Heat Transfer

Chapter 10
BOILING AND CONDENSATION
Universitry of Technology
Materials Engineering Department
MaE216: Heat Transfer and Fluid
Objectives
Differentiate between evaporation and boiling, and gain
amiliarity with different types of boiling
Develop a good understanding of the boiling curve, and the
different boiling regimes corresponding to different regions of
he boiling curve
Calculate the heat flux and its critical value associated with
nucleate boiling, and examine the methods of boiling heat
ransfer enhancement
Derive a relation for the heat transfer coefficient in laminar film
condensation over a vertical plate
Calculate the heat flux associated with condensation on
nclined and horizontal plates, vertical and horizontal cylinders
or spheres, and tube bundles
Examine dropwise condensation and understand the
LING HEAT TRANSFER
aporation occurs at the liquidvapor interface
en the vapor pressure is less than the saturation
ssure of the liquid at a given temperature.
iling occurs at the solidliquid interface when a
id is brought into contact with a surface
intained at a temperature sufficiently above the
uration temperature of the liquid.
ing heat flux from a solid surface to the fluid

excess temperature

ssification of boiling

iling is called pool boiling in

e absence of bulk fluid flow.
y motion of the fluid is due to
tural convection currents and
e motion of the bubbles under
e influence of buoyancy.
iling is called flow boiling in
e presence of bulk fluid flow.
flow boiling, the fluid is forced to
ove in a heated pipe or over a
 bcooled Boiling
When the
mperature of the
ain body of the
quid is below the
aturation
mperature.

aturated Boiling
When the
mperature of the
quid is equal to
e saturation
mperature.
 OL BOILING
l boiling, the fluid is not forced to flow
mover such as a pump.
otion of the fluid is due to natural
ction currents and the motion of the
es under the influence of buoyancy.

ng Regimes and
Boiling Curve

g takes different forms, depending

the Texcess = Ts Tsat
tural Convection Boiling
Point A on the Boiling Curve)
ubbles do not form on the heating surface until the liquid is heated
few degrees above the saturation temperature (about 2 to 6C for
ater)
he liquid is slightly superheated in this case (metastable state).
he fluid motion in this mode of boiling is governed by natural
onvection currents.

eat transfer from the

eating surface to the fluid
by natural convection.
or the conditions of Fig.
06, natural convection
oiling ends at an excess
mperature of about 5C.
cleate Boiling (between
nts A and C)
e bubbles form at an
reasing rate at an increasing
mber of nucleation sites as we
ove along the boiling curve
ward point C.

gion AB isolated
bbles.

gion BC
merous continuous
umns of vapor in the
uid.
region AB the stirring and agitation caused by the entrainment of the
uid to the heater surface is primarily responsible for the increased heat
nsfer coefficient.
region AB the large heat fluxes obtainable in this region are caused by
e combined effect of liquid entrainment and evaporation.
r the entire nucleate boiling range, the heat transfer coefficient ranges
m about 2000 to 30,000 W/m2K.

er point B the heat

x increases at a
wer rate with
creasing Texcess, and
aches a maximum at
int C.
e heat flux at this
int is called the
tical (or maximum)
at flux, and is of
nsition Boiling
tween Points C and D)
en Texcess is increased past point
he heat flux decreases.
s is because a large fraction of the
ter surface is covered by a vapor
, which acts as an insulation.
he transition boiling
me, both nucleate and
boiling partially occur.
eration in the transition
ing regime, which is
o called the unstable
boiling regime, is
ided in practice.
water, transition boiling
urs over the excess
m Boiling (beyond Point D
yond point D the
ater surface is
mpletely covered by a
tinuous stable vapor
.
nt D, where the heat
reaches a minimum
alled the Leidenfrost
nt.
e presence of a vapor
between the heater
face and the liquid is
ponsible for the low
at transfer rates in the
boiling region.
e heat transfer rate
nout Phenomenon

A typical boiling process

oes not follow the boiling
urve beyond point C.
When the power applied to
he heated surface exceeded
he value at point C even
lightly, the surface
emperature increased
uddenly to point E.
When the power is reduced
radually starting from point
E the cooling curve follows
ig. 108 with a sudden drop
n excess temperature when
oint D is reached.
 attempt to increase the heat
beyond qmax will cause the
ration point on the boiling
e to jump suddenly from
t C to point E.
wever, surface temperature
corresponds to point E is
ond the melting point of most
ter materials, and burnout
urs.
refore, point C on the boiling
e is also called the burnout
nt, and the heat flux at this
t the burnout heat flux.
t boiling heat transfer
pment in practice operate
at Transfer Correlations in Pool Boiling
oiling regimes differ considerably in their character.
Different heat transfer relations need to be used for different boiling regimes.
n the natural convection boiling regime heat transfer rates can be accurately
etermined using natural convection relations.

cleate Boiling
o general theoretical relations for heat
ansfer in the nucleate boiling regime is
vailable.
xperimental based correlations are
sed.
he rate of heat transfer strongly
epends on the nature of nucleation
nd the type and the condition of the
eated surface.
r nucleate boiling a widely used
rrelation proposed in 1952 by Rohsenow:
ak Heat Flux
e maximum (or critical) heat flux (CHF) in nucleate pool boiling:

is a constant whose value depends on the heater geometry, but generally is

out 0.15.
e CHF is independent of the fluidheating surface combination, as well as
e viscosity, thermal conductivity, and the specific heat of the liquid.
e CHF increases with pressure up to about one-third of the critical pressure,
d then starts to decrease and becomes zero at the critical pressure.
e CHF is proportional to hfg, and large maximum heat fluxes can be obtained
ng fluids with a large enthalpy of vaporization, such as water.
inimum Heat Flux
nimum heat flux, which occurs
the Leidenfrost point, is of
actical interest since it
presents the lower limit for the
at flux in the film boiling regime.
ber derived the following
pression for the minimum heat
x for a large horizontal plate

is relation above can be in error

50% or more.

ansition
m Boiling
heat flux for film boiling on a horizontal cylinder or
re of diameter D is given by

t high surface temperatures

ypically above 300C), heat
ansfer across the vapor film by
adiation becomes significant and
eeds to be considered.
ancement of Heat Transfer in Pool Boiling
he rate of heat transfer in the
ucleate boiling regime strongly
epends on the number of
ctive nucleation sites on the
urface, and the rate of bubble
rmation at each site.
herefore, modification that
nhances nucleation on the
eating surface will also
nhance heat transfer in
ucleate boiling.
regularities on the heating
urface, including roughness
nd dirt, serve as additional
ucleation sites during boiling.
 rfaces that provide enhanced heat
nsfer in nucleate boiling permanently
e being manufactured and are available
the market.
eat transfer can be enhanced by a
ctor of up to 10 during nucleate boiling,
d the critical heat flux by a factor of 3.
e use of finned surfaces is also known
enhance nucleate boiling heat transfer
d the maximum heat flux.
iling heat transfer can also be
hanced by other techniques such as
echanical agitation and surface
bration.
ese techniques are not practical,
wever, because of the complications
volved.
OW BOILING
low boiling, the fluid is forced to move
an external source such as a pump as it
ergoes a phase-change process.
xhibits the combined effects of
vection and pool boiling.
ernal flow boiling over a plate or
nder is similar to pool boiling, but the
ed motion increases both the nucleate
ing heat flux and the maximum heat
considerably.
e higher the velocity, the higher the
leate boiling heat flux and the critical
t flux.
ernal flow boiling, commonly referred to
wo-phase flow, is much more
mplicated in nature because there is no
e two-phase flow in a tube
hibits different flow boiling
imes, depending on the
ative amounts of the liquid
d the vapor phases.
te that the tube contains a
id before the bubbly flow
ime and a vapor after the
st-flow regime.
at transfer in those two
ses can be determined
ng the appropriate
ations for single-phase
nvection heat transfer.
uid single-phase flow
In the inlet region the liquid is subcooled and heat transfer to the liquid is
by forced convection (assuming no subcooled boiling).
bbly flow
Individual bubbles
Low mass qualities

ug flow
Bubbles coalesce into slugs of vapor.
Moderate mass qualities
nular flow
Core of the flow consists of vapor
only, and liquid adjacent to the walls.
Very high heat transfer coefficients
st flow
A sharp decrease in the heat transfer
coefficient
por single-phase flow
ONDENSATION HEAT TRANSFER
densation occurs when the temperature of a vapor is reduced below
aturation temperature.
condensation
he condensate wets the surface and
rms a liquid film.
he surface is blanketed by a liquid
m which serves as a resistance to
eat transfer.
wise condensation
he condensed vapor forms droplets
n the surface.
he droplets slide down when they
ach a certain size.
o liquid film to resist heat transfer.
s a result, heat transfer rates that
LM CONDENSATION
quid film starts forming at the top
the plate and flows downward
nder the influence of gravity.
increases in the flow direction x
eat in the amount hfg is released
uring condensation and is
ansferred through the film to the
ate surface.
must be below the saturation
s
mperature for condensation.
he temperature of the condensate
Tsat at the interface and decreases
radually to Ts at the wall.
Heat transfer in
condensation depends
on whether the
condensate flow is
laminar or turbulent.
The criterion for the
flow regime is provided
by the Reynolds
number.
n the final state is subcooled liquid instead of saturated liquid:
Modified latent heat of vaporization

vapor that enters the condenser as superheated

or at a temperature Tv instead of as saturated vapor:

Rate of heat transfer

This relation is convenient to use to

determine the Reynolds number when the
condensation heat transfer coefficient or the
rate of heat transfer is known.

The properties of the liquid should be

evaluated at the film temperature
low Regimes
he dimensionless parameter
ontrolling the transition between
gimes is the Reynolds number
efined as:

hree prime flow regimes:

Re < 30 Laminar (wave-free)
30 < Re < 1800 Laminar (wavy)
Re > 1800 Turbulent
he Reynolds number increases in
e flow direction.
t Transfer Correlations for Film Condensation
rtical Plates
mptions:
th the plate and the vapor are maintained
constant temperatures of Ts and Tsat,
spectively, and the temperature across the
uid film varies linearly.
at transfer across the liquid film is by pure
nduction.
e velocity of the vapor is low (or zero) so
at it exerts no drag on the condensate (no
cous shear on the liquidvapor interface).
e flow of the condensate is laminar
e<30) and the properties of the liquid are
nstant.
average heat transfer coefficient for laminar film
ensation over a vertical flat plate of height L is

(10-22)
vy Laminar Flow on Vertical Plates
average heat transfer coefficient in
y laminar condensate flow for

A simpler alternative to the relation above

bulent Flow on Vertical Plates
bulent flow of condensate on vertical plates:

physical properties of the condensate are again to be

uated at the film temperature Tf = (Tsat + Ts)/2.
clined Plates
tion 1022 was developed for vertical plates,
can also be used for laminar film condensation
e upper surfaces of plates that are inclined
angle from the vertical, by replacing g in that
tion by g cos.

(10-22)

ertical Tubes

ation 1022 for vertical plates can also be

to calculate the average heat transfer
ficient for laminar film condensation on the
r surfaces of vertical tubes provided that the
orizontal Tubes and Spheres
average heat transfer coefficient for film condensation
he outer surfaces of a horizontal tube is

For a sphere, replace the

constant 0.729 by 0.815.

omparison of the heat transfer coefficient relations for a vertical tube of

ght L and a horizontal tube of diameter D yields

tube whose length is 2.77 times its diameter, the average heat transfer coefficient for
ar film condensation will be the same whether the tube is positioned horizontally or vertically.
> 2.77D, the heat transfer coefficient is higher in the horizontal position.
dering that the length of a tube in any practical application is several times its diameter, it is
mon practice to place the tubes in a condenser horizontally to maximize the condensation
ransfer coefficient on the outer surfaces of the tubes.
orizontal Tube Banks
The average thickness of the liquid film at the lower tubes is
much larger as a result of condensate falling on top of them
from the tubes directly above.
Therefore, the average heat transfer coefficient at the lower
tubes in such arrangements is smaller.
Assuming the condensate from the tubes above to the ones
below drain smoothly, the average film condensation heat
transfer coefficient for all tubes in a vertical tier can be
expressed as

This relation does not account for the

increase in heat transfer due to the ripple
ect of Vapor Velocity
he analysis above we assumed the vapor velocity to be small and
s the vapor drag exerted on the liquid film to be negligible, which
sually the case.
wever, when the vapor velocity is high, the vapor will pull the
id at the interface along since the vapor velocity at the interface
st drop to the value of the liquid velocity.
e vapor flows downward (i.e., in the same direction as the liquid),
additional force will increase the average velocity of the liquid
thus decrease the film thickness.
s, in turn, will decrease the thermal resistance of the liquid film
thus increase heat transfer.
ward vapor flow has the opposite effects: the vapor exerts a force
the liquid in the opposite direction to flow, thickens the liquid film,
thus decreases heat transfer.
Presence of Noncondensable Gases in Condensers
mental studies show that the presence of
ndensable gases in the vapor has a
ental effect on condensation heat transfer.
small amounts of a noncondensable gas in
por cause significant drops in heat transfer
cient during condensation.
ommon practice to periodically vent out the
ndensable gases that accumulate in the
nsers to ensure proper operation.
ransfer in the presence of a noncondensable
rongly depends on the nature of the vapor
nd the flow velocity.
flow velocity is more likely to remove the
ant noncondensable gas from the vicinity of
rface, and thus improve heat transfer.
 M CONDENSATION INSIDE
RIZONTAL TUBES
condensation processes encountered in
ration and air-conditioning applications
e condensation on the inner surfaces of
ntal or vertical tubes.
ransfer analysis of condensation inside
is complicated by the fact that it is strongly
nced by the vapor velocity and the rate of
accumulation on the walls of the tubes.
w vapor velocities:
OPWISE CONDENSATION
se condensation, characterized by
ess droplets of varying diameters on the
nsing surface instead of a continuous
lm and extremely large heat transfer
ents can be achieved with this
nism.
mall droplets that form at the nucleation
n the surface grow as a result of
ed condensation, coalesce into large
s, and slide down when they reach a
size, clearing the surface and exposing it
or. There is no liquid film in this case to
eat transfer.
sult, with dropwise condensation, heat
r coefficients can be achieved that are
han 10 times larger than those associated
m condensation.
allenge in dropwise condensation is not Dropwise condensation of
eve it, but rather, to sustain it for
Summary
Boiling heat transfer
Pool boiling
Boiling regimes and the boiling curve
Flow boiling
Condensation heat transfer
Film condensation
Film condensation inside horizontal tubes
Dropwise condensation