 2012 and shows the farthest galaxies ever pho- 12
tographed. Except for the few stars in the foreground (which are
bright and easily recognizable because only they have diraction
11
spikes), every speck of light in the photo is an individual galaxy,
some of them as old as 13.2 billion years; the observable universe

is estimated to have contained more than 2 trillion galaxies.[1] 10

9
Cosmology (from the Greek , kosmos world
and -, -logia study of) is the study of the origin, 8
evolution, and eventual fate of the universe. Physical cos-
mology is the scholarly and scientic study of the ori- 7
gin, large-scale structures and dynamics, and ultimate fate
of the universe, as well as the scientic laws that govern 6
these realities.[2]
The term cosmology was rst used in English in 1656 in 5
Thomas Blount's Glossographia,[3] and in 1731 taken up
in Latin by German philosopher Christian Wol, in Cos- 4
mologia Generalis.[4]
3
Religious or mythological cosmology is a body of beliefs
based on mythological, religious, and esoteric literature 2
and traditions of creation and eschatology.
Physical cosmology is studied by scientists, such as 1
astronomers and physicists, as well as philosophers,
such as metaphysicians, philosophers of physics, and 0
philosophers of space and time. Because of this shared cosmic expansion
scope with philosophy, theories in physical cosmology Earliest light
may include both scientic and non-scientic proposi- cosmic speed-up
tions, and may depend upon assumptions that can not Solar System
be tested. Cosmology diers from astronomy in that the water

1
2 1 DISCIPLINES

Single-celled life Also see: Human timeline and Life timeline

photosynthesis
Multicellular Physics and astrophysics have played a central role in
life shaping the understanding of the universe through sci-
Land life entic observation and experiment. Physical cosmol-
Earliest gravity
ogy was shaped through both mathematics and obser-
Dark energy
vation in an analysis of the whole universe. The uni-
Dark matter
verse is generally understood to have begun with the Big

Bang, followed almost instantaneously by cosmic ina-

Earliest universe (13.8) tion; an expansion of space from which the universe is

thought to have emerged 13.799 0.021 billion years

Earliest galaxy
ago.[7] Cosmogony studies the origin of the Universe, and

cosmography maps the features of the Universe.

Earliest quasar
In Diderot's Encyclopdie, cosmology is broken down
Omega Centauri forms into uranology (the science of the heavens), aerology (the
science of the air), geology (the science of the conti-
Andromeda Galaxy forms nents), and hydrology (the science of waters).[8]
Metaphysical cosmology has also been described as the
Milky Way Galaxy placing of man in the universe in relationship to all other
spiral arms form entities. This is exemplied by Marcus Aurelius's obser-
vation that a mans place in that relationship: He who
NGC 188 star cluster forms does not know what the world is does not know where he
is, and he who does not know for what purpose the world
Alpha Centauri forms exists, does not know who he is, nor what the world is.[9]

Earliest Earth (4.54)

1.1 Physical cosmology
Earliest life
Main article: Physical cosmology
Earliest oxygen

Atmospheric oxygen Physical cosmology is the branch of physics and astro-

physics that deals with the study of the physical origins
Earliest sexual reproduction and evolution of the Universe. It also includes the study of
the nature of the Universe on a large scale. In its earliest
Cambrian explosion form, it was what is now known as "celestial mechanics",
the study of the heavens. Greek philosophers Aristarchus
Earliest humans of Samos, Aristotle, and Ptolemy proposed dierent cos-
mological theories. The geocentric Ptolemaic system
was the prevailing theory until the 16th century when
L Nicolaus Copernicus, and subsequently Johannes Kepler
i and Galileo Galilei, proposed a heliocentric system. This
f is one of the most famous examples of epistemological
e rupture in physical cosmology.
When Isaac Newton published the Principia Mathematica
P in 1687, he nally gured out how the heavens moved.
r Newton provided a physical mechanism for Keplers laws
i and his law of universal gravitation allowed the anoma-
m lies in previous systems, caused by gravitational interac-
o tion between the planets, to be resolved. A fundamental
r dierence between Newtons cosmology and those pre-
d ceding it was the Copernican principlethat the bodies
i on earth obey the same physical laws as all the celestial
a bodies. This was a crucial philosophical advance in phys-
l ical cosmology.
Modern scientic cosmology is usually considered to
Axis scale: billions of years. have begun in 1917 with Albert Einstein's publication
1.2 Religious or mythological cosmology 3

1964. These ndings were a rst step to rule out some of

many alternative cosmologies.
Since around 1990, several dramatic advances in obser-
vational cosmology have transformed cosmology from
a largely speculative science into a predictive science
with precise agreement between theory and observation.
These advances include observations of the microwave
background from the COBE, WMAP and Planck satel-
lites, large new galaxy redshift surveys including 2dfGRS
and SDSS, and observations of distant supernovae and
gravitational lensing. These observations matched the
predictions of the cosmic ination theory, a modied
Big Bang theory, and the specic version known as the
Lambda-CDM model. This has led many to refer to mod-
ern times as the golden age of cosmology.[13]
On 17 March 2014, astronomers at the Harvard-
Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics announced the de-
Evidence of gravitational waves in the infant universe may have tection of gravitational waves, providing strong evidence
been uncovered by the microscopic examination of the focal for ination and the Big Bang.[10][11][12] However, on 19
plane of the BICEP2 radio telescope.[10][11][12] June 2014, lowered condence in conrming the cosmic
ination ndings was reported.[14][15][16]
On 1 December 2014, at the Planck 2014 meeting in
of his nal modication of general relativity in the pa-
Ferrara, Italy, astronomers reported that the universe is
per Cosmological Considerations of the General Theory
13.8 billion years old and is composed of 4.9% atomic
of Relativity (although this paper was not widely avail-
matter, 26.6% dark matter and 68.5% dark energy.[17]
able outside of Germany until the end of World War I).
General relativity prompted cosmogonists such as Willem
de Sitter, Karl Schwarzschild, and Arthur Eddington to 1.2 Religious or mythological cosmology
explore its astronomical ramications, which enhanced
the ability of astronomers to study very distant objects. See also: Religious cosmology
Physicists began changing the assumption that the Uni-
verse was static and unchanging. In 1922 Alexander
Friedmann introduced the idea of an expanding universe Religious or mythological cosmology is a body of beliefs
that contained moving matter. based on mythological, religious, and esoteric literature
and traditions of creation and eschatology.
In parallel to this dynamic approach to cosmology, one
long-standing debate about the structure of the cosmos
was coming to a climax. Mount Wilson astronomer 1.3 Philosophical cosmology
Harlow Shapley championed the model of a cosmos made
up of the Milky Way star system only; while Heber D. See also: Philosophy of cosmology
Curtis argued for the idea that spiral nebulae were star
systems in their own right as island universes. This dif-
Cosmology deals with the world as the totality of space,
ference of ideas came to a climax with the organization of
time and all phenomena. Historically, it has had quite a
the Great Debate on 26 April 1920 at the meeting of the
broad scope, and in many cases was founded in religion.
U.S. National Academy of Sciences in Washington, D.C.
The ancient Greeks did not draw a distinction between
The debate was resolved when Edwin Hubble detected
this use and their model for the cosmos. However, in
Cepheid Variables in the Andromeda galaxy in 1923 and
modern use metaphysical cosmology addresses questions
1924. Their distance established spiral nebulae well be-
about the Universe which are beyond the scope of sci-
yond the edge of the Milky Way.
ence. It is distinguished from religious cosmology in that
Subsequent modelling of the universe explored the possi- it approaches these questions using philosophical meth-
bility that the cosmological constant, introduced by Ein- ods like dialectics. Modern metaphysical cosmology tries
stein in his 1917 paper, may result in an expanding uni- to address questions such as:
verse, depending on its value. Thus the Big Bang model
was proposed by the Belgian priest Georges Lematre What is the origin of the Universe? What is its rst
in 1927 which was subsequently corroborated by Edwin cause? Is its existence necessary? (see monism,
Hubble's discovery of the red shift in 1929 and later by pantheism, emanationism and creationism)
the discovery of the cosmic microwave background ra-
diation by Arno Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in What are the ultimate material components of
4 4 REFERENCES

the Universe? (see mechanism, dynamism,
hylomorphism, atomism)
What is the ultimate reason for the existence of the
Universe? Does the cosmos have a purpose? (see
teleology)
Does the existence of consciousness have a purpose?
How do we know what we know about the totality
of the cosmos? Does cosmological reasoning reveal
metaphysical truths? (see epistemology)
[3] Hetherington, Norriss S. (2014). Encyclopedia of Cosmol-
ogy (Routledge Revivals): Historical, Philosophical, and
Scientic Foundations of Modern Cosmology. Routledge.
p. 116. ISBN 978-1-317-67766-6. Extract of page 116
[4] Luminet, Jean-Pierre (2008). The Wraparound Universe.
CRC Press. p. 170. ISBN 978-1-4398-6496-8. Extract
of page 170
[5] Cosmology Oxford Dictionaries
[6] David N. Spergel (Fall 2014). Cosmology Today.
Daedalus. American Academy of Arts and Sciences. 143
(4): 125133. doi:10.1162/DAED_a_00312.

2 Historical cosmologies [7] Planck Collaboration (2015). Planck 2015 results.

XIII. Cosmological parameters (See Table 4 on page
31 of PDF).. Astronomy & Astrophysics. 594: A13.
Further information: Timeline of cosmology and
arXiv:1502.01589 . Bibcode:2016A&A...594A..13P.
Nicolaus Copernicus Copernican system
doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201525830.

Table notes: the term static simply means not expand-
ing and not contracting. Symbol G represents Newtons
gravitational constant; (Lambda) is the cosmological
constant.
[8] Detailed Explanation of the System of Human Knowl-
edge. The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert Col-
laborative Translation Project. 1 April 2015. Retrieved 1
April 2015.
[9] The thoughts of Marcus Aurelius Antonius viii. 52.

[10] BICEP2 2014 Results Release. National Science Foun-

3 See also dation. 17 March 2014. Retrieved 18 March 2014.

[11] Whitney Clavin (17 March 2014). NASA Technology

Earth science Views Birth of the Universe. NASA. Retrieved 17 March
2014.
Lambda-CDM model
[12] Dennis Overbye (17 March 2014). Detection of Waves
Absolute time and space in Space Buttresses Landmark Theory of Big Bang. New
York Times. Retrieved 17 March 2014.
Galaxy formation and evolution
[13] Alan Guth is reported to have made this very claim in an
Illustris project Edge Foundation interview EDGE

List of astrophysicists [14] Dennis Overbye (19 June 2014). Astronomers Hedge on
Big Bang Detection Claim. New York Times. Retrieved
Big History 20 June 2014.

Non-standard cosmology [15] Amos, Jonathan (19 June 2014). Cosmic ination: Con-
dence lowered for Big Bang signal. BBC News. Re-
Jainism and non-creationism trieved 20 June 2014.

Taiji (philosophy) [16] Ade, P. A. R.; Aikin, R. W.; Barkats, D.; Benton, S.
J.; Bischo, C. A.; Bock, J. J.; Brevik, J. A.; Buder, I.;
Universal rotation curve Bullock, E.; Dowell, C. D.; Duband, L.; Filippini, J. P.;
Fliescher, S.; Golwala, S. R.; Halpern, M.; Hasseleld,
Warm ination M.; Hildebrandt, S. R.; Hilton, G. C.; Hristov, V. V.;
Irwin, K. D.; Karkare, K. S.; Kaufman, J. P.; Keating, B.
G.; Kernasovskiy, S. A.; Kovac, J. M.; Kuo, C. L.; Leitch,
E. M.; Lueker, M.; Mason, P.; et al. (2014). Detection
4 References of B-Mode Polarization at Degree Angular Scales by
BICEP2. Physical Review Letters. 112 (24): 241101.
[1] Karl Hille, ed. (October 13, 2016). Hubble Reveals arXiv:1403.3985 . Bibcode:2014PhRvL.112x1101A.
Observable Universe Contains 10 Times More Galaxies doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.112.241101. PMID
Than Previously Thought. NASA. Retrieved October 24996078.
17, 2016.
[17] Dennis Overbye (1 December 2014). New Images Re-
[2] Introduction: Cosmology space. New Scientist. 4 ne View of Infant Universe. New York Times. Retrieved
September 2006 2 December 2014.
 5

[18] Carl B. Boyer (1968), A History of Mathematics. Wiley.

ISBN 0471543977. p. 54.

[19] Aristotle (1914). Forster, E. S.; Dobson, J. F., eds. De

Mundo. Oxford University Press. 393a .

5 External links
NASA/IPAC Extragalactic Database (NED) (NED-
Distances)

Cosmic Journey: A History of Scientic Cosmology

from the American Institute of Physics

Introduction to Cosmology David Lyths lectures

from the ICTP Summer School in High Energy
Physics and Cosmology
The Sophia Centre The Sophia Centre for the Study
of Cosmology in Culture, University of Wales Trin-
ity Saint David

Genesis cosmic chemistry module

6 6 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

6 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

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Dragons ight, Banno, Robbot, Sdedeo, Goethean, Nurg, Sam Spade, Rursus, Giftlite, Wolfkeeper, Art Carlson, Bradeos Graphon, Jason
Quinn, Matthead, Wmahan, SarekOfVulcan, Knutux, HorsePunchKid, Karol Langner, Icairns, TreyHarris, Adashiel, Jiy, Rich Farm-
brough, Pjacobi, Vsmith, RJHall, El C, Zenohockey, Lankiveil, Shanes, Tom, Haxwell, RoyBoy, Bobo192, 9SGjOSfyHJaQVsEmy9NS,
A2Kar, Jumbuck, Wiki-uk, Rd232, WhiteC, Mysdaao, Wtmitchell, DV8 2XL, Bushytails, Siener, Ruud Koot, WadeSimMiser, Trevor
Andersen, M Alan Kazlev, GalaazV, Joke137, Farhansher, Christopher Thomas, Rnt20, BD2412, Pranathi, Drbogdan, Rjwilmsi, Koavf,
Bob A, Bruce1ee, Smithfarm, Palpatine, Ems57fcva, DirkvdM, FlaBot, Alhutch, Gurch, Srleer, King of Hearts, Chobot, DVdm, An-
tiuser, Evan G, NSR, Gwernol, McGinnis, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Deeptrivia, RussBot, Lucinos~enwiki, NawlinWiki, Robert-
van1, Welsh, Ragesoss, Bota47, Diogenes zosimus, Dna-webmaster, JonathanD, MLA, Enormousdude, Zzuuzz, RDF, Reyk, CharlesH-
Bennett, BorgQueen, Amren, Moonsleeper7, Innity0, KNHaw, SmackBot, FocalPoint, PiCo, Maksim-e~enwiki, Mangoe, InverseHyper-
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