Aquaculrural Engineering 3 I 1984) 141-152

An Integrated System of Aquaculture, Vegetable

Production and Solar Heating in an Urban
Environment

Judith Bender

Associate Professor, Morehouse College, Department of Biology,

Atlanta, Georgia 30314, USA

ABSTRACT

This study investigates the feasibility o f an integrated system o f fish

culture with vegetable production and solar home heating in an urban
environment. Tilapia aurea and Ictalurus punctatus are polycultured in a
semi-closed pond system located near downtown Atlanta, Georgia. Fish
culture is integrated with vegetable production and composting in order
to recycle ~,ced nitrogen and avoM the use o f commercial fertilizers. Water
quality in the greenhouse pond is maintained by settling processes and by
the use o f simple biological and solar methods. Cost analysis o f the total
project is presented and recommendations for system improvements are
given.

INTRODUCTION

The success of small scale aquaculture and gardening ventures today

may be dependent on the accelerating costs of water and energy and on
the impact of these resources on present methods of food production.
Traditional, centralized methods of food production in the US are
energy intensive processes which depend on consistent weather patterns
and adequate ground water supplies of the midwest. Although the cost
effectiveness of aquaculture is also limited by water and energy
supplies, it lends itself more easily to small, decentralized methods of
food production. Small aquaculture systems integrate well into solar
141
Aquacultural Engineering 0144-8609/84/$3.00 Elsevier Applied Science
Publishers Ltd, England, 1984. Printed in Great Britain
142 Z Bender

technologies (Chervinski and Stickney, 1981; Zweig et al., 1981) and

can be designed to conserve water either by recycling or by multi-use
of the water for expanded agricultural applications (Lincoln et al.,
1977).
8% of the world's population lives in the urban environment. These
populations are probably most vulnerable to protein shortages and
escalating costs of these products. At the same time, even minimal
levels of self-sufficiency in food and energy production present the
most difficult problems in the city. In urban areas where open land
space is scarce and water is costly, unique methods of intensive culture
systems must be developed. In contrast to traditional systems, the
benefits here are not measured in marketability or profits, but rather in
a return of basic human needs at the family or neighborhood level.
The economics of small aquaculture systems are presently question-
able, if land purchase costs are taken into account. However, multi-
purpose systems which produce a number of benefits and make use of
land already available in neighborhoods may be more economically
feasible. The experiments discussed in this report involve not only the
intensive culture of fish for protein, but also demonstrate methods of
integrating the fish production with solar heating and vegetable pro-
duction. The methods used in this project are based on conservation,
recycling and bioconversion using solar power as the primary energy
source. Such bio-solar technologies may have broad applications for
food production in the future (Oswald and Golueke, 1960).

METHODS

Solar design

The greenhouse/fish pond system is attached to the south side of a

house near downtown Atlanta, Georgia. This passive solar structure is
used for home heating from November through April. The greenhouse
is 17-1 x 2-4 m with an L-shaped fish pond (4920 liters) recessed in the
floor of the southeast comer (See Fig. 1). Warm air is transferred to the
house by a thermostatically controlled fan and returned to the green-
house through louvers in the west door of the basement. A wood stove
(80 50 45 cm) and a small kerosene heater are used for backup heat
on cloudy days. Incident radiation is increased in the pond with a
 ~oo~
Stove
.3
/2/ *

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qU mlmm 0

q~
41me~
E c~
iw L_
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Fig. 1. Heat delivery and storage system. (I) AzoUa-algae tanks; (2) settling tanks;
(3) south.faced reflecting surface.
144 J. Bender

southfacing aluminum foil reflecting surface angled at approximately

50 for optimum reflection (see Fig. 1); azolla and cyanobacteria, used
for fish grazing, are cultured in reinforced fiberglass tanks. The water
tanks and fish pond provide large volumes of water in the greenhouse,
which serve as thermal storage mass to prevent night time cool down.

FertiliTation

Figure 2 illustrates the integrated ecosystem involved in the production

and recycling of fertilizer material for the fish and vegetable production.
In addition to the organic materials, small amounts of ground rock
phosphate are added during preparation of the soil (0.3 kg m -3). No
additional commercial fertilizer is used. Blue-green algae (cyanobacteria)
are harvested from the growth tank and applied to the gardening soil.
These nitrogen-fixing algal cultures are maintained in the beds until the
vegetables shade the soil surface. A small bin of compost provides
material for pond and soil enrichment. A rabbit converts rough protein
sources such as weeds, grass and inedible vegetable parts to a concen-
trated, microbial-rich manure product. The manure is used to fertilize
both the fish pond and gardening soil. The concentrated fish waste
material removed from the pond's bottom provides a constant supply
of nitrogen to the vegetable beds.

Pond purification

Water is pumped to a translucent settling tank (250 liters) from the

deepest end of the pond three times per week. Required pumping time
is 12 min per week. After a day of settling, the nutrient rich bottom
water is used for vegetable fertilizer (see Fig. 3). The top half of the
tank is drained into a second smaller tank where the sun can penetrate
the volume of water. Water is warmed in the tanks by the sun and
oxygenated by residual algae in the water. It flows from the tank by
gravity across a tray of oyster shells, phosphate rock and water hya-
cinths which further conditions the water as it returns to the fish
pond. Oxygen levels are increased with two aquarium pumps supplying
3.4m3min -t.
5 T|ANSPA|[NTGROWTHTANKS
FOrAxoAZOLLA
GR((NHOUS[
ILI[-GIL[N ALGA( V(G[TAILE$ KITCHEN WASTES
CULTURE ~I ~ ,A,,,T.A..-- 1
Y

SL:J~ WASTE .......... ,. .

/ oLc, t Juocumu .. ~. ~- ~. (X,T,WO~,/Co,eoSTI(O
i,IT~OC(, m m o ~ )

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PONt) i
~Jt
Fig. 2. Inlegrated sysle,n t\~r fish and vegetable pr~ducLion. (* Double as thernl~d sit,rage material.)
146 J. Bender

ml

$(TTLINC TANKS
(TIANSPAIINT)

'
t NOLOTIM[:
ON(NAY O~SUN
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TANK 8011'01

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OTSTEI SNELI.SANO
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Fig, 3. Water purification of fish pond during winter months.

Summer culture pond

Additional component of this system is an ellipse-shaped (7-0 X 9-8 m

diameter) backyard pond with a holding capacity of 76 m 3 water. Pond
depth ranges from 91 to 122 cm. The outdoor pond is used from June
to October or November, when temperatures are suitable for outdoor
growth of Tilapia. The water quality of the outdoor pond was main-
tained using the following mechanical and biological systems: (1) two
air pumps delivering 3.4 m 3 mAn-t; (2) a small submerged pump located
in the deepest part of the pond which removes approximately 379 liters
 Aquaculture/vegetable production~solar heating in urban environment 147

h -t from the bottom of the pond (water was passed over a 914 X 15
X 15 cm trough filled with oyster shells and pebbles, then drained back
into the pond); (3) algae-photosynthesis oxygenation; and (4) water
hyacinths for removal of NH3, thereby preventing algal blooms.
Once a month the fertile water is used on the adjacent neighborhood
vegetable gardens. In a normal summer season, this water is replaced by
rainfall.
The fish are harvested in the autumn by emptying the pond with a
sump pump. All the nutrient rich material from the pond bottom is
applied to the gardens and greenhouse vegetable beds.

Stocking of fish

Season 1
A total of 400 unsexed Tilapia aurea (19 weeks old) were transferred to
the indoor pond on 19 November 1981. The average body weight and
total length at stocking time, determined from a random sample of
25 fish, were 4.9 g and 66.7 mm. After overwintering in the solar green-
house, the fish were transferred to the outdoor pond in May 1982.

Season 2
In October 1983, 35 offspring Tilapia were harvested from the outside
pond and stocked in the greenhouse for the next season production.
In addition 37 small adult Tilapia, which were below edible size at the
time of the first harvest, were returned to the greenhouse pond for the
winter. Fifty-two catfish Ictalurus punctatus, having an average weight
and length of 3.08 g and 7.5 cm, were divided into two groups for
overwintering. Forty-two were stocked in the outside pond and 10 in
the greenhouse.
On 27 May 1983, the outside pond was cleaned and refilled, the fish
from both ponds were weighed and measured and all fish were placed
in the outside pond for summer growth until harvest on 27 October
1983.

Feeding

Since the winter temperatures of the indoor pond were rather low,
feeding levels were minimal to protect against ammonia increase in the
water. Commercial catfish feed was fed at approximately 1% body-
148 J. Bender

weight from November to April. A total of 4.2 kg feed were fed during
these 6 months (10-5 g to each fish). Sinking pellets were fed, since the
fish did n o t come to the surface to feed until May. At this time feed
was changed to floating type and was increased to the amount that the
fish would consume in 10 min (approximately 40 g day-t). This rate
was increased to 160 g feed day -t for the July-October period (applied
in two feedings per day). A total of 16-2 kg commercial feed was fed
during the 10 months from November to August (41 g to each fish).
No quantitative estimate is made of other types of feed consumed
which included algae, azolla fern and compost.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Heating

A sample of the solar heating capacity is given in Table 1. In general,

with ideal solar conditions, the greenhouse raised the house temperature
by approximately 17C. However, cloudy periods and extreme cold
required continuous use of the wood stove. Approximately one cord of
wood was burned for space heating during the first year.

Water quafity

The water quality of both ponds ( 1981-82 season) is given in Table 2.

Values represent the range of samples taken twice per month. Generally

TABLE 1
January 1981 Solar Home Heating

Living space of home, C Outside C

21 7
17 3
14 --9
16 3
15 --4
Mean: t6.6 0
 Aquaculture/vegetable production~solar heating in urban environment 149

TABLE 2
Water Quality, 1981-82 Season

Test Inside pond Outside pond

Oxygen (ppm) 8.0-12.2 3:2-8.2

Ammonia (ppm) 0.02-2.0 >0-02
pH 6.0-7-0 6.5-7.0
Temperature (C) 16-19 25-32

Sample taken 15 cm below pond surface. Oxygen and ammonia

determinations were made with field water test kid (LaMotte Co.);
pH levels were determined with a battery powered pH meter
(Sargent-Welch).

the water quality during both seasons remained within tile parameters
required for good fish production. However, the present 1984 season
(not reported) demonstrates that maintenance of low ammonia and
high oxygen in a small semi-closed system can become a problem if the
organic load is high and environmental conditions are not conducive
to the proper functioning o f the biopurification systems.

Fish production

In a 10-month growth period tile first season ( 1 9 8 1 - 8 2 ) produced

approximately 100 fish of edible size ( 1 8 0 g per fish) and a large
population of smaller fish averaging 53 g per fish. In the second season
the stocking densities were kept lower; 124 fish were stocked. In
addition, a polyculture system of catfish and Tilapia aurea was used
the second season. Specific growth data from the second season
( 1 9 8 2 - 8 3 ) are given in Table 3.
The final fish production was approximately 24 kg fish of edible size
at the time of the 1983 harvest (approximately 13 months from stock-
ing). The catfish performed better under these conditions showing a
weight gain of 315 g per fish as compared to 166 g per fish for the
Tilapia (calculation made from the Tilapia which were stocked as fry).
The total biomass from 42 catfish was 13.4 kg whereas the Tilapia
produced 11-1 kg from 71 fish. The somewhat lower than expected
production of Tilapia may be accounted for by several factors. The
t50 J. Bender

TABLE 3
Growth of Tilapia and Catfish 1982-83 Season

Sample Fish growth

Weight, Length, Total fish

g per fish cm biomass, g

1 October 1982 at stocking a

Tilapia 26.6 I 1.0 1 917
Catfish 3.8 6.7 198
2t May 1983 end of overwinteringa
Tilapia 42.5 15 -2 2 804
Catfish b 342
Group A 8.2 10.7
Group B 18.8 13-6
27 October 1983 final harvest c
Tilapia 173.7 a 7.8 1 t 071
Catfish 319-0 32.0 13 398

a Population of 72 Tilapia were stocked. Thirty-five were progeny from first year's
production (average size: 6-7 g, 7 cm) and 37 were small, predominantly female
fish returned to the greenhouse for second season growth (average size: 41.7 g,
13.3 cm). Ten catfish were stocked with the Tilapia in greenhouse pond and 42 in
outside pond. (Average size, both groups: 3.8 g, 6-7 cm).
b Group A: outside overwinter; Group B: greenhouse overwinter.
c Survival: greenhouse pond - 92% Tilapia and 100% catfish; outside pond - 81%
winter catfish, 100% summer survival of all fish.
a Weight represents the average of fish considered to be edible size (125 g); 22%
population was below this weight (averaging 95 g per fish).

35 adult fish, s t o c k e d with the fry, were p r e d o m i n a n t l y females, which

are k n o w n t o grow m o r e slowly t h a n the males o f this species. Tilapia
r e p r o d u c t i o n in the o u t s i d e p o n d resulted in an o v e r a b u n d a n c e o f
small fish, c o m p e t i n g f o r f o o d and degrading t h e w a t e r quality. These
factors, however, did n o t seem to have a m a j o r i m p a c t o n the catfish,
as might be e x p e c t e d . It m a y be t h a t the m a t u r i n g catfish were preda-
t o r y on the Tilapia fry, resulting in a c o m p e n s a t o r y e f f e c t for the
catfish.
 Aquaculture~vegetable production~solar heating in urban environment 15 1

Catfish over-wintered in the outside pond showed only a two-fold

gain, whereas over-wintering in the greenhouse resulted in a five-fold
gain. The feed conversion ratio (calculated as the amount of commercial
feed per unit weight gain of first season Tilapia) was 0.84. Early mass
matings of these fish produced about 1000 first generation offspring;
later matings produced several thousand fry by harvest time.

Economics of the integrated system

The system produced good returns in both energy and food production.
An estimated US$85 broccoli, carrots, lettuce and kale were raised,
using only cyanobacteria and recycled wastes for fertilizer. Heating cost
benefits were US$700 in 1982-83 and fish production totaled US$85
for the season (cost benefits are based on present local market prices).
Total cost input for construction materials and maintenance of the
system was US$6290. The cost return time is approximately 7 years.*
Proper evaluation of this experiment must include projections of
future costs and shortages. Since the price of commercial fertilizer is
tied to dwindling fossil fuel supplies, it has a major impact on the
economics of any agricultural operation. This demonstration project
shows that microbes can be effectively employed to add fixed nitrogen
to a small system which is then conserved by recycling through several
stages of food production. An aquaculture component (particularly one
which includes algae-filtering Tilapia) has a central niche tbr the ferti-
lizer economy of this integrated system.
The cost effectiveness of the total system can be improved by lower-
ing the maintenance costs and increasing fish production. Several
changes are suggested for such improvements.
A multipond system might solve several problems and increase the
economic advantages enough to warrant expansion of this system to the
neighborhood or community level. Two factors which have a major
impact on maintenance costs and fish production are (1) the pumping
of water for purification o f the outside pond (US$48 in 1981-82
season) and (2) prolific reproduction of Tilapia causing limited growth
in the outside pond. If three ponds were developed, one could be used

* Estimates exclude costs of land, as backyard space was available. No estimate was
made of labor costs, because the system is designed as a family or neighborhood
project.
iS3 f. Bender

to harvest water from house rooftops. This water could be stored and
used to flush out the pond bottom during the summer when the high
level of organic build-up requires uater pumping. A second pond could
serve as a spawning area to provide only male Tilupia to the third,
grow-out pond, thereby preventing overproduction.
Small systems are labor rather than energy intensive and a multipond
s>,stem would substantially increase the man-hours required for vege-
table and fish production. However. this factor may also indicate that
the integrated system may be most appropriate for concentrated
populations where unemployment is highest.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was supported by two grants from the US Department of

Energy, Appropriate Technology Program (Grants GA1 17, 1044 and
13-O 181). The Georgia Solar Coalition is acknowledged for its contri-
bution in nlonitoring the grants and for organizing the use of this
project as a demonstration urban home. The author would especially
like to thank Dr K. Bondari of the University of Georgia and Dr R.
Schmittou of Auburn University for their kind assistance in the aqua-
culture phase of this project.

REFERENCES

Chervinski. J. & Stickney, R. R. (1981). Overwintering facilitieS for Tifapia in

Texas, Prog. Fish Cult., 43, 20-I.
Lincoln, E. P., Hill. D. J. & Nordstedt. R. A. (1977). Microalgae as a means of
recycling animal wastes, Sot. Agric. Ety Pup. IVO. 77-3026, pp. 26-9.
Oswald, W. J. & Golueke, C. G. (1960). Biological transformation of solar energy,
Adv. Appl, Microbial., 2, 223-64.
Zweig, R. D., Wolfe, J. R., Todd, J. H., Engstrom, D. G. & Doolittle, A. M. (1981).
Solar aquaculture: An ecological approach to human food production. Bio-
Etlgheering Symposium for Fish Clrlrure (FC5 Publ. I), pp. 210-26.