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Polytene Chromosomes
Yoji U r a t a , S u s a n J. P a r m e l e e , D a v i d A. A g a r d , a n d J o h n W. S e d a t
Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics and The Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco,
California 94143-0554
Abstract. We have analyzed the three-dimensional gest that these substructural features are in fact longitu-
structural details of Drosophila melanogaster polytene dinal fibers made up of bundles of chromatids. Band
chromosome bands and interbands using three-dimen- shape can be a reproducible characteristic of a particu-
sional light microscopy and a novel method of sample lar band and is dependent on the spatial relationship of
preparation that does not involve flattening or stretch- these bundles, varying from bands with a uniform dis-
ing the chromosomes. Bands have been visualized in tribution of bundles to bands with a peripheral concen-
unfixed chromosomes stained with the D N A specific tration of chromatin. Interbands are composed of bun-
dye 4,6-Diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI). Interbands dles of chromatids of a similar size and number as those
fundamental unsolved problem in biology is the or- aligned, producing banded chromosomes with a diameter
ganization of the eukaryotic genome in the inter- of approximately three microns that are functionally in in-
phase nucleus. During interphase, chromatin must terphase. The overall architecture of the polytene chromo-
be maintained in structures that allow site-specific regu- some must reflect the structures and interactions of chro-
lated transcription and temporally controlled DNA repli- matin at a molecular level. Thus, a study of the large-scale
cation. Normally, it is not possible to resolve individual structure of a polytene chromosome may lead to an under-
chromosomes in the interphase nucleus by light micros- standing of the fine structure details of chromatin organi-
copy. However, due to the process of polytenization, the zation. Furthermore, because the banding pattern is heri-
giant salivary gland chromosomes of Drosophila melano- table and can be correlated with the genetic map (Bridges,
gaster are large enough to visualize, thus providing an ex- 1942 and references therein), polytene chromosomes pro-
cellent model system for studying interphase processes. vide a unique opportunity to directly investigate the struc-
Polytenization occurs in nearly all larval tissues and is a re- ture of interphase chromatin at specific genetic loci.
sult of a modified cell cycle, which alternates between S Ever since the discovery of polytene chromosomes,
phase and G phase (Smith and Orr-Weaver, 1991). The there has been much speculation as to the significance of
polytene nuclei in salivary gland tissue can undergo up to the bands (Beermann, 1972; Zhimulev et al., 1981a; Sorsa,
10 cycles of replication without intervening divisions. The 1988b). The number of bands has been counted by light
unsegregated sister chromatids and homologs remain and electron microscopy. In several different regions, esti-
mates have been made for the number of genes residing in
a defined number of bands using deletion analysis and mu-
Y. Urata and S. J. Parmelee both contributed equally to the work pre- tational saturation studies. These studies invariably find
sented herein. that there is an approximately equal number of genes and
Please address all correspondence to J. W. Sedat, Department of Bio- bands. However, some bands have been found that are
chemistry and Biophysics and The Howard Hughes Medical Institute,
multigenic and others have no discernible function (Ber-
University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0554. Tel.: (415) 476-
4156. Fax: (415) 476-1902. endes, 1970; Hochman, 1971; Lefevre, 1974; Young and
The current address of Y. Urata, Department of Pathology, Kyoto Pre- Judd, 1978; Keppy and Welshons, 1980; Spierer and
fectural University of Medicine, Kyoto 602, Japan. Spierer, 1983; Zhimulev and Belyaeva, 1991). The idea
Figure 1. M o l e c u l a r m a p of
t h e Notch locus. T h i s m a p is
an adaptation from Rykow-
ski et al. (1988). O r i e n t a t i o n
of t h e c h r o m o s o m e is indi-
c a t e d at t h e top. T h e D N A
scale is m a r k e d in kb a b o v e
t h e Notch t r a n s c r i p t i o n unit.
T h e a r r o w e d lines depict t h e
distance s p a n n e d by e a c h m i x
of p r o b e s . B o x e s indicate t h e
location of individual clones
u s e d to m a k e up t h e mixes. M e m b e r s o f t h e m i x Nb are i n d i c a t e d by solid boxes, m e m b e r s of N i are s h o w n as gray b o x e s a n d t h e mix N t
is c o m p r i s e d o f all t h e c l o n e s s h o w n (solid, gray, a n d open boxes).
However, the vast majority of the bands show some pe- composed of dotted or ellipsoid substructures of variable
ripheral concentration of D N A and an uneven distribution intensities sized N0.2-0.4 Ixm in diameter. The number of
of D A P I staining features. substructural components counted in a band ranges be-
The peripheral D N A concentration of specific, cytologi- tween 25-53 (mean = 36 + 7). This analysis includes 39
cally identified bands has been monitored for reproduc- bands from five different preparations. It appears that
ibility. Fig. 5 b provides several examples of computation- these substructural features are in phase in adjacent bands,
ally dissected bands from two different preparations. as if these are continuous bundles of chromatids that are
Examination of the same band from different nuclei sug- joined from one band to the next. This continuity is re-
gests that there may be a common pattern of distribution vealed by comparing positions of substructural features in
of D N A at a given locus. Although this is not clear-cut for neighboring bands that have been computationally rotated
all of the bands, in some examples (for instance, bands to a cross sectional view, as in Fig. 5. However, since these
62A9-10, 62D1-2, and 62D5-6 in Fig. 5) that are easily cat- images have been rotated, the original optical axis (Z axis)
egorized as having one of the extreme forms of band archi- is now part of the image plane (originally the X and Y
tecture, the D N A distribution is easily recognized as con- axes) and because of the decreased resolution in Z, it is of-
sistent between the two examples. This suggests that in ten difficult to distinguish the boundaries of the substruc-
some cases a specific band has a characteristic architecture tural features. A clearer view of these structures can be
based on the distribution of the DNA. seen in Fig. 6 which shows serial optical cross sections
Bands have been previously categorized by Bridges as spanning 3 Ixm of a polytene chromosome arm. Because
being either "singlets" or "doublets" (Bridges, 1942 and our preparations have been optimized to spread chromo-
references therein; Sorsa, 1988a). The uncertainty of the some arms for longitudinal views, the polytene chromo-
significance of this classification, encouraged us to look for some is rarely captured perpendicular to the sectioning
correspondence between the existence of peripheral con- plane of the microscope for more than a few microns of
centration of D N A in a band and the doublet nature of length.
those bands. Table I shows the results (see Fig. 5 for spe- Nonetheless, when these substructural features are fol-
cific examples). We find that classification as a doublet is lowed from band to band for a few microns, they look like
neither necessary nor sufficient to predict the distribution continuous fibers that merge and split as they change their
pattern of D N A in a band. position relative of each other (see Fig. 6). Unfortunately,
Although the differences between bands are clearly tilting this subvolume of data 90 around the Y axis to re-
seen in the tilted views shown in Fig. 5, it is also obvious veal a longitudinal view, does not reveal a discrete banding
that there is a common punctate nature of the D A P I stain- pattern because of the decreased resolution in Z. How-
ing. Rather than a solid disk-like structure that one would ever, one can estimate that three microns should span ap-
expect if the D N A were evenly distributed, the D N A proximately five bands (compare Fig. 5 a).
staining reveals substructural features as if the chromatids The relationship between the two homologs in the poly-
are bundled. When viewed in cross section, each band is tene chromosome has also been investigated. Conven-
Figure 5. Three-dimensional data collection of unsquashed chromosomes yields readable cytology and allows isolation and rotation of
individual bands. A single optical section from a three-dimensional data stack is shown for the tip of 3L (a). The cytology has been iden-
tified by comparison to the maps of Bridges and Lefevre. Numbered (closed arrow) and lettered (open arrows) regions have been la-
beled, b shows a gallery of individual DAPI-stained polytene chromosome bands that have been computationally isolated as described
in Materials and Methods and volume rendered (Drebin et al., 1988). Each row shows a series of tilted views of a band from 0-50 by in-
crements of 10 and can be viewed as a series of stereo pairs. Each band is cytologically identified in the left column using Bridges' re-
vised map. Each band is scored for peripheral concentration of DNA (as described in Table I and text) to the right of each tilt series.
The left side of panel b shows bands from the example of 3L shown above (Fig. 5 a). The right side of panel b shows the same bands that
have been computationally dissected from another example of 3L. The view that corresponds to the image plane of optical sectioning is
the left-most tilt; angle = 0. Each band shows a dotted substructure with or without peripheral concentration of DNA. The scale bar
represents 3 I~m.
interval b e t w e e n bands 3C7 and 3C9-10 (sequences 3' of terbands as though they form fibers that run longitudinally
the Notch gene) was labeled by the N i p r o b e (probes de- through the c h r o m o s o m e arm. F u r t h e r m o r e , whatever fac-
scribed in Materials and M e t h o d s and Fig. 1). A total of tors regulate the a r r a n g e m e n t of bundles relative to one
0.6 kb separates the two mixes. These p r o b e s were chosen other, creating a band-specific architecture, are also in ef-
based on previous D N A in situ hybridization data from fect in the neighboring interband.
c h r o m o s o m e spreads (Rykowski et al., 1988). In Fig. 7 b it
can be seen that the two sets of p r o b e s label adjacent but
distinct regions with a very slight overlap. F u r t h e r m o r e ,
Alignment
the D N A in the i n t e r b a n d closely follows the structure of A s multiple labels are used in close proximity, it becomes
the D N A in the band. The p e r i p h e r a l localization of chro- necessary to consider how accurately the resulting data
matin, characteristic of the b a n d 3C7, clearly continues in stacks are aligned. O n e possible source of misalignment
the adjacent interband. T a k e n together with the observa- m a y come from the use of an indirect detection (i.e., bi-
tion from D A P I stained nuclei, it appears that the bundles otin-streptavidin or digoxigenin and an antibody) that m a y
of chromatids seen in the bands are also present in the in- cause the signal to spread and be a less accurate represen-