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INTRODUCTION
(
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'TO"'''' ,3,"'

ELECTRIC' JjRI,fES~
. i '. " ~f:. ::~r I ~... '.

,
"
FALL ,199,1

Prot. Jos Gomes ~e Matos

Mal. UFMA 4116-i

, " CO PYRIGRT.;~~";j:t!1 ~:(}'):; '. ,

D.W ~ NO VOT'N~'; ~:;~' ::1~~,l:~riip Cf ~J:, , .
UNIVERSITY OF' ~S{;"QNS.:~N~.~~bl~9:~' 'o',
, ',,:' ,', ",::, '\ ",~,.). ~", \' :; ~'"
 ,
0'1#

,, )

ECE 411 FALL 1997

)
)

INTRODUCTION
"

,)
TO

)
ELECTRIC nRIVES

:,
)
:)
)
:)
:)
SECTION TOPIC PAGES )
1 DC Drive System Theory 55 :)
")
2 Induction Machine Theory 63 )
Appendix 2-1 Pole '-'Number Selection 07 )
)
3 Principies or Synchronous Machines 43 ,)
4 Scaling.. Laws . for AC Machines 20 )
5 Inverter Operation and Modelling 34 ,)
,)
6 Adjustable Speed Drives (to be supplied) ,:)
7 Adjustable Torque Drives (to be supplied)
8 Induction Machine Dynamic Response 58
9 dq Models of AC Machines 29
Appendix 1 Example Problems 72
Total Pages 381

1997, D. W.Novotny,T.A.Lipo
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--~._~. __ _--,~--------,:,~
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 Chapter 1

Introduction to DC Drive System Theory

1.1 Physieal Structure and Principies of Operation or theDC Machine

As shown in Fig. 1.1-1, the de machine has stationary, salientfield poZes excited with directeurrent
or in small size maehines by permanent magnets. The rotating armature (power conversion member) is
cylindrical and is wound with a uniformly distributed winding usually placed in 810ts. Sincethe flux in the
armature is alternating as a result of the armature rotation, the magnetie core must be laminated to reduce
eddy current8. Although the field flux is constant in the steady state and hence the field poles do not need
to be laminated, ease of manufacture or requirements for rapid change or reversal of the field flux often call
for laminated field structures.

Field

f2
Field
Annature Core Winding

Fig.l.l-1 Physical Structure of DC Machine

D. W. NovotDY, T. A. Lipo 199'7

 De Drive Systems
The armature winding is supplied by means of brushes via a set of conducting segments which form
the commutator. The function of the switching action of the commutator is to cause the spatial distribution
of the armature current to be independent of the speed or rotational position of the armature winding. This
is illustrated by the Gramme Ring winding shown in Fig. 1.1-1 where it is readily seen that turning the
armature results in moving the individual armature conductors but the associated switching action of the
commutator leaves the spatial CUITent distribution unchanged. The Gramme Ring structure of Fig. 1.1-1 is
welI suited to a machine with a large diameter and a short axiallength and is used in machines which
----- -- ---
exhibit high torque and low spee4 (often caIled torque motors). In more conventional machines the long
....:.--- ------~ -
inactive axial return conductor makes this winding less effective and a variety of alternative winding
configurations are employed. These windings eliminate the inactive axial return conductor by utilizing one
of the active conductors approximately one pole pitch away around the armature as the return conductor.
This lengthens the circurnferential return conductor but with typicaI length to diameter ratios yields a more
effective winding. In any case the commutation principIe is the same and the Gramme Ring is easy to
understand.
The function of the commutator can also be viewed as providing a means for selecting and summing
the individual conductor voltages to obtain the total induced voltage. Reference to Fig. 1.1-1 shows that
as an armature conductor moves across the top of the machine it leaves a region of south pole flux and
moves to a region
__ ofnorth
. .. -
pole fluxo This
~-----~ .. -
will reverse thepolarityofthe

induced voltage in the conductor
(and hence in the coil formed by the conductor and the inactive return conductor). However, at the same
time the switching action of the commutator removes the conductor from the left side circuit and places it in
the right side circuit A similar event occurs at the bottom of the machine at the other brush. The net effect
is the voltage beiWeeIl bruShes malntainsioonstant (excej)t for-aSm311 eommutitornj)ple) de value while
the individual conduetor voltages are c1early ac in nature.

1.1-1 Torque and EMF Produdion

The average torque developed in a de machine can be easily found from the instantaneous force on
one of the armature coriductors averaged over onerevolution of the machine. Since the B-field and the
current are ~rt1iogonoI as lIISffiiteil Fig:TT.:z~lne instantaneous torq.els~-

1
T(8)=rF(8)=r[lB(8)] (1.1-1)

where
i = armature current amperes
l = axiallength of machine meters
r = radius of armature meters
a =nurnber of paraIlel eUITent paths in armature (2 in Fig. 1.1-1)
B(8) = flux density at position 8 in air gap of machine teslas

2
 De Drin Systems

B(8) - -...~
- -..... B(8)

~ F(8)
~

.~)
v I Z=TotalNumber
\"
of Conductors

Fig. 1.1-2 Torque Production in Electric Machine

The average value of this torque can be found by avemging the instanulIneous torque of Eq. 1.1-1 over one
magnetic pole
L,
,)'j
L". . "
2:1tlP) \~ ,''., 2:1t/P
1 1 .
,. . ',--.'.' !T(8) d8 =r.e!..a -I
j

T =--.f2xIP 23t1P
B(8) de - r l.!.Bavg
a
(1.1-2)

The total torque is now found by simply multiplying by the total nwnber of active conductors, Z

1
T =Z r.f -a BavI:>o (1.1-3)

1t is clear based on these results that the optimum spatial waveform for the flux density is a rectangular
wave such that Bavg = Bpeak. This is the wavefoIlIl produced in almost alI de mac~es, although the
equality of Bavg and Bpeak is never exactly attained because th~ tTectiV(~ width ofthej)Ole is always ~
than the actual---le arc~e flux density ~~~~~ar..
The result in Eq. 1.1-3 is often rewritten in terms of the flux per polecp given by

_ total area B _ 2:1trl B (1.1-4)

cp - number of poIes avg - P avg

3
 :>
De Drive Systems )
to yield l
)

(1.1-5) ,
)

)
),
An exactly paralleI development can be carried outfor the speed dependent genemted voltage (i.e.,
)
the back emf). The instantaneous voltage generated in one of the conductors is
)
e(8) = (roo).e B(8) --'J e?'-1 tA.d {"tu-{ k hrY (1.1-6) ~'
)
)
where 00 is the angular speed of rotation and rw is the linear velocity of the conductor. As before,
)
averaging over one pole yields

e = (roo).e Bav a
e
~
~~
,.1
L{~
LI vJ f~
,;) r "J
0~'
;' I &
t)W
~. v<--f
/9"'
(1.1-7)
,,
)

and muItiplying by the number of series conductors between brushes Zla yields ,
)

Z
e = -(roo).e Bav a
a e
r;.,. Ucu
J
!
, I

~1~_".f
2 0<9--.~. J;f,(
~
WV!~&~
t,t,9
~
(1.1-'8)
d .,C<.( -6 I'~
r-<J

-t-.,..,..
y
,t- (~
/1 '-(
,,
)

or in terms of the flux per pole

t/11t "

)
)
ZP
e = -q,oo= Kv q, 00 )
23ta ~,.'
. (

/'~ : _LI! . r ;J
)
J
A": " -,

Note that, except for possible problems with units, Kv = KT and that thisequality is necessary to allow
conservation of energy in that
,
)

)
)
Pin= ei = Kvepooi ,Pout= Too=KTepi 00 (1.1-10)
)
)
and that Pin =Pout is valid only if KV = KT .
1.1-2 Volume Dependence of Torque
,
)

)
An important principIe concerning torque production in Bi i machines (ac as well as de) can be )
readily deduced from Eq. 1.1-3 )
:>
(1.1-3) :)
)
)
MuItiplying by the factor mim and rearranging yields
;)
4 ;)
)
)
)
)
 De Drive Systems

Zi
T =2 (j[ r 2 t') (--~ Bavo (1.1-11)
2xar '"

The quantity A = Zi/2xar is the number of ~pereq:>nductors

,.. .'
per unit l~~ngth along.the
:-' - :" ,'. -'
,-
annature
. '~ ,

circumferential surface and is indicative of the heat generated by windiIllg 12R losses.. It is called .~
current loading and is widely used as an indicator of howhard the winclingjs~~gstressed~
~... ..... ".".,;.,';," ......,.', ', .
. .. "
The flux ..

densi ty is c1early an indicatorpf how hard the magnetic core!~.~ngstreSSed .In these terms Eq. 1.1-11
becomes

T =2 xVol xA x Bavg =2 xVolurne x Current Loading x Aux Density (1.1-12).

==.~= c:mrent~ik.Jm$e~i~*. ~~~din!iitty

/ This,importarJ.t~esult indicates that when'6tIling a motor one reallypays for torC)Uen<?!P9w~L- For
'i example,~' 10 hp,lSOO lp!!Lmotor can ree~~to have rou~~~~l~t~e volum~?r~_!9~P? ~JI)m ....
'l motor and to cost roughlY.. half as m. uc...h....Cost 1S also depende.nton the num\,erof umts ProdUCed..(.. an
... 'other
kind ofvolume) and this cansignificantly change the cost per unit volume of machines makingthecost
'comparison less accurate than the volume comparison. .

1.1-3 The Influeneeof Pole Number

While the number of poles has no fIrSt order influence on torque productiOriiioes have importaot
second order effects which often yield an optimum pole nmnber for spedfic machine types (i.e.,
pennanent magoet vs. wound field, high speed vs.low speed, etc.). Figure 1.1-3 illustrates tbe
differences'retween two and four pole machines in a comparison baseei on equal rotor radius and length.
As the figure illustrates, each machine has the same number of torque producing conductors; in the two
pole machine they are arranged in two identica1 groups, one under each pol, while in the four pole
machine they are arranged in four identica1 groups, again one under each pole.~torquei~}he~fore~
~_~~ty Bv.g~dthe current i are tbe same~ .
There is, however, a clear difference in the outside diameter of the two machines because the
-t ~GX(i.Q (C, . '

thickness of the stator yoke in the two pole machine must be larger to accomm~~,J~Jl~~rpole
'.' ,,,::\ "".. :;,-,,,:, "-'~I!.:l;~;;):/ ;~:"'i;~;'.~;~:;' ~'.:-'',; _o" ' "_' ,

n the two pole machine. 'The lar~~.!l~~_pc:>~eofthetwo pole macrunle is aresultofthe poleil'Qbeing
twicethat of the four le machine. If the two machines were to re compared on the basis of outside
diameter (a more rea1istic, practical comparison), the four pole machine would produce more torque for the
same B and i, since it would have a larger rotor radius, and would therefore be a better machine. With this
reasoning a six pole machine would re even retter, and indeed itlikely would be. There is, however, a
factor working against higher pole numbers, 'Yhich is the leakage flux at thepole edges. As can re seen in
Fig. 1.1-3, at the edge of the pole there is a tendency for flux to leak from poleto pole without crossing

Prol. Jos Gomes de MatOl

Mal. UFIlA .411"
 ,,)
De Drive Systems "~

the air gap to interact to produce torque. This can be especially!rUe with salient poles in which the direct ')
)
path from pole to pole can be very favorable to leakage fluxo The interaction of these two factors (less flux
")
per pole vs more leakage) results in four or six pole designs being optimal for wound field machines and
:"
much higher pole numbers (8 to 12 or more) for permanent magnet (PM) machines. The higher values for
PM machines arise principally from the long effective air gap and the high cost of the magnets. ,
.)

:')

,.
:)

,,'
")
.::)
'"

"

:~
':)
':"
':;)

,., :)

.,
:)

2 - Pole
(circumferential)
4 - Pole
, )

Fig. 1.1-3 Comparison of Two Pole and Four Pole Machines with the Same Rotor Diameter
J

')
,
Air Gap Exaggerated and Salient Poles Neglected
.)

... - .-rfs}R:5til15enoted that me requirementfunrtarg~ryokein tower pele number machines applies in ,., )

the rotor as well as in the stator. In fact, the problem is even more severe in the rotor since the roter oke
has a limited size in relation to the rotor radius. In particular, the minimum cross section of the
~~ half ~ pole flux must pass is
,,
:)
Ayoke =ri (1.1-13) )
)
neglecting the portion taken by the s~ and sIots. The pole area is
"',
. ,)
,
:)
(1.1-14)
;)

6 ,
"

, )

)
 De riu Systems

The ratio of the fiux density in the yoke to the flux density in the pole is equal to the ratio Df the area of one
half of a pole to the area of the yoke ~ v

- I1
xri ~ -p
B yoke _ ApmJ2 P 1t
(1.1-15)
Bpole - Ayoke rl =p

from whieh, in order to keep Byoke ::::: Bpole' it is c1ear that the yoke is far too small in a two pole machine,
is about right in a four pole machine (after allowing for shaft and slots) and is more than enough in higher
pole numbers. For this reason tw) poJe de machinesare very rare (ex(:ePtforveIT~small machines) .
-_--_~~_._____ _v "_.,,~ ,'":

1.2 DC Machine Modeling

The modeI used to analyze de machines and to analyze and design de drive systems is based on the
principIes described in the preceding sections coupled with the basie circuit and mechanical system laws
needed to describe the overall energy conversion system made up ~f the machine, the mechanicalIoad anel
the electrical power supply. This section treats the machine and load and Iater sections wiIl treat the power
supplies.

1.2-1 Basic Equations of DC Machines

The basie perfonnance equations of a de motor are the armature-and field electrical equations, the
torque and emf equations. the mechanical equation and the magnetization eba:racteris1ie~

+
L
t

cp
v

Fig. 1.2-1 DC Motor Equivalent Circuit

The equations are:

Armature cireuit equation

7
 :)~

De Drive Systems :)
:)
di ')
v= iR+Ldt +e (1.2-1)

Field circuit equation

:

:)
,
)

:)
.R T ~ dif (1.2-2) :)
vf= If f+ '-1 dt
:)

Emf equation (repeated from Eq. 1.1-9)

:>
; :,
:)

(1.2-3)
:,
:,
Torque equation (repeated from Eq. 1.1-5) :)
:,
(1.2-4) :,
:J
Mechanica1 equation :,
, :)

(1.2-5)
:,
:,)
:"
Magnetization characteristic :)
:)
(1.2-6) :,
where :)
:,
R = annature resistance
ohms
:,
L= annatureinductance
henries
:,
Rf = field resistance
ohms
:,
4 = field inductance
henries
:,
Kv = emf constant
volt-sec./weber
:,
:,
KT = torque constant
newton-meter/weber-amp
J = total rotational inertia
newton-meter-sec2
B =viscous damping coef. newton-meter-sec
T =motor torque newton-meters
TL= load torque newton-meters
v =armature voltage
volts
i =armature current
amperes

8
 DC Drive Systems

vf = field voltage volts

if =field current amperes

O> =rolor speed radlsec

<p =flux per pole webers

1.2-2 Seeond Order Effeds

The model expressed in Equati ons 1.2-1 to 1.2-6 is adequate for most purposed. There are,
however, several second order effects which cause departures from lhe model and must be recognized and
.
sometimes incorporated in analysis. Two of these effects will be described; brush voltage drop and lhe

demagnetizing effect of the armaturecurrent

Brush Drop - in machines using ~.,~~coIDIputation and to a lesser eXtent in other machines, the

contact surfare vol1age drop at the interface betweenthebrush and the commutatorsurfaceisanonlinear

resistive voltage drop. This is, at least inpa.ri, a reSult ofselecting brush materialtoaid in forcing the

current being commutated to smoothly fall to zero and reverse. A reasonable firstapproximation
,.
to

modeling isthat there is a small constant voltage dropat each brush of the order of 0.5 to l~Ovolt As a
resultthe-totaI armatureresistance voltage-dropis a nonlinear function of armaturecurrent exhi~tin~
relatively highresistance atl~cmrent and falling to a low aldnmy cons1ant resistance at hl~'
CUlTents. Although this effect can usually be neglected, it does makejt::1npossible tomeasure the annature
resistance with alow current supplY~'is usuallY~li ~'Qhfutrr~. Wl~cin::vitresistance
should be measure at a airrentle\iel~~~to ratedcurrentor~;_gdirCtcolltct~'at>Ptopiately
,,,.,,,;;, ."'.-0,', _:-,:' -, c,', ":<~_ , _ _,.. ,;-::>, ~

located commutator segmltSwfln.USig~.~);'C;\UIIent.~ent

; , .' _o,'

In machines with interpoles, the brushes need nothave their characteristics chosen to aid in
commutation and brush drop is less significant. Interpoles are narrow magnetic poles placed between the
main poles so as to produce an induced voltage in the coi! being commutated to contraI the rate of change
of the current The location of the interpole relative to the field poles and armature is shown in Fig. 1.2-2.
Since the required induced commutation voltage depends on how much current is being commuta.ted, the
interpoles are connected in serieswith the armature and thus automatically produce the proper field
strength for alI values of CUlTent Interpoles improve the commutation to such a degree that theyare now
employed on alI but very smaIl wound field machines.
Demagnetizing Effect of Armature Current - the annature ampere tums act to create a magnetic
field with its axis 9fr away from the axis of tbe field fluxo The effect of this annature reaction field is to
shift the Iocation of the total magnetic fieId away from he axis of the field winding. This results in thetotal
field at one edge of the field pole being increased and decreased at the other edge. If the magnetic material
were entirely linear, the increased flux density at the one pole edge wouId be balanced bya
correspondingly decreased value on the other edge and the total fIux wotldd be unchanged. The
distribution of the fiux (and hence the voltage per tum) would be altered but the total fiux (and the total
induced voltage) wouId remain coostant However, in practice the core material exhibits saturation and the

9
 De Drive Systems
,
:>

)
increase in the flux density on the one edge is less than the decrease on the other edge. As a result, the
)
total tlux and the induced voltage are reduced as the armature current increases.
The net effect is a non-linear reduction of the flux (and hence the torque and back emf constants) as
the armature current increases. The effect on the speed-torque characteristics is to cause a small non
,, )

linearity in the slope of the curve tending to reduce the speed drop at high current The effect is most
noticeable at high speed and high current and can become strong enough in wound field machines to cause
a speed rise at high loading. Some machines are equipped with a weak series field (stabilized shunt
, )

)

Field
Winding ,
)

,
)

,
"

)
)
)
,
IDrerpole! )
Winding
,, )

Fig. 1.2-2 Structure of DC Machine Showing Interpole and Compensating Windings )

machines) to avoid the possibility of instability resulting from a rising speed-torque curve. Shaping the )

,,
- -
pole face to introduce a longer air gap at the pole edges is often used to reduce the demagnetizing effect. )
Permanent magnet machines are less affected because of the large effective air gap associated with modem
PM materiaIs.
)
One consequence of the demagnetizing effect is that measured values of the torque constant and the
)
back emf constant are often not equal (even when expressed in MKS units). This is a result of measuring
)
the torque constant at rated current where demagnetization is present whereas the back emf constant is

measure at no load and is hence unaffected by armature demagnetization. , )

,
The effect of armature reaction in distorting the air gap flux wave and creating demagnetization can
)
be eliminated by adding a compensating winding. This is a winding with the same current capacity as the
armature, connected in series with the armature and placed in slots in the faces of the field poles as )
)
10 )
)
:,
)
. I

>',..
 De Drive Systems
illustrated in Fig. 1.2-2. With lhe praper polarity, this winding will caneel the mmf af the annature and
thus eliminate the effects af annature reaction.

1.3 Series De Motor

In a de series motor the annature and field are series connected a~ shown in Fig. 1.3-1 resulting in a
single electrical equation.

(1.3-1)

I
Because the flux cp depends on i, tbis equation contains two non linearities; the nonlinear cp vs. i
eharacteristie and the produet linearity resulting from the produet +m. The mechanical equation .

(13-2)

is also nonliaearbecause of lhe proouct +iand the nonlinear +vs. i -characteristre. Coatrol-analysis-is
usually carried out by linearizing the equations using small signal theory.

+
1T
or
v I

Fig. 1.3-1 Series Motor (Universal Motor) Diagram and Performance Curves

While series de motors were widely used in electrie traction""lications in the past.they have largely
been replaced by electronically controlled machines with se~y excited field windings or by ac .
machines. A t present the most important application of the s~es connected machine is the universal
motor, widely used as an ac, variable speed motor. The serie~ motor wiIl run on ae because the flux and
eurrent are in phase and hence the torqueis inthe same direction regardless of the current direction. An
appreciation for the perfOlTIlance eharacteristics can be obtained by assuming the flux is proportional to the
current (neglecting saturatian) and negIecting the resistanee and induetance in Eq. 1.3-1.
11
 )
De Drive Systems
J
')
(1.3-3)

,
"

Vt :::: Kv $ Q) :::: Kv kf i Q) (1.3-4) :,

The current and torgue as functions of speed are then )
)
(1.3-5) )

(1.3-6)
, ,
)
"

Figure 1.3-1 illustrates these eharacteristics showing low torque and eurrent at high speed and large values
of torque and eurrent at low speed This type of eharacteristie (high torque at low speed and conversely) is
,)

I)
,
well suited to many applications sueh as drilling, cutting, mixing, etc., and has provided a large market for "

universal motors in the low power, applianee field and for series dc motors in the battery powered hand

tool and applianee areas. More accurate calculation of perfoInlance is significantly more difficult since it
must incorporate the nonlinear relation between $ and if.
!)
"
J
)
1.4 DC Machine in Steady State with Constaot Field Flux :,
When operating in the steady state with constant field flux, the de machine equations reduce to :)
(upper case symbols for v and i are used toemphasize steady state) ')
)

V =IR+ E=IR+Kv $00 (1.4-1)

,,
,)

for the aInlature circuit and

)
"

(1.4-2)
"J
!'.)
for the mechanical system. 11

1.4.1 Speed-Torque Characteristic

i)
,
If the machine is operated at no load (TL =O), the aInlature current is zero and Equation 1.4-1
reduces to ,, )

(1.4-3) ,,
"
,
"'
12
)
J
<)
f'!>
.,.
 DCDrive Systems

The no load speed Wr-L is thus directly related to the applied annature voltage V and inversely related to the

field fluxo Physically, the machine must run at a speed such that the induced voltage

(1.4-4)

is exactly in balance with the applied voltage.

When a Ioad is applied the annature current must take on a value such that the torque produced by the

motor equals the load torque as expressed in Eq. 1.4-2. This armature current results in an IR drop which

subtracts f TOm the applied voItage and reduces the required induced voltage. Since the fluXjs constant,

this reduction in induced voltage requires thattherotational speed decrease. One can also reverse the

cause-effect relation and argue tbatthe annature current required to supply.the torque I<Xld canIy"exist if

the speed decreases, thus permitting V and E to differ by the required IR drop.

In any case, an increase.in the load torque requires a decrease inspeed. The reIation between speed

and torque can be expressed by rewriting Equation 1.4-1 as

V - IR
O) =" -----'-- (1.4-5}-- ""

and then eliminating the annature current using Equation 1.4-2

(1.4-6)

Equation 1.4-6 is the equation of a straight line with a speed intercept of ~OOJ:.N and a slope of R .
KTKv+2
The nature of the speed-torque characteristics is illustrated in Fig.l.4-l. The characteristics in this
figure are expressed in per unit where the base values are the rated speed and the rateei torque. Two curves
are shown for V = 1.0 pu and Kv cp = 1.0 pu (tated voltage and flux) to illustrate that large machines ....~ ..
typically have a smaller speed drop as a result of a smaller IR drop at rateei CUITent than small machines.
The location of rated current and 3 pu cunent (three times rateei current}flre labeIed on the curves. The
portion between 1.0 pu and 3.0 pu is shown as a dashed line to emphasi~c~ tbat opemtion in this ~egi.on
corresponds to a steady state over-current condition which will result in overheating of the machine if
allowed to persist.
A reduction of the applied voltage reduces the no load speed proportionally but does not alter the
sIope of the curve as illustrated by the characteristic for V =1.0 pu and Kv cp = 1.0 pu. A family of curves
for different applied voItages at the same flux thus consists cf a set of parallellines having different no
load speeds. Speed controI by varying the applied voltage is very commonly used and results in operation
\. \ .

along one of the members of this famiIy ()f parairel speed-torque curves.

I
13
I
 De Drive Systems
,, )

The effect of a change in the flux is more complex since both the no load speed and the slope are
affected. Reducing the flux causes an increase in both the no load speed and the slope. For example,
reducing the flux to 0.5 pu doubles the no load speedand increases the slope by 4 times as illustrated in
Fig. 1.4-1. In addition, the torque/ampere is reduced to one half its original value so the point on the
, )

curve corresponding to 1.0 pu current also moves to one half the torque which would be obtained at rated

fluxo The speed drop at rated current is therefore twice that at rated flux ( it is 4 times larger at rated
,, )

torque, but this represents an over-current condition of 2.0 pu current).

v = 1.0 .
, )

KJ.. 05' . . . . . )

,
j"V'f = . : : : : : :
,

)
2.0 . ......... ~ ........ ~ .......................... ~ ............................ :........................... ~ ...........................:........................... ~ .... .

,
:1=3.0 .. .. .. .

,
)

1.5 1 ........--..__
v = 1.0
............................................................................................

,
)

~q,= 1.0:
:

:1 = 1.0
:1 =3.0
,
)

__ ........ ~. __ ...... -.,.~' ~ - ____ .~.:. __.. ..: ~.-=.:. 0.:': :..:~: 0_0': :..:..:.:. 0_0 ':-:'.:":':'0_0 ~ ::~ : __.~ ~.~: __.~ ~.~ ...... ;)

: 1 = 1. :1 =3.0 )

0.5
,
V =0.5
Kyq, = 1.0 :
:
.......... ; ..............; I
:
:
=
:
:
:
:
.
:
:
:
:
3.0

1.0 .;.............. : ..............;.............. :. .. .

:r = )
)
:)
:)
, "

'1 =3.0
:)
... :,
O~-------------..---..~------------------------------~-----------~---------------------------~- :)
Q 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 )
Torque - per unit
"
- - - - Small Machine - Zero to Rated Current
Larger Machine :,
---------------- Small machine - Above Rated Current ("

)
Fig. 1.4-1 DC Machine Speed - Torque Characteristics )
',)
Speed control by varying the flux is also common1y used but primarily on1y to ttain higher than ':)
rated speed. The reduced torque capability, the increased slope of the characteristic speed-torque curve ,
and the slow response of flux changes are alI disadvantages of speed control via flux changes. The low "j
power leveI in the field circuit and ability to attain higher speeds are a d v a n t a g e s . ' ,

14 , )

)
)
)
:)
 De DriYe. Systems

1.4-2 Capability Curves

The torque production capability of an electric machine is often illustrated by showing theportion of
the speed-torque plane which can be ittained without exceeding specific electrical mtings. Both steady
state and short time capability curves can be given; thefollowing discussion will be confmed to the steady
state.
Briefly stated, the steady-state capability curves show the range of torque and speed that can be
attaine without exceeding rateei voltage or rated current It is common practice to show torque as the
dependent variable (vertical) as a function cf the speed (horizontal) as illlustrated in Fig. 1.4-2. T~e point
at 1.0 pu torque and 1.0 pu speed corresponds to the rated operating point with 1.0 pu voltage, 1.0 pu
currentandl:Qpuflux:. Below rateei speed the machine can be operated with fuII rateei fluxat reduced
voltage and can develop full mted torque without exceeding rated current This region is ca1led the
constant torque region because the torquecapability is constant at 1.0 pu. Any torque-speed point below .
(.t) = 1.0 pu and T =1.0 pu is attainable by proper selection of the voltage and current. The parallellines

which appear to shade this area represent the family of torque-speed curves associated withvarious values
ofapplied voltage between 0.0 and .1.0 pu. The solid line representing th~ constaot value of 1.0 pu field
current and the dashed.line showing the linearly varying voltage from 0.0 to 1.0 pu represent the variation
of these two quantities in the constant torque region.
Above rated speed (or base speed as it is often called), the voltage has reached its limit and must be
held constant; this limit is often imposed by the power supply rather tban tbe motor itself. In this region
the limit on both V and I is 1.0 pu and the power limit is constant at 1.0 pu; hence the region is called the
constam power region. To attain the higher speeds at constant voItage the fiux must be red1lCed in inverse
proportion to the speed. This reduces th.e torqueJampere and hence the attainable torque. The torque
capability curve is hyperbolic with the torque limit falling inversely with. the speed, which results in
constant output power equal to torque times speed). Again, any point below th.e capability curve is
attainable by appropriately reducing the fIux to obtain the famiIy of speed - torque curves shown in Fig.
1.4-2; note the changing slope as th.e speed increases. Because lhe constmt power region requires
operatioo at reduced flux leveis it is often called tbe field weakening regioo and operation in the region is
ca11ed field weakened operation.
Although the constant power region theoreticalIy extends upwanl to infmite speed, it is limited by
mechanical constraints and by commutation problems at high speeds. The constant torque region is also
bounded on th.e low speed end by poor cooling at low speed unless a separate, constant speed blower
system in provided.
.j. .
1.5 Dynamic Response with Constant Flux
A shunt COn:D.ected de motor uses either separate supplies for th.e armature and field or the two
circuits are connected in parallel. In control j>plicattons two separe supplies are always used; th.e most
widely used system employing a fixed field excitation leveI and variable armature voltage. Variable field

15

 De Drive Systems
,
,

1
Constant Constaot
No Electrical
)
~:....
....1 - - - Torque - -.... ~_----- Power
Limit

Re~on Re~oo )
1.33 2.0

Constant Field Current

Annature Voltage ControI :
.
Constant Annature Voltage
Field Current ControI ,
)

)
)
~ 1.0 1.5
'2 )

,
~
I-.
cu ..... )
o.. '2 -~~----'~_--J. Annature Voltage
~
..... I-.
s:: cu
cu o.. Torque
)
I: ~ 1.0 Capability

~ 0.67 )
u ~
with Annalure

8"
I-.
o
cu
o
E
=
Curreot 1.0 pu
;)
00
,)
5
')
> 0.5
0.33 :)
"

.)
J
,,)
o 0.5 1.0 1.5
Speed - per unit
2.0 2.5
',.'
)
Fig. 1.4-2 DC Machine Capability Curves - Continuous Operarion
,,
)

excitation contro} has the advantage of requiring on1ya low power leveI controller for the fieId circuit but
such systems are inherently very slow because of the very long field time constant
,

L5~1 DyBamic~delmth eOJlStant Flux~

.,
)
For a fixed field excitarion levei, the nonlinear cp vs. ir magnetizarion characteristic is not involved
and the resulting system equarions are linear equations. The equarions are
/1
,

.
v=Ri+Ldt+ Kvcpro
di L\
.~.

(1.5-1) ,

,
(1.5-2)
;)
,
)
Taking the LaPlace transfonn of these equations (with zero initial condirions) yields "

16
r:J

:)
:,
 De Drin Systems

v =(R + pL)I + Kro ,(1.5-3)("'

(Jp+ B)o>+ TL =KI . (1.5-4)'~

where p is used in place of s as the LaPlace variable since s has another meaning in machine theory and K .
is the "motor constant" in mks units associated with the particular excitation leveI being employed.

(1.5-5)

Writing the equations in the fonn

v - Koo (1.5-6) .
I =R + pL

KI - TL
(1.5-7) .
00= Jp+B

suggests the block diagram in Fig. 1.5-1.

1 I 1
K Jp+B
R+pL

Fig. 1.5-1 Block Diagram of DC Motor with Fixed Held Excitation

The root locus associated with this model is shown in Fig. 1.5-2. For typiCal motors the armature time
constant{R!Lji~ much shorter than the inertial time constant{JIB)~ is illustrated in Fig. 1.44. In small
motors the gain K 2/JL is typically of asize which produces two real roots widely separated in size as
suggested in the figure. In many cases the motor can be well approximatf~d by neglecting the armature
time constant and the viscous damping coefficient B.
The overall transfer function of the block diagram of Fig.1.4-3 for voltage inputs with T L =0 is

17

 .I
')
De Drive Systems
)
w K
Y = (R + pL) (Jp + B ) + K 2
(1.5-8) ,
)

=-----=--~--~~--==
.,
p--+
JR + B L
JL p+
KJJL
RB + K2
JL
(1.5-9) ,
:)

)
)
Im )
)
2 )
K
Gain=
JL ,
)

)
Re
)
-R -B
J
:,,
,
L

')
Typical roots
for )
small motors )
,)
)
Fig. 1.5-2 Root Locus of De Motor

Neglecting the viscous damping B yields

"

,,
w KlJL <,'
(1.5-10) )
Y- R K2
p2 + L P + JL )
)
)
and further approximating by neglecting the annature inductance results in

w KlJR 'I(~t) (1.5-11)

,, )

Y= K2
P i J/~14.f
p + JR
,
)

The time constant associated with this (first order) approximation is )

.. / ' -----~
\ :)
JR \
:,, )
I

T =K2
m (1.5-12)

,
18
,
)

)
)
"

.,

 De Drive Systems
and is often called the electromechanical time constant. Inmanycases the two roots labeled "typical roots
for small motors " in Fig. 1.5-2 can be well approximated by taking the large root as the reciprocal of the
armature time constant UR and the small root as the reciprocal of the time constant T m as given by
equation 1.5-12.
The transfer function from load torque T L to speed differs in the numerator (gain factor and an added
zero). Equations 1.5-8 to 1.5-11 can be eonverted to the c.o!fL transfer function by multiplying by (l/K)
(R +pL).

1.5-2 General Root Locus or De Motor

An especially useful form of the de motor transfer function and root locuscan be obtained by
employing the annature time constantTa and the electromechanica1 time constant T mas parameters.
Rewriting equation 1.;fl(~as
5
kl2

1 R
co 'K@"

V- 2 R R K2

P +LP+LJR

1
(1.5-13)

where

JR
Tm=-r
K

The roots of the quadratie can be expressed as

p= __ l_-V
2Ta
_1__
4Ta2
~
lmTa

(1.5-14)

(1.5-15)

19

 ,/

De Drive Systems
Figure 1.5-3 illustrates these roots in the form of a root locus. When Tfim is small (small electrical time
,
)

constant), the machine has two real roots, one near the origin and one near - 1fTa. As the electrical time
constant increases relative to the electromechanical time constant, the two roots move toward each other.

)
,
)

At T JT m = 1/4, the two roots meet and beyond this point break out into two complex roots as expressed in
equation 1.5-15. ,,
)
,

,
Ta 1
->- )
Tm 4
~:..-_----yroots given
by Eq. 1.5-15
, )

,J
)
:)
"

Ta 1 j

,
-<
Tm 4 ,)
roots given

by Eq. 1.5-14

.,,
"

Fig. 1.5-3 General Root Locus ofDCMotor

In general, the ratio T JT m tends to be small in smaIl motors and increases as the motor size
,., )

increases. The electromechanical time constant is directly dependent on the inertia so Iarge Ioad inertia!s
)
will increase T m and tend to produce two real roots as opposed to complex roots. If T JTm is less than
)
about 0.1, the real root near the origin is essentially at -1fTm and the approximation in equation 1.5-11 is
')
valido
)
:)
1.6 Closed Loop Control .,
DC machines are widely used in dosed loop motion controI systems because of their exceIlent )
control properties and fast response. Except for second order effects, such as the demagnetizing effect of :)
armature reaction or the nonlinear frictional effects caused by the brushes sliding on the commutator, the j
dc machine operated with a constant fieId flux is well represented by the linear model of the previous
section. Linear controI theory can therefore be used to design and anaIyze control systems using dc ,,
j

machines as the electromechanica1 power converter. The foIlowing sections illustrate some of the types of
controIs used with dc machines. :,,
,,
20
,
,
)

)
 De Drive Systems
1.6-1 Speed Control
A speed loop around the motor results in the block diagram shownin Fig. 1.6- L. Assuming a
proportional~integral (PI)controller, the overall forward path transfer function becomes

1
(1.6-1)

The root locus of the total system has several fonns depending on the location of the controller zero
and whether the motor has real or complex poles. Fig. 1.6-2 illustrates two cases: one with real motor
poles and one with complex poles. In both cases the system response will be dorninated by the complex
poles and although the overshoot can be held in bounds. the settling time of the response is largely dictated
by the motor time constants with onlysmall improvement available by moving the controller zero. In
general one needs some method to improve the response time in many drives.

0>* 1/(KTmTa) O>

- ;
Gc
2 1 1
J\ P +Ta P+TmTa

.
Fig. 1.6-1 De Motor with Speed Control Loop

I
ControIler
zero

Motor
Poles

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.6-2 Root Loci of Speed Controlled DC Motor

21

-I
 ,
De Drive Systems )
;)

1.6-2 Current Loop Control )

;)
Because of the low dynamic impedance of the dc motor (R :::::: 0.03 to .06 per unit), very large
transient currents can exist during disturbances unless some fonn of current limiting is employed. One
means to accomplish this limiting is to use an inner current loop and to limit the reference signal to this
,
')

"
loop. Figure 1.6-3a illustrates such an arrangement.
)
,
,
1* -* K
T
1
Jp+B
)
)
Motor & Load ,)

K
,,
,)

(a)
:,

)
:)

R+pL
1 I
K
T 1
Jp+B
,
"

:)
..MotOL&Load )
,)

K J
(b)

,
"

Fig. 1.6-3 Current Loop with Limiter )

)
This diagranLcan beredrawnas in Figure 1.6-3b and the transfer function of the stator block with
)
the feedback path with KI ineluded becomes

1
J
,,

I
Ea=
R+pL
1 + R + pL
1
R + K1 + pL
C"
--.-
I!. f r \
=-" ~
-.I- Ih'
+~)\ 11.6-2)
MIL,
'"I
,

\ /
. I
(e::: l'I fL -I t!.f--J 1 } J
rZ--f1\t;- j.4,4
The effect is, therefore, to increase the armature resistance from R to R + Kr. This has the very desirable ,
effect of decreasing the apparent armature time constant and the somewhat less desirable effect of
increasing the electromechanical time constant. The ratio T Jfm is great1y reduced (as IIR2 ), resulting in
separation of the motor poles into two real poles; usually, the dominant real pole is very elose to the new
,,
:)

:)
22 "

':,

:)
.)
)
 .DC Drive Systems
value ofTm . The root locus of a speed controller using an inner current loop is, therefore, of the fonn of
Fig.l.6-2a, with the motorelectricaI pole moved far to the left. This results in much faster response and a
much simpler design problem with respect to the controller zero location.
The currentand speed feedback signals generally must be filtered to remove the high frequency noise
and the additional time lags associated with the filters complicate the design probletp. This is especially
true in the corrent loop where it is desirable to have a high gain Kr but whereovershoot in tbe current
response much be avoided to provide good transient current limiting. More complex current loop error
amplifiers are often necessary to assure fast response with little oversboot

1.6-3 Ideal Current Loop Control

With proper and careful design of the current loop the effective gain K 1 in Fig. 1.6-3 can be made
very large such that tbe modified armature time constant can be neglected. In this case the transfer function
lfEa in Eq. 1.6-2 is well approximated as

I 1 1
Ea = R + K1 +pL::::: K1 (1.6-3)

and the block diagram of Fig. 1.6-3b reduces to that illustrated in Fig. 1.6-4a.

1
Jp+B

(a)

TL

*
1* 1
K
Jp+B

(b)

Fig. 1.6-4 De Motor with Ideal High Gain Current Loop .

(a) Diagram if K 1 R (b) Reduced Diagram if K I K2

23
 ")
De Drive Systems

'~
The overall transfer function of this idealized system is (without limiting)

)
K 1 )
O) Kr Jp + B ./~ _
k fI t ~
1(', ,)
1* = Kr ---"-K-:2::---1-
1 + -K-r -+--'B=
";""Jp-.
/ k:tJS.- .- _-_.---
(.
fh) ~ I(~_
..
)
)
1Ci<l ]~}__Lj0--) :>
= ------= 2 K .] 5 ~ ~ ~ (1.6-4) ')

Jp + B + K 1
K ,/1
VI ,.
,)
)
If the gain Kr is large compared to K 2 the last terrn in the denominator can be neglected resulting in the
)
very simple system illustrated in Fig.1.6-4b.
,)
The physical interpretation of this result is very simple. With an ideal current regulator, the motor :,
current follows the command current exact1y; the motor counter emf has no influence whatsoever on the :,
motor current. Since the motor torque depends direct1y on the current (for constant field flux), the motor :,
becomes a controlled torque device producing a torque equal to KI. The speed feedback in Fig. 1.6-4a is :)
simply made negligible by the current regulator; physically the applied motor voltage is driven to whatever
value is needed to obtain the command current at the actual speed of the motor. ,
"

The concept of current control is central to virtual1y all high performance dc motor drives. In effect
the motor is converted to a controlled torque device and externaI controlloops are designed to develop the
)
,,
desired torque (current) commands. The simple block diagram of Fig. 1.6-4b is an adequate
representation ofthe motor and-can beemployedto design the-outer controlIoops forspeed or position
:,
controI. The basic requirement is an "ideal" current regulator with response times significant1y faster than

those desired in the outer loops. Fig. 1.6-5 illustrates the overalI diagram for a speed controI system.

,,
)

The concept of an ideal current regulator is also employed in high performance ac motor control
where the reguIator delivers controlled three phase current to the motor. In both the dc and ac cases motor
,
)

performance can be represented by the simple block diagram of Fig. l.6-4b so long as the current

regulateFoontinues te-funetien as an ideal regulator. Thistype cf current regulator performance is

,
:)

ultimateIy limited by the capability of the power amplifier to supply the rapidly varying voltages needed to

controI the motor current in response to the regulator commands. ,,

:)

~
1.6-4 State Variable Current Control
An alternative method of eurrent controI using state variabIe feedback can be used in pIace of the
,
)
conventional system described in the preceding section. State feedback offers advantages in terms of )
performance and ease of tuning as well as a different perspective in understanding current regulation. :)
The bIock diagrarn of a de machine in state variabIe form is shown.in Fig.l.6-6. Two state variable
feedbaek loops having gains Kr and 1<00 are also illustrated. The equations describing the system in terms ,., ,~

of the state variables i and O) are

,
24
,
)

,)
)
()
l
 \

De Drin Systems

di R KaKr. K KaKw . Kav (1.6-5)

- - - (-+--)1-(-+--)<0 + - I
ili- L L L L L

(1.6-6)

Current
Loop

K +_1
P P
K.I*-* .------,
KI I-V~~

Speed Current Current Motor & Loa.d

Regulatol (torque) Regulator
Limit
K

Outer Speed Loop

(a)

1 Q)
K+Kj K
p p Jp+B

(b)

Fig. 1.6-5 De Motor Speed Control System with Current Regulator

(a) FuIl System Showing Current Loop & Counter EMF

(b) Equivalent System for Ideal Current Regulator

It is useful and infonnative to note that the state feedback gains bave the same physical units as the
physicalstate feedbacks whch exists in the motor. Thus, the unit of Kr is ohmsand the unit of Kw
voltsTrad/sec.
From the perspective of controlling the current to follow the reference input VI' the physicalstate
feedback introduced by the back emf, Kro, represents a disturbance and is therefore to be minimized. In
the conventional approach ths was accomplished by using a very high gain K I in the current regulator.
Using state feedback, the effect of the back emf is eliminated ~ eanceling the physical feedback with the
control f eedback. Thus, to eliminate the effect of the back ernf, the coeffi.cient of w in Equation 1.6-5 is
set equal to zero which yields

25
 De Drive Systems
K
Kw=-i( (1.6-7)
a

Note that this gain setting can be easily determined experimentally by simply adjusting the value of Kw
until speed changes have no effect on the motor current (for example, with the current reference set to
zero, changes in speed should not produce any current deviations).

,,---------------
_______~ __~1r::-____________:
,,
VI ::- '~ Ka
: V",
,, .....-
,- Lp
1 I
K
~1
I~Jp
,00
,
J~-
)~-
,
, ,:
,,
,,, B
, R - I--
,
I

,
,
I

,,,
I

,,
K
.,
,_ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
,
- I
,

Kro ~--------------------~

Fig. 1.6-6 Block Diagram of De Machine (inside dashed box) with State Variable Current Regulator

With the gain Kw selected according to Eq. 1.6-7, the physical speed feedback and the controI speed
feedbackcanrelresulting n thereducedbtock diagram ofFig.-t.6-1. To complete the control design, the
value of Kr is chosen to make the effective electrical time onstant short enough for the application in
questiono Note that Kr effectively adds "active" resistance to the controller and in conjunction with the
armature inductance sets the time constant. Combining the two loops of Fig. 1.5-7 yields the reduced
diagram of Fig 1.5-8a from which the transfer function from current reference to current becomes

I
-V = pL
Ka-----,;R~~K:::""K~
R + 19<a
(1.6-8)
I 1 + r a L
+ pL 1 + P R + KK
r a

If the time constant is short enough to be neglected, the transfer function reduces to

26
 De Drive Systems

.---------------- ---------- -----------~

:v K
1 w
Jp

R B

I
- - - - - - ---- - - ---------------- - -"- --- - - --- .
Fig. 1.6-7 Block Diagram of DC Machine (inside dashed box) with Sta1e Variable Current Regulator
with Speed Feedback Gain Chosen to Cancel Back emf.

V I 1'
1
K
Lp Jp

"Exact" Model
(a)

1 I 1
K
1 Jp

B
Approximate Model L....._..J

(b)

Fig. 1.6--8 Block Diagram of DC Machine with State Variable Current Regulator and Speed Feedback

Gain Chosen to Cancel Back emf

27
 ;)
DC Drive Systems

(1.6-9)
')
,
)
)

Typically, KrKa is much greater than R and this result reduces to )

)
)
(1.6-10)
"

)
so the current is determined directly by the reference VI and the state feedback gain Kp as illustrated in ,)
Fig.1.6-8b. )
The state feedback current regulator thus achieves the same resuIt as the conventional regulator in :)
the steady state. It, however, provides better dynamic performance since the cancellation of the back J
emf is correct for both static and dynamic behavior. Small errors in the cancellation of the back emf are
)

regulated by the current feedback and do not cause problems. The disadvantage is the need for a speed "

feedback sensor which adds cost unless the sensor is needed for other purposes (speed control, for
example).
,)

"
,
:)
1.7 ElectromechanicaI De Motor Drive Power Sourees
)
In the preceding sections ilhas been assumed that a controllable voltage, dc power source was
"

available to drive the motor over the desired speed range. For nearly the first 100 years of dc motor use
:)
only dc generators with adjustable field supplies or batteries with series resistors were available as
,)
power sources. These system~t~ere relatively_slow re~pc>-din-E agd had rel~tively low efficiency but )
offered significant advantages over purely mechanica1 variable speed drives for many applications. With )
the advent of electronic systems capable of controlling power in the kw range, the dc drive was .)

revolutionized and became the workhorse of industry when variable speed was required. ,)

')

1.7-1 The Ward Leonard System .)

J?ri~r~1?~e development ()f t!te thyristor S~CR) the usual means of obtaining variable speed by )

electrica1 means was from a dc generator/motor set called a Ward Leonard System. The circuit for this
system is shown in Fig.!. 7-1. The generator portion of the system is dri ven at almost constaot speed by
,
')

an induction motor or, when power factor correetion is desired,by a synehronous motor. The drive ,)

machine and de generator eomprise a motor-generator set or "MO" set. To start the drive the MO set is )
)
run up to speed and fuIl motor field eurrent is established while the de motor remains at resto The
)
generator emf is then increased from zero by supplying field eurrent to the de generator. Since the emf
)
of the de generator is initially zero, the motor speed is initially zero and as the field current of the de
:)
generator increases a current flows such that the resuIting torque in the motor causes it to aeeelerate. At
)
maximum generator field eurrent the armature voltage will have its fuIl rated value and the motor will be
at its rated speed. If it is required to continue to higher speeds, the motor field eurrent can be reduced. ,,
)

28 )
)
)

,
)
 .DC Drive S;ystems
Three Phase
ACMotor
Three Phase
60hz

DC
Generator

Fig. 1.7-1 WardLeonardDC Drive System

Consider now the process required to slow the motor down. It i:s assumed that the motor is
unloaded and has negligible friction but does possess inertia and there:fore stored kinetic energy. If the
motor field current is increased or the generator field decreased, the motor emf will become greater than
the generator emfand arrnature current wiIl flow inthe reverse direction. The motornow:acts as a
generator and vice versa Negleting an)"other Iosses the ae machine driving the de generator will now
be generating and feding power back inta thepower system. The de motor experi.ences a retarding
torque and sIows down, retuming stored knetie energy to the ac supply. The system is then said to be
"regenerating" rather ~ "generating" since stored energy is being retumed. Clearly a system.which
has the capability to supplyenergy to the motor and to extract it back fram the motor is both very
flexible and energy efficient, capable of accelerating or decelerating the motor rapidly. This feature is
the reason for its traditional use in adjustable speed systems requiring fast response.
If the generator field cwrent is supplied in the opposite sense, thc~ generator emf will build up with
the opposite polarity. Armature current will be supplied to the motor in the opposite direction to that of
the previous motoring condition and the motor will accelerate as before but with the opposite direction
of rotation. The Ward Leonard drive is thus capable of driving the motor in either direction and of
regenerating in either direction of rotation. This type of behavior is represented in Fig. 1.7-2 in which
the modes of operation are indicated on a torque/speed diagramo The drive described can ope~te in any
of the four quadrants of this diagram and is therefore called a "four-quadrant" drive. Note that to have
this capability the power source must be able to provide bothpositive and negative values of both
voI tage and eurrent.
In spi te of the eommercial advantage normally enjoyed by thyristor controIlers, the Ward Leonard
System is still being supplied for some applieations. They are, for example, still sometimes specified for
lift hoists and for drives fed from long and weak supply lines.

1.7-2 Ward Leonard System Features

Ward Leonard drives have the following features:
On the positive side
29
 DC Drive Systems
,,
1) The power supply feeds a conventional ac induction motor which draws balanced
)
sinusoidal currents.
)
2) Although the dc motor starts with very high torque and armature current the power
demand (and hence the ac current) from the ac line is small.
:,
"
3) ControI of the dc motor is obtained by controlling the field current of the motor and
:)
generator. The power involved in controlling the field currents is only a small fraction of ,)
the power passing between the annatures of the two machines. )
4) The machines of the Ward Leonard drive are much more tolerant of overloads than )
thyristor equipment. Less sophisticated protection equipment if therefore required. AIso, )
the system can be designed for short term overloads at a much smaller incremental cost )
over that required for systems incorporating thyristors. )
On the negative side )
5) The generator of the MG set runs continuously even when the load is stationary resulting )
in high overall losses at low speed. )
6) The MO set is larger, heavier and more expensive than corresponding thyristor
)
equipment.

7) The transient perfonnance of the Ward Leonard system is poorer because of the large

,,
)

field time constants.

,
.)
:)
Reverse.Regenerating -... ------Eot:.wardMotoririg )
)

t "

,)
)
Voltage-Negative Voltage-Positive )
Current-Positive Current-Positi ve
)
)
Speed~ )
)
Voltage-Negative
Voltage-Positive
Current-Negative
Current-Negative )

,
)

Reverse Motoring
Forward Regenerating
,
)

)
)
,,
Fig. 1.7-2 The Four Quadrants of Motor Drive Operation
30 ,,
,,
)
 DC Drive Systems
1.8 Thyristor De Drives
Thyristor controlled de motor drives have, to a large extent.replaced the Ward Leonard drive. The
great attraction of the thyristor is that it can be usednot only to rectify the ac supply currents as can an
ordinary power diode but also it enables the magnitude of the rectifiedpower to be varied. Control is
achieved by varying the timing of the firing pulses supplied to the thyristorgate with respect to the ac
voltage.

1.8-1 Example - HalfWave Thyristor Drive

Fig. 1.8-1 illustrates the principIe with thesimplest possible circuit. The supply voItage is a single
phase sine wave and there is one thyristor in series with the supplyand a resistive load. As the voltage
builds up in the positive balf cycIe the thyristor blocks in the forwarddirection until a firing pulse is
applied at an angle a after the voltage crosses zero. The thyristor voltage then collapses almost to zero
mueh like a switch closing. The load voltage is then equal to the supply voltage until the latter again
crosses zero. At this point the current would reverse if it were able but, instead. a reverse blocking
voltage builds up across the thyristor. This rectifier conducts only on alternate half cycles of the supply
. and is therefore called a halfwave-rectifier. Clearly the mean values of therectified voltage and current
vary between a maximum and zero as a varies [rom O to 180 degrees.

v
,..' I VLaVg

---------------t
,
"
V
s',
~II
\ ""
"l
,.
"
f'
t

"\ ,,'
'.,...............,"

t ...

Fig. 1.8-1 Elementary Single PhaSe Rectifier and Resulting Current and Voltage Wave forms

31

l
, Ii
 DC Drive Systems )
1.8-2 Full Wave Tbyristor Drives
The half wave eireuit ofFig.l.8-1 is seI dom used for a number of reasons, two of the most "
)'
)
important being the large ripple in the eurrent wave and the presenee of de in the input eurrent. These
problems are solved in fuIl wave eireuits (i.e. eondueting every half eycle). Figure 1.8-2 shows a form
of fuIl wave single phase rectifier known as a center tap configuration because a eenter tapped supply
, )

l'
transformer is required. The altemative bridge circuit is shown in Fig. 1.8-3. This latter circuit uses
:>
twice as many deviees as the eenter tapped circuit but for a given maximum dc output voltage the peak:
)
device voltages are only half as large. The fact that the bridge circuit does not require a center tapped
)
supply is a great advantage for many applications and even when a transformer is included, the )
secondary winding utilization is higher with a bridge circuit A further advantage of bridge circuits for
three phase operation is that the lowest ripple frequency in the output voltage for a fuIly controlled
system is six times the supply frequency, as compared with three times for the center tap eonnection.
,)

')
The bridge circuit is therefore almost universally employed in modem systems and center tapped
rectifier circuits will not be discussed further. ,
,)

:)
J
)

,)

,
)

)
)
Fig. 1.8-2 Single Phase Rectifier Cireuit with Center Tapped Transformer
}
)
)
)
)
+
,
)

Free
Wheeling
1+
:
I
:)
;,
;)
Diode ':)
,')
:)
:)
Fig. 1.8-3 Single Phase Reetifier Bridge Circuit :)
, "
, <.

32 ')
)
)
)

( ...
 DCDriveSystems
The bridge eircuit ofFig.1.&-3 shown with four thyristors is calledfully controlledbecause a11 four
deviees are capable of being tumed on by proper gate controI. Other circuits sometimes use two diodes
and two thyristors, and these are said to be halfcontrolled. Clearly the half eontrolled bridge is eheaper,
but has limitations as will be discussed below. A freewheel or flywheel diode is sometimes conneeted
across the load as shown by the dashed lines in Fig. 1.8-3.

1.8-3 Input Power Fador in Rectifier Circuits

In simple ac circuits with sinusoidal voltages and currents the power factor is universally defined

as

. Power

Power Faetor =RMS Volts x RMS Amps

_ V RMsIRMsC0scjJ
- VRMsI RMS

=cosep

where 1 is lhe phase angle between the voltage and current, i.e. the angle by which lhecurrent sinusoid
is displaced from that of the voltage. In rectifier circuits supplied from a large system. lhe supply
voltage usually remains"nearly sinusoidal, but the current, while periodie with the supply frequency, is
not sinusoidal.Such current wavefonns can be expressed, using a Fourier Series, as the sum of a
fundamental (supply) frequency component and a series of hatmonics, ie. sinusoidal components of
varying magnitude and phase having frequencies whichare integer multiples of the fundamental
frequency.
Since non-zero average power only results when a sinusoidal voltage and current have lhe same
frequency, the average power taken from the supply remains the product of the RMS voltage and the
RMS fundamental component of current times the cosine of their angle of displacement The RMS
value of the fundamental component is nol, however, the RMS of the total emrent because of the
distortion and the resulting harmonics. The power faetor is usually defined as before 80 that it can be
derived from simple meter readings on wattmeters and RMS leading voltmeters and ammeters. Hence,
for circuits with non sinusoidal currents

n F Power V RMshRMS COS +

rOwer actor =VRMS I
RMS
= V I
RMS RMS

(1.8-2)

33
 DC Drive Systems
,,
where IlRMS is the RMS value of the fundamental component of current and cp is its angle of
)
displacement from the voltage (still assumed sinusoidal). The ratio of fundamental current to RMS
)
current is often called the distortion jactor while the cosine of the angle cp s called the displacement
)
factor. Henee, in non snusoidal applications where the voltage remains sinusoidal the power faetor can )
be defined as :>
)
Power Factor = Distortion Factor x Displacement Factor (1.8-3) )
)
where )

Distortion Faetor = II1RMS

RMS
Displacement Factor =cos cp (1.8-4) , )

)
It follows that, even when there is no displacement between the fundamental eomponents, the power ,)
faetor will be less than unity when hannonics are present in the current. :)
)

1.8-4 Full Wave Thyristor Drive Performance with Large De Side Inductance and Ideal Sources :)

Figure 1.8-4 illustrates the fully controlled single phase bridge connected to a de motor load. ,:)
,)
Figure 1.8-5 shows the eorresPQn:ling wave formsfor-theideal case-in-which:$e output filtering is
perfect (de side inductance very large) and the source impedance on the ac side of the bridge is zero.
J
')
The waveforms shown in Fig. 1.8-5 clearly show the distortion of the input current which is a square
)
wave containing alI the odd harmonic ac_------------
components as well as the fundamental. Both fundamental
- -----.--
~ -_. _ .. - )
displacement and distortion effects are present and the power faetor is Iess than unity. Moreover, it )
becomes worse as the delay angle a is increased, i.e. as the average de voltage is reduced. )
)
)
)
+
,
)

)
TI T2
)
va ;)
~)

T3 T4 ;:>
"")
.1,

Figure 1.8-4 DC Motor Drive with Single Phase Fully Controlled Bridge

34
 De Drive Systems

it ~~~------------~------~----~--~------~
--.oot

Figure 1.8-5 Output Voltage and AC Line Current of Single Phase Fully Controlled Bridge
(Assuining a I..a.rge Output Inductor and Zero A C Source Impedance)

Current hannonics in the supply are a perpetual source of concern because they are a source of loss
in the supply system and also produce voltage distortion in the ac power system. Their seriousness
depends on the supply network impedance and the relative size of the load. Especially in larger systems,
they are a matter for consideration in the design of the converter and a subject for discussion between
customer, supplier and perhaps also the utility as it may be necessary to fit fIlters to reduce local supply
voltage distortion.
It is instructive 10 consider the process of rectification and its converse, inversion , in more detail.
Assume that the system is operating in the steady statewith a delay angle a for ali four thyristors as
shown in Fig. 1.8-5. In the range of time indicated by ooto thyristor TI is conducting the current ia f10m
the supply to the motor, while thyristor T4 fonnsthe return path. The :a.rnu,LtlJre voltage istherefore
positive and equal to the instantaneous value of the supply voltage v S' In the time following.ooto. V s falls
in value and so also does V ao But because of the large inductance in series with the motor Ute. current ia
remains constant This cOlldition continues even when vsbecomes less than the de motor terminal
voltage at oot1' However at oot2 firing pulses are applied to thyristors T2 and 13 and the effect of their
switching on is to reverse bias, and therefore turn off, TI and T4. Thecurrent ia therefore transfers, or
commutates, to T2 and T3 while remaining. UIlChanged in the motor annature. The supply eurrent does

35

 .1'

DC Drive Systems
"
however reverse, and sinee the souree side induetanee is assumed to be very small, this reversal takes
place very rapidly. The process then repeats with eaeh pair of thyristors condueting for half a eycle.
)
,
)
Because there can be no de voltage aeross a resistaneeless induetanee, the baek emf plus the
annature resistanee voltage drop must be equal to the average value of the output voltage from the
:,
l
reetifier. The shaded areas above and below the line of value ea + ia ra on Fig. 1.8-5 represent the )
integral of the induetor voltage and must therefore be equal. The altemating ripple voltages, represented .)
by the instantaneous value of the shaded area voltages, appear across the de eireuit induetance. The
ripple voltage here is very pronounced and repeats twice every eycle of the supply. This reetifier is , )

therefore said to be a "2 pulse" system. The rippIe voltage is much worse than in 3 phase rectifiers and
in praetiee it is generally necessary to add extra induetanee in series with a motor load to reduee the ,,
,)

eurrent ripple to an acceptable leveI.

With a large dc eircuit induetance the supply current is approximately a rectangular wave, which :t
eontains alI odd harmonies, and is displaced with respect to the supply voltage as can be seen in Fig. 1.8- t
5. The distortion power factor can be easily evaluated sinee the fundamental component of a reetangular 't
wave is well known to be :.
,t

I 1RMS =."'I1M2 2
-
:1t
i:7t.
O
Ide SlD oot doot =."'I1M2 :-4 1 2V2
Ide = -
t:lt
Ide (1.8-5)
"

:,
where Ide is the amplitude of the rectangular wave. Sinee the rms value of a rectangular wave is the
t
same as the peak value, the distortion power factor is
D
D
2V2 Ide
Distortion Power Factor = :It
---;o- 2V2=O.900 (1.8-6)
D
Ide :It
D,
D
This represents the maximum possible input power factor and occurs when the delay angle a , which is D
--also the displacement power faetor-angle-cp,~-zero~ --For a-given armature current, as a is inereased and D
the mean output voItage falls the speed of the motor also falls. The displacement angle cp therefore D
increases while the RMS value of the supply current stays the same. Therefore, at low voltages and high ()
motor currents (high torque and low speed) the suppIy has a large current and a low lagging D
displacement power factor. This is a fundamental weakness of controIled rectifiers for dc motor control D
and is in sharp contrast to the Ward Leonard system where the ac source "sees" only the average power 1.)
of the dc load plus the magnetizing reactive power of the drive motor. l)
When ais increased to 90 the mean output voltage of the rectifier is zero. Consider now what f)
l)
happens when ais increased beyond 90. Assuming that the continuous de current is stiU maintained,
the mean output voltage wiIl be negative, corresponding to a reversal of the polarity of v a in Fig. 1.8-4. II
()
In the steady state this can only occur if the motor rotation or field is reversed to produce a reversal of
()
36 ()
( )
c)
f)
I)
I)
 OCDrive Systems
polarity of the motor back emf ea. Since the current direction must remain thesame. the motor back emf
ea will have to be greater than the voltage across the bridge. the differenee being the annature i r drop;
This condition is illustrated in Fig. 1.8-6. Note lhat the back emf is now assisting the flow of armature
current instead of opposing it and the power ea . ia is being Jed from the dc maehine back into the
electrical supply rather than being drawn from the supply. The machine is operating as a generator
(often said to be regenerating) and the bridge is said to be inverting. This capability to controI the flow
of power both from the ac supply to the dc (rectification) and from the dc to the ac (inversion) is a
property of alI fully controlled bridges. It is most important to re~ember that it is the dc voItage which
reversed polarity and that lhe direction of the de current flow through the bridge carmot change. Also,
note that the regenerating mode of the fully controlled bridge can only be used to brake the motor if the
field is reversed; otherwise the rotatioo must be reversed in the regenerating mode. The fully controlled
bridge thus provides operation in quadrants 1 and 2 (forward motoring and reverse regenerating) without
field reversal and in quadrants 1 and 4 (forward motoring and forward regenerating) with field reversal.
Clearl y the second choice is the more important one.

t4--a~
I

FIg. 1.8-6 Inversion Waveforms of a Single Phase Fully Controlled Bridge

(Assuming a Large Output Inductor and Zero AC Source Impedance)

Note that the displacement angle cp is greater than 90 degrees when regenerating and lhat the power
factor will improve as aincreases towards 180'degrees. i.e. increasing the mean de voltage in the
negative direction. It is important not to be misled by regarding the invelter as a source of power at a
37
 DC Drive Systems
, )
leading power factor and seeing a virtue in this source of leading reactive power. Like the induction
)
machine, the converter always draws lagging reactive volt amperes and cannot supply vars.
;)
With the assumptions used in this section (large output inductor and zero ac source impedance) it :,
is possible to derive a simple expression for the average output voltage of a fuH wave, fully controlled ,)
bridge. With reference to Fig. 1.8-50r 1.8-6, the average output voltage can be expressed as "

?
1:
f ta+T/2

V avg =
ta
vs dt
(1.8-7)

t
or shifting from time to angle for the averaging process t

V avg = -1 J a+3t.
V sm sm oot doot
2V sm
=- 2-{iVrms
cos a = ~---"= cos a
D
:7t a :7t:7t
D
D
D
= 0.636 Vsm cos a = 0.900 V srms cos a (1.8-8)
D
()
This result is only valid when the dc current is continuous and the ac source has negligible U
-----
impedance. It is, however, often used in~tice sinee the necessary conditions are cIosely r)
approximated in many applieations. As a check on the validity of Eq. 1.8-8, or as an altemative means t)
of developing this result, power balance between the ae input and the de output can be employed. Since t)
the souree is assumed to have zero impedance itremainssinusoidaLand onl~ thefundamental f)
component of the rectangular wave of current contributes average power. The input power is, therefore, I)
I)

=Vsrms -2V2- Ide cos cp

I)
P acavO' (1.8-9)
e . :7t )

The output de power i~

,,
)

P dcavg = Vavg Ide (1.8-10)

,,)

Substituting for V avg using Eq. 1.8-8 results in

,,
P dcav o
2V2- Ide cos cp
=Vsrms - (1.8-11)
'" :7t

whieh is the same as the ac power in Eq. 1.8-9, demonstrating the consistency of the concepts used in
deseribing the rectifier systems.

, ")
"
38 '"
"
,)
;)
, ")
"

,
 DC DriTe SJstems
1.8-5 Thyristor Drives Utilizing Freewheel Diodes
Figure 1.8-7 shows the fully controlled bridge withafreewheeling diode D connected in parallel
with the load, which in this case has been shown as apassive circuitsuch as the fieldcircuitofadc
machine. The presence of the diode imposes an additional constraint on the output voltage of the bridge.
in particular that it cannot become negative even with continuous current flowing inthe inductive load.
As soon as the supply to the conducting pair of thyristors crosses zero going negative. the diode
becomes forward biased and takes up the conduction of the load current, effectivelyholding zero voltage
across the terminais of the loaci until the next pair of thyristors app~ies a positive voltage. During the
conduction period of the diode the load current will decay with the UR time constant of the circuito but
this is assumed to be 10ng compared with the period between firings of thyristors.This period is known
as "freewheeling n because there is no applied voltage to the motor during this intervalo

+~ ~
Is iL
+
TI T2

VS D

T3 T4 Free
I
Wheeling
Diode

4 ~~--------~~-1--------~---4--------~ ..
oot

Fig. 1.8-7 Single Phase Fully Controlled Bridge with a Freewheel Diode
(Assuming a Large Output Inductor anel Zero AC Source Impedance)

39

 OC DriveSystems
, )

Such a circuit clearly has the limitation that it cannot invert power, because the output voltage
canno! be negative. On the other hand, as can be seen from the current waveform of Fig. 1.8-7, the
,
)
displacement of the fundamental component of supply current with increasing ais less severe than for
the previous case and the power factor is therefore better, except when a equals zero. It wiI1 also be
seen that the proportion of ripple in the output voltage is reduced by the prevention of negative voltage
, )

)
excursions and therefore there will be Iess current ripple in the load. Finally, if the bridge is designed
)
for normal operation with some delay on firing and is thermally limited by tms condition,thyristors of
)

reduced rating can be used because the current flows through the diode for part of the cycle. I t will be

)
appreciated that because inversion is now not possible, the load current can be forced upwards by any )
required degree, but it cannot be forced down to zero by the application of negative voltage.
It is possible to simplify the circuit of Fig. 1.8-7 by replacing two of the thyristors by diodes and
removing the freewheel diode, while retaining the same range of controI. If TI and T3 or T2 and T4 are
,:,
:,

replaced by di odes then they form a freewheel path across the load and analysis shows that fuH voltage :,
control is retained through the phase controI of the remaining pair of thyristors. This is one form of a )
half controlled bridge.
A second form is made by replacing T3 and T4 (or Iess commonly TI and T2) by diodes. Here the :,
freewheeling current flows through a di ode and the thyristor in series instead of two diodes. A practical
limitation with this form of circuit on an- inductive load is that if commutation to the next thyristor faiIs
,
i~

~--

to take place before voltage zero (for example due to removal of firing pulses), controI is lost and
aIternative full positive half cycles of voltage are applied to the load. In practice a freewheel diode is
fitted to prevent this, or "end stop pulses" are applied to the thyristors, say 15 degrees before current zero J
iD
regardless of the controI of a. Thelatter system, of course, cannot be controlled down to zero voltage.
iD
D
1.8'"' Three Phase Thyristor Bridges
Utilizing a three phase supply instead of a single phase supply provides a number of improvements
b
in controlled rectifier performance. Figure 1.8-8 shows a fully controlled three phase thyristor bridge
'r>
'D
supplying a motor armature. The phase voltages of the supply are shown in Figure 1.8-9a together with
D
the potentiaTs ruih.e two output terminais of the bridge. Opetation is similar to the single phase case. 1)
The thyristors behave like switches so that the bridge output connected to the cathodes of the top /r:)
thyristors follows the most positive of the supply voltages, subject to the firing delay angle a as shown. tt
In the Same manner, the anodes of the bottom thyristors follow the most negative supply voltage. The f)
resulting load voltage is shown in Fig. 1.8-9b and the supply current for phase ais also given in the ()
figure. (,
With the same assumptions of a large output inductor and zero ac source im~ce, expressions ()
for the average output voltage, fundamental input current and distortion and displacement power factors C)
for the three phase thyristor bridge can be easily found. The expressions are most readily found based I:'
on the observation that on the dc side each 60 intervaI is identical and that each thyristor conducts for r)

two 60 intervals in succession and is then off for four 60 intervals. The input current is, therefore, a

40
,,
)

,,
)

)
 DCDriveSystems
La
v
sa+~
+
lsa

TI T2 TI

v va
sb +
lsb
T4 T5 T6
.rv-v-\.
If
o.,
v
sc+

Figo 1.8-8 De Motor Drive with Three Phase Fully Controlled Bridge

'." .. "
'.'\
'...._.......- vab -v.
........... - sa - v
sb
"",
"I,
"
~
O)t,
"

,Isa .
I
I .~

rot

Figo 1.8-9 Voltage and CurreIt Waveforms of Three Phase Bridge Circuit
(Assuming a Large Output lnductor and Zero AC Source Impedance)

41

 ])C Drive Systems

,,
rectangular wave with two 60 periods of zero current as shown in Fig. 1.8-9. As is clear from the
figure, the displacement angle between the phase a voltage and the phase a current is again a, the same
as for the single phase bridge. The fundamental component of the rectangular current is
,
1 2 f 0

1 2*/3 V6
, )

,
150
I 1RMS = _M - Idc sm rotdrot = _r,;--Idc = -Ide

(1.8-12) )
v2:n; 30 v 2 :n; :n;

:)
while the rms value is
II'!I :
"

,
IRMS ="average (i =~ Ide =;;,~ Ide
1)2 (1.8-13) )

The displacement and distortion power factors are, therefore

,
"

)
)
Displacement Power Factor = cos a (1.8-14)

{6Ide
,
;)

Distortion I'<",'er Factor = ;g 1 ~= 0.955

3t
(1.8-15)
:,
,)
,)
3 de
:,
',)
The average output voltage can be found by averaging over any one of the 60 intervals making up the 0

output wave in Fig. 1.8':9. UsingThe iritemu. wherev~b supphes tlie-utpul )

)

V avg = .!..
:n;
f a+60
(H120
V LLm sin rot drot =
3V
LLm cos a =
:n;:n;
3...j2V .
LLrms cos a , J

')

= 0.955 VLLm cos a = 1.35 VLLrms cos a (1.8-16) ,, )

As for the single phase case, it can be shown by comparing input and output average power that these
expressions are consistent.
Figure 1.8-10 illustrates the output voltage waveform for three different values of the delay angle
,
')

"

a. The ab tine to line voltage is shown to provide a phase reference and to relate the figure back to Fig.
1.8-9. In each case the portion of the output waveform supplied by vab is shown as a solid line with the , )

remainder shown dotted. The zero average output voltage condition at a

condition has the largest ripple content; the peak to peak ripple under this condition being one half of the
=O is illustrated. This
, )

peak to peak line to line voltage. The inverting mode illustrated for a = 165 is essentially the same as 0
~
the rectifying mode with a =15 except, of course, for the polarity of the output voltage. :;)
:.)
'~,
42 :~,

')
"

"

)
 DCDriTe Systems

v
:t::
""
~
.... .. .,
,:...
.......:
I
........ '" .

: ' t, ..
.....

t
,1" .',: : "
... -.... "

.....I-----i~
.. . ,
a=90
\
,

. I
I

\
,,
\

", . ,,,'
~

. , .
,.. ...../ /
1 \
I
\
,
.' ,~
\
I ';
.'
" .' ,
..'
.'",,'-,. ,
,I

O,.
....... I ~...-r:. .~ ....: ..........
I
~I
vab = Vsa - vsb

Figure 1.8-10vab Output Voltage Segments for Fully ControUed Three Phase'Bridge
(Assuming a Large Output Inductor and Zero AC Source Impedance)

This circuit is the most commonJy used thyristor supply for motor armatures. Large drive schemes
sometimes use more than one bridge with phase shifting transformeIS in the supply togive higherpul~
numbers and lower harmonic content in both output and supply currenl A number of conclusions can
be drawn in comparison with the single phase system:

1) The oUlput voltage is controlled from maximum to zero over a range of a of 9(t and
inversion takes place for greater delay angles, exactly like the single pbase case.

2) The lowest ripple frequency of the output is six times the supply frequency. This system is
said to be a "six pulse" converter. The magnitude of the ripple is very much smaller than for
the single pbase case.

3) The corrent waveform is independent of a. In addition it has a much lower harmonic content
than for the single phase bridge and contains only oddharmonic and no triplen components
(third hannonic components and its multiples). As a result the distortion power factoris
higher than the single phase case.

4) The power factor is stilI poor at large delays and is dominated by the displacement angle,
which is equal to a.

As for the single phase case a balf controlled form of the three phase bridge canbe produced by
replacing half the thyristors, in this case either the bottom th.ree or the top threeby diodes. It is much

43

 )
IX: Drive Systems
)
less widely used than the fully controlled bridge in comparison with which it has the following
)
advantages and disadvantages:
)

advantages >
1) I t is somewhat simpler and cheaper to buiId than a complete six pulse bridge.
2) The half controlled bridge incorporates a freewheeling action and therefore has a better
,)
supply power factor at reduced output voltage.

disadvantages
,"
)

3) The half controlled bridge Carmot inverto

;)
4) The output voItage has a Iowest output rippIe frequency component of only three times the
supply frequency (3 pulse) and a generally higher ripple contento ,
;)

5) The suppIy current contains even harmonics as well as the odd non triplen components.
6) UnIess used with a freewheeI diode, 10ss of firing pulses can give uncontrolled output as for
the half controlled single phase bridge.
,
)

)
)
1.9 EtTect of Supply and Load Induetances :)
The supply impedance has been assumed to bezero and theload inductance very large inthe )
foregoing discussion so as to concentratettefitortofitnefl.l.rtdam.ental principIes of operation. Althougb .,)
these conditions are often well approximated in practice, in real systems there is always some source ;)
inductance and cost considerations mitigate against dc side inductances large enough to maintain the "

load current constant. Importantdeparturesfrem tbeideali-zed--perfennance ootlined in Section 1.8 )

occur as a resuIt of finite source inductance and small dc side inductance. The principal effects are
described in this section.
.,

1.9-1 Supply Inductances

,
;)

)
The actual suppIy inductance (i.e. the supply transformer Ieakage inductance) has the three effects
oLlimitingj"auItcurrent, causing-ilistoI1i<;>n-.ithesupply ancLoutpuLwall-efoIms and, for agiven delay
angIe, causing the rectifier averagedc output voItage to drop with increasing loadcurrent. In this latter
)
,,
respect, in the steady state, it behaves like increased armature resistance causing the dc motor speed
"

torque curve to have an increased droop. The no load speed is, of course, determinedby the particular
value of the delay angle a.
The suppIy voltage waveforms arising from this inductance are, however, more surprising. SuppIy
,,
)

inductance inhibits the commutation of current [rom one thyristor or diode to the next device. That is, it :1)
produces a period of "overlap" during which time both devices conduct; the current growing in one :)
device and falling in the other. This type of behavior amounts to a short period during which the suppIy
is short circuited, i.e. the two lines feeding the bridge are connected to a common point through the
devices, at each commutation. The edge of the current waveforms then become sloped rather than

44
 ~~--_ ... _-------
])C DriveSystems

square as ill ustrated in Fig. 1.9-1. This reduces the higher harmonic c:omponents in the ae eurrent wave,
and along with reduction of fault currents, is a second beneficiaI result of the souree inductance. In
some situations it is actualIy desirable to add some extra line inductance in the converter in order to limit
fault currents. However, the finite commutation interval also causes what is tenned Une notching
whereby the voltage across the bridge fal.Is ~bruptly to zero during tht~ commutation short circuit
interval.. Such rapid changes in voItage can create electromagnetic noise problems in many industriaI
envirorunents. Figure 1.9-2 shows line notching effects fortbe case of both adiode bridge and a
thyristor bridge having a delayed conduction intervalo Note that with increasing phase delay the voltage
changes become increasingly large. Since the diode bridge begins commutation immediately whenever
the supply voltage changes sign the line notching problem is not nearly so severe.

+ Lc ~+ -~ +
lsa la
TI T2
in iT2
vsg Vs .vll

Lc T4

VoI t-seconds Required

lsa ....._ _ _ ~ / for Transition : ~_L...c_Idc._ _ _ _ _ _ Ide

/ ' . Ideal. Case .:
Lc=O I

-.----- - Ide

~-------~-----------Ide

Fig. 1.9-1 Commutation Effects on Current Wavefonns

(Single p~ Fully Controlled Bridge)

45

 :J!
DC Drive Systems

- - -.....- -----Ygm
;)
,
)
)
)

,, )

,, )

V a
,:,
=O (Diode Bridge)
,
a) Line Notching with a
)

)
)

I I
"
,,
a
,
I
.
....... -_.

)

,
, I
)
~:J.l:"""

')
va
,, ;)

,
,)
b) Line Notching with non-zero a
)
~~lndia.tes V-ll..S~onc;i~ .L9~ttQ Commutation
.)

Fig. 1.9-2 Source and Load Waveforms Showing Line Notching Caused by Source Inductance
:)
,,
Single Phase Fully Controlled Bridge

A means of representing the steady state 10ss of average output voltage caused by the supply
,,
inductance is readily obtained by observing that the 10ss, in graphicaI form, is exactly equal to the area ,)
of the commutation notch compared to the area of the remainder of the output voltage wave. Since the
"
rectifier input terminais are short circuited during commutation, the area of the commutation notch in "

volt-seconds can be found from )

,)
)
46 )
)
,)
)

, )
 DC Drive S:fslems

(1.9-1)

which, in order to force the current to change from -Ide to +Idc results :in

2Lcf-~ +lct: dis = 4 Lc1dc =ft\sdt =volt-secondsforcommutation (1.9-2)

:J tI

This result indicates that to force the current to change from -Icfc to +~ over the commutation intervaI
requires an amount of volt-seconds proportional to the total source loop inductance and the amount of
current. This is also the size of the commutation notches illustrated in Fig. 1.9-2; if the notcb:occurs
near zero voltage it will be relatively wide and if it occurs at a higher voltage it will be narrow.
These volt-seconds are not available at the output terminals andthus reduce the avemge, output
voltage. The reduction in the average output voltage can be found by simply finding the average value
of the voltage associated with the commutation volt-seconds. Since there is one commutation for each
half cycle, the average is simply the volt-seconds of Eq. 1.9-2 divided by the time for a half cycle

4LcIcfc
vc =
1

n/O)
=-:n;4 00 Le Ide (1.9-3)

This voltage must be subtracted from the average output voltage found by neglecting source inductance
as given in Eq.1.8-8. The final result is

VavC7 = 2..fivrms cos a -

4
-00 Lc Ide

"'" :n;

= 0.900 Vsrms cos a -1.27 ooLcIdc (1.9-4)

which confirms the earlier statement that the source inductance creates a dc.side V''l,.tage drqp.exactJy
like'an additional armature resistance. There is, however, no powerdissipated.by tbis~uivllel1t
resistance, thevoltagebeingused toswing the currentand.notto genetateheat
Commutation in a three phase bridge is very similar to the single phase bridge. Since each phase
currentmust be commutated twice, there are a total of six commutations per cycle. Since each
commutation involves a line to line short circuit at the bridge tenninaIs there are six notches per cycle
on each line to line voltage, two of which drop to zero and the other four have non-zero valuesas
illustrated in Figure 1.9-3. Note that as a result of the way the voltages combine in a three phase system,
some of the "notches" are actually positive or negative pulses or spikes.

47
 DC Drive Systems

v~

v~

Fig. 1.9-3 Commutation Notches in the Line to line Voltages of a Three Phase Bridge

The reduction of the output voltage c:a.used by th sourcenuctance -can be found by the same
technique as was used for the single phase case. In the three phase case the required volt-seconds are
only Le Ide instead of the 4 Le Ide in the single phase case. The factor of four reduetion comes from two
factors of two; first, the current in the source inductance is onIy being changed from lc:tc to zero (as
opposed to being reversed) and, second, onIy one of the phases being cornrnutated is part of the output
voltage at the time of eommutation. This latter statement can be verified by examining Fig. 1.9-3 and
observing, for example, that in-tlre---lf-cIL1o--"a:'---commutation indicated-m-thefigure theb-phaseis the other
half of the dc output and the b-phase current is notbeing commutated and is thus eonstant To find the
reduetion in the avexage dc output voltage the required volt-seconds Le Ide must be avexaged over one of
the identic3.I 60 intervals making up the de output This is accomplished by simply dividing by the
length of the interval

vc3 = Lc/3Ide =2..Q) L ede

I (1.9-5)
;n; Q) ;n;

As for the single phase bridge this voltage must be subtracted from the avexage output voltage found by
neglecting source inductance as given in Eq.1.8-16. The final result is

48
 DC Drive Systems

3...fiVU :cms 3
VavO'= cosa- -wLcIdc
e Jt Jt

= 1.35 VU..rms cos a -0.955 co Lc Ide (1.9-6)

Df the three effects of source inductance only the input waveform distortion(i.e., notching) is
troublesorne. Fault limiting is generally desirable and the dc voltage drop is usually easily handled in
the rectifier controller. Line notching, however, can cause proble~s if sensitive loads are fed from the
sarne point in the distribution system as the rectifier bridge. The problem is generally less severe with a
diode bridge and can be reduced, but not eliminated, by adding line inductors at the input of the bridge
as shown in Fig. 1.9-4. The added inductance attenuates the notch at theload be the factor 13 given by

(1.9-7)

Source Notch Reduction

Inductance Inductance
Lc Ls

Three Lc
Phase
Supply
Lc

Bridge De Motor
Rectifier
Sensitive
Load

Fig. 1.9-4 Reduction of Line Notching at Sensitive Load

1.9-2 Load Inductance

In section 1.8 the load inductance was assumed to be very large to justify the' assumption of a
perfectly smooth dc load current. In practice, the ripple in the output voltage produces a ripple in the
current asa result of the finite inductance. When used as a de motor annature supply this causes atorque
ripple. The situation is most severe with single phase supplies and it may be necessary to add extra
inductance, otherwise the current ripple can adversely affect commutation and even cause significant
speed variation in small motors. The nature of the waveforms when th4~re is significant ripple in the de
current is illustrated in Fig. 1.9-5. Note that the input eurrent actually t>ecomessomewhat more
sinusoidal when there is a moderate ripple on the de side.
49
 )3

.DC Drive Systems

:)
;)
)
,)
,
,)
:,
,)
:)

j'
l
:,
)
:)
)
"

iafor Fini~ Load Inductance :)

is for Fipite Load Inductance ,)

i,1 ,
')

----~------------~--~--------~------------

----
<.Ot
:)
:)
;)
,)
)
Fig. 1.9-5 Single Phase Bridge Wavefonns with Finite De Side Inductance
,
:,
At light load currents, the current may actually become discontinuous. That is, the output voltage "

falIs below the motor emf to a sufficient degree and for a sufficiently long time that the annature )
inductance has insufficient energy to sustain the current at a positive value. In c10sed loop speed controI :)
systems the onset of the condition is not apparent but with open loop control the region of discontinuous :)
current is associated with a much greater regulation of speed with load than in the continuous current ,)

mode which wiU be established at higher loads. Figure 1.9-6 shows the waveforms associated with
:,
discontinuous current :)
)
')
1.10 Four Quadrant De Drives
)
Drives which provi de operation with either positive or negative torque and positive or negative
,)
speed are calledfour quadram drives since they cover alI four quadrants of the speed-torque plane of
;)
Fig.1.7-2. The Ward Leonard drive provides this capabilityinherently but electronic drives do not
;)
because of their unidirectional current capability. Not alI applications require four quadrant operation
J

50 ,,
"

;)
)
)
 DC Drin SJ'Stems
and for those some of the thyristor circuits described previously canbe used directly and alone. There
are severa! methods available to enable four quadrant operation as dscussed below.

iafof Finit~ Loa.d Inductance

isfor F~nite Load Inductance

.i jr 00 Load Inductanc~

Fig. 1.9-6 Single Phase Bridge Wavefonns with Discon"linuous Current

(Small De Link Inductor)

1.10-1 One, Two and Four Quadrant Tbyristor DC Drives

A series of thyristor circuits have been described which can supply unidirectional current with a
controlled voltage to the field or annature circuit of a de machine. Df these circuits the !~lycontrolIed
types can supply the current with either positive or negative voltage and can therefore allow power to
flow either to or fram the machine, whereas the balf controlled bridge cau on1y supply power with one
direction of current and polarity of voltage. In terms of the four quadrantes of Fig. 1.7-2 this means
that a single half controlled bridge connected to the armature of a motor fonns a drive which can operate
in one quadrant only, say quadrant 1 of Fig. 1.7-2. That is, the bridge can supply current and voltage
which will causethe motor to ruo up inthe positive direction only. The motor could, however, berun in
the opposite direction if the connections between its armature and the rectifier were interchanged with a '

51
 DC Drive Systems
mechanical switch or if its field current (i.e. itsflux) were reversed with the same direction of armature
current. The motor would then operate in quadrant 3. Provision of armature or field reversal therefore
gives two quadrant operation with a half controlled bridges.
A fully controIled bridge supplies positive current with positive or negative voltage and operates in
two quadrants, say 1 and 4, i.e., it can power the motor in one direction and regeneratively brake it to
zero speed from the opposite direction when the emf is in the reverse sense. The fully controlled bridge
cannot supply power for reverse motoring or regenerate with the original rotation unless the field or the
armature connections are reversed. If this is done, four quadrant operation is obtained.
It is worth examining armature and field reversal schemes in a little more detail. In order to
reverse the armature current, a changeover switch capable of carrying fuH armature current is required
and it must be operated at zero armature current. The deteetion of zero eurrent is not easy and there will
inevitably be a "dead zone" in the controI of the machine of 100 to 200 ms as the current is brought to
zero, the condition detected, and the switch operated. The field reversal scheme also requires the
removal of annature supply followed by the foreing of the field current down through zero and up in the
opposite sense. It will be recalled that field time constants are long andtherefore an even longer dead
period of say 200 to 600 ms is imposedon the system. Df course, field current reversal itself implies
that a single controlled rectifier bridge cannot be used to supply the field unless a reversing switch is
used.
Neither of the methods described above is suitable for drives whieh require rapid reversals of
motor speed. The solution to the problem of achieving rapid four quadrant operation lies in the use of
two fully controlled bridges, one for carrying the motor armature current in each direction. Fig. 1.10-1
shows such a three phase doUbleor-anti-paralleI converter system. The angles 6f the two bridges must
be controlled together such that their mean dc output voltages are at alI times of equal magnitude and of
polarities such that they oppose each other and do not cause large de currents to circulate around the two
bridges. The motor armature current will flow through one of the bridges if it is positive and the other if
negative. That is, the armature current can adjustits direction, as in theWard Leonard system,
according to whether the emf is greaterorJess thanthe meanbridge voltage set by the delay angles.

Three Three
Phase Phase
Supply Supply

DC Motor
Forward Reverse .~,

Bridge Bridge
:,
Fig. 1.10-1 DC Motor Drive with a Dual Converter '").
~,

:,
<,
52
,
")

,)

)
 DC Drive Systems

There is one basic problem in achieving this operation in practic:e. Althoughtheline voltages of
thebridges may be equal and opposite, the ripplecomponentS do notcancel and wouldcirculate large
currents between the bridges. There are two solutions. The first is to introduce inductance into the
current path between the bridges to limit the circulation current, as in Fig. 1.10-1. The second is to
controI the bridges so that only one is on at a time by removing the firing pulses from the inoperative
one. Zero currentdetection is used to determine the pointat whichto switch f TOm one bridge to the
other and this involves a small timedelay of 10 -20ms. The1atter systemis usually used because it

saves the cost of the dcinductor and avoids the losses andpoorer powerfactor caused by thecirculating
current. The penalty is a slight degradation in performance which is not significant in most drives.
It has been shown in thissection that it is not as easy to achieve the thyristor, static equivalent of
the four quadrant Ward Leonard system as might have been hoped. However, lhe double converter
system achieves this and is, moreover, capable offasteroperation. It is now the standard practice for
annature supplies for reversing drives or where regenerative braking is required except where motoring
in one direction and braking only in the other is specified. e.g. on overbauling loaci where two quadrant
operation only is neededand a single bridgecan be used. It is also used forfiekl supplies when mpid
field reversal is called for, i.e. when it is required to force lhe field current through zero.

1.10-2 Full Bridge Switeh Mode DC-DCConverter (H-Bridge Converter)

An altemative to a'dual bridge converter which provides four quadrant operation when supplied
from a bidirectional current dc supply is the fuH bridge switch mode dc~c converter. Figure 1.10-2
illustrates the circuit configuration which suggests the altema.te name, H-bridge. The anangemeIlt is
such that with switches TI and T40n the output voltage is positive, with switches T2 and 1'3 onthe
output voltage is negative and with eitherTl and T2orT3 and T40n the output voltage is zero. The
circuit requires switches which can be commutated off on command (transistors or special circuits using
thyristors) and is usually operated with pulse width modulation (PWM) of the output voltage. ltis
capable of very fastresponse and Yery low current ripple, both limited principally t;,y the switching
frequency. In small sizes 25 hp) switching frequencies of 10-15 khz are employed tapering downto
1-2-khZ'inlargersizeS:;'
Figure 1.10-3 shows typical output voltage and current waveforms with the ripple exaggerated to
make it easy to see. The figure is drawn for an R-L loacI (de motor at zero speed) for simplicity. To be
able to show the control capability of the H-bridge, it is assumed the bridge is pa.rt of a currentregulator
in which the error signal is used to control the output voltage pulse width. At the start the Joaci current is
zero and there is an assumed command for a finite current. The voltage pulses are therefore wide
initially and become narrower as the CUITent builds up. Near the middle of the figure a command for
current reversal is assumed again resulting in wide pulses but of the opposite polarity. The reversed
polarity pulses reduce in width as the current approaches the commanded value.

53
 DC Drive Systems

3
Figo 1.10-2 Full Bridge Switeh Mode De-De Converter

~VoltagePulses

~
t

Figo 1.10-3 Voltage and Current Waveforms of Switch Mode Converter with R-L Load

The H-bridge itself is capable of four quadrant operation and when supplied from a de souree
whieh can supply positive or negative eurrent provides a fully regenerative, four quadrant driveo When
the de source is a diode bridge braking capabilityis sometimes provided by eonnec~ng a switch
eontrolled braking resistor aeross the de terminaIs to absorb theregenerated energy and aIlow motor
braking as shown in Fig. 1.10-4. This is satisfaetory for drives that need only occasional brnking action
and is usually referred to as a drive providing dynamic braking as opposed to a four quadrant drive

54

 DC Dri'Ve Systems
which provides regenerative braking. The capacitor shown in Fig. 1.10-4 is necessary to provide a path
for transient reverse currents from the H-bridge.

AC +
Source

*
Diode
Bridge
H-Bridge
Braking
Resistor and
De Motor

Fig. 1.10-4 H-Bridge de Drive with Dynamic Braking Resistor

1.11 Curreot Limiting

It has already been noted that even a relatively small, rapid increase in armature voltage will drive
a very large current thrugh the motor armature. Tms current cannot be alloweei to happen in
electronically feei systems because even a relatively small overcurrent can destroythe switching devices
of a converter. Typically lhe short time allowable eurrent in an electronic converter is only 2-3 times the
rated curreht This is quite unlike the very large short time current rating of the generator in a Ward
Leonard drive which may be as much as 10-20 times the thermally limited current fating (the short time
current rating of a de machine is principa1ly limited by commutation issues).
One of the first requirement in an electronie motor controller is therefore to control and limit the de
current and this is almost a1ways done by' closed loop control of the motor current as described in
Section 1.6. In fully eontrolled systems the current signal is usually derived by rectifying and filtering
the outputs of current transformers in the ac supply, but in schemes which are capable of freewheeling
action a current shunt or a de current transformer which isolates the feedback signal from the power
circuit is used. This current signal is then compared with a current referenee signal in the current control
unit and the difference is used to control the delay angle a or lhe pulse width. Proportional plus integral
control is often used so that under steady running conditions the current error is zero. That is to say that
the current is equal to the demanded value independently of the value of a and therefore of the armature
voltage and speed. The maximum current, i.e. the current limit, is set by the maximum possible value of
the current reference.

55

~ I
 ECE 411
Example Problem 1

De Machine with Pulsating Torque Load

a) Derive transfer functons for rotor speed and armature current as outputs with the load torque
taken as the input for a de maehine operated with constant fluxo Express the transfer
funetions in terms of the armature time constant Ta. the eleetromechanical time constant T m
and the motor parameters K (baek ernf or torque eonstant) and Ra (negleet the mechanical
damping B).

v 1 I 1 00

R+sL Js+B

~----------------~Kr---------------~

If we assume.that V & TL are two independent inputs the output response would be the
superposition of the responses due to each individual input while assuming the other input is
zero.

Thus to get transfer functions with TL as input we put V = o.

oo?)
TL -
.......
1
Js+B

K2

R+sL

1
J8 + B -1
(J)

TL - - K2
= --~--",--
K2
1 + (Js + B) (R + sL) Js+ B + R+ sL

_ -(R + sL) -(1 + sT a>

- (R + sL) (Js + B) + K2 K2
(1 + sT a) (Js + B) + R

Ta: electrical time constant = i

neglecting B

 J
)
)
,
(
T=-
L
-(1 +

TaJs2 + Js +
sT a)
K2
R
Trn = ~~ : electromechanical time constant )
,
R
- - - 2 (l +
sT a)
,, )

TrnK
=~~---:-l-

Tas2+s+Tm ,,
- = TrnK
(
1
R
- - - 2 (s +T)
1a
1
Thus ifTL increases and V = constant, ( wiIl decrease ,,
)

I?)
TL s2 + ;:;;-s + -
Ta TmTa
,,
-TL ,,
R+sL
1 1
Js+B ,,
,,
~------------,-K~-----------------
,
:)

I
,
,:)

.,
"I)
(Js + B) (R + sL)
,
!)

::,
;)
'-------1 __ .,~_- .
K 1--,--=
!)
,)
TL + K I
;1'.'
(Js + B) (R + sL)
;1'
~c=,
+1 -
"

': )
y G :)
Y ,)
~,

"

,)

2
"

,)
,
,)
)
,)
)
')
 K
I Os + B) (R + sL) K
TI. = . K2 = (Js -+- B) (R + sL) + K2
1 + (Js + B) (R + sL)

I K :j;RJ
neglecting B TL = Us2 + RJs + K2 RJ

(2-) (K2)
=
K RJ L
Ta = R Tm =,
RJ
K

1
KT m
=

I KTmTa

TL = ? 1 1

s-+-s+--
Ta TmTa

b) For a pulsating load torque with a peak: value equal to rated torque (assume sinusoidal
variation) at a ft:e<luency of roo = 20 rlsec, evaluate the amplitude of the speed and current
pulsations for the 10 hp and 100 hp Iliachines of Problem 1-1 (use Ra = 1.2 xRa at 25C to
allow for temperature rise). Assume the motor is supplied from a constant voltage source and
that the load inertia is equal to the motor inertia.

From data sheets:

10 HP - 1750 rpm (frame 284) 00 HP - 1750 rpm (trame 5(3)
K (voltlradlsec or NmlA) 1.17 1.27

R) at25 (Q) .57 .0144

L (henry) .0043 .0011

Tm motor alone. (sec .039 .018

't =2.4 TmII10tor & load .094
& temperalUre .043
R = 1.2 R) at 25' .0684 -3 .01728
~ =UR 6.2863 x 10 .06366

Ra T Rated Power (O) . HP (745.7)

ted orque =Rated Speed (radls) = 2"t
rpm (60)

For 10 HP => Trated = 40.69 Nm

For 100 HP => Trated = 406.9 Nm

3
 )
)

1
If we have a system H(s) with a forcing function X(s) & a response Y(s)
')
X(s) I H(s) I Y(s)
,:,

if X(1) =X m COS <.00 1

then the steady - state response:

)
)

Amplitude of oscillations = X m IH(j<.Oo)I

,
)

R
-~(s+f;)
1
,
:)

)
R (Ta s + 1)
= 1 1
s2+- s + - -
Ta TmTa
= K2 TmTa s2+T ms+l
,)

Amplitude of speed oscillations )

1-: (j<.OoTa +1) I

)
,,

= Trated 2
1 - <.002 T mTa + jo>oT m
,

A
~o> = Trated
K2
R
,
For 10 HP: ,,

~(I) = (406.9)(.01728) . "'/6.2Z7 x 10-3) 20)2 + 1 ,

(1.27)2 "(1 - 400 (.084)(6.287 X 10-32+ (20 (.0842

,
'I)
= 20.33 (1.00787)
(1.897)
= [ 1O.&radJsec

,1)

For]OO HP: '1)

':)

=
(406.9) (.01728) ".06366) 20)2 + 1 ::,

(1.27)2 .../(1 - 400 (.043)(.063662 + (20 (.0432 J

",

,I "

= 4.359 (1.619) = 19.1 radlsec ::)

(0.776) .
:,

,)
:,
4

:)
,,
)
)
)
)
 Chapter2

REVIEW OF BASIC INDUCTION MACHINE THEORY

2.1 PhysicaJ Structure and Principie of Operation

The induction machine has a uniform air gap withthree symmetric, sinusoidalIy distributed stator
windings displaced by 12()O fitted in slots on the stator as ilIustrated in Fig. 2.1-1. When excited, each
sinusoidal winding distribution produces P pole pairs of flux which is sinusoidally distributed in the air
gap. With balanced three phase excitation the resultant total flux wave rotates in the air gap at a speed
given by

electricalradianslsecond (2.1-1)

or
2nf <De
rosm=p=p mechanical radians/second (2.1-2)

where Pis the number of pole pairs. Figure 2.1-2 illustrates the rotating field for two and [our pole
machines.

Axis of

Phasea
Rotor
Conductors

Stator
Winding

Fig. 2.1-1 Three Phase. Two Pole Induction Machine

D. W.No.otny, T .A.Lipo 1m
 InductioD Machines .')

The rotor winding eonsists of a similar set of three windings, or more commonly, a uniform set of
:,
bars eonneeted by shorting rings to form a Reage winding. H The rotating air gap flux wave induees
:)
;)
eurrents in the rotor windings whieh internet with the air gap flux to produee torque.
:)
:)
')
,)
"

,)
"

:>
:j
)
'J
"

)
,)
Stator "

,
Winding
2-Pole 3 Phase Machine
J

,
j

,
)

(Os

(O
=

(Oe

(Oe

, )

)
2

,f,
sm
)

,,
"

4-Pole 3 Phase Machine .)

:1)
Fig. 2.1-2 Rotating Fields in Two Pole and Four Pole Machies

2.2 Constraints for Normal Steady State Operation

Normal steady state operation is characterized by:

 Induction Maclaines

1) Balanced three phase sinusoidal stator voltages

2) Zero externai rotor voltage

3) Constant rotor speed

which results in

I) Balance three phase sinusoidal stator and rotor currents

2) Constant output torque.

For purposes of analysis it is initially assumed that

1) There is no saturation in the iron core of the machine

2) All resistances and inductances are constants (no skin effect ar eddy currents) except

for changes in mutual inductance resulting from rotor motion

2.3 Development of Equivalent Circuit

The basic description of the volt-ampere relations are coupled circuit equations of the fOIm

for each winding of the machine (six all together). The flux linkages are described in terms of the
winding inductances by six expressions of the forro

. =.I Li

where, in general, the L's depend on the rotor position angle ar There are six tetmS in each summation.

2.3-1 Steady State Equivalent Circuit Using Actual Rotor Frequency

5ubject to the steady state constraints of Section 2.2, the coupled circuit volt-ampere equations for
each phase can be shown to reduce to those of the coupled circuit in Fig. 23-1. The slip, 5, is demed as

5 _- -_COr;...
_O>..;;..e RPMs -RPM (23-1)
= RPMs

where
=
COr rotor speed in electrical radlsec
RP.Ms = synchronous speed in RPM
RPM = rotor speed in RPM

In the circuit of Fig. 23-1:

 ,)
Induction Machines
:)
Vrs and S Vrs are the voltages generated in the stator and rotor respectively by the stator :)
component of the air gap (mutuaI) fluxo
,
)

~ sr and Vsr are the voltages generated in the stator and rotor respectively by the rotor ')
component of the air gap (mutuaI) fluxo )
.)
jo>eCL-s - M) and j(O>e -<.Or)(I,. - M) represent the remainder of the self-induced voltages in the )
stator and rotor respectively.
)
,)
.}
.l
)
:)
:;)
"

)
,)

frequency = O>e frequency = We- O>r , )

:)
"

Figure 2.3-1 Inductively Coupled Equivalent Circuit with Actual Rotor Frequency )
)
The rotor cireuit operates at a frequency equal to the difference in speed between the rotating flux wave
O>e and the rotor speed O>r , )

rotor circuit frequency =O>e - O>r =S O>e (23-2) ,, )

This frequeney is eommonly called the "slip frequency. n The frequeney differenee between stator and
rotor eircuits is explieitly shown in Fig. 2.3-1 and is the cause of the different voltages induced in the

stator and rotor by the individual mutual flux components, i.e., 'f/s compared to S 'f/s .
,, J

)
2.3-2 SU!,tor Frequency Equivalent Circuit
The cireuit of Fig. 2.3-1 is inconvenient for general use because of the two frequencies present and
,, ~,

the necessity to use dependent generators to represent the indueed voltages. If the equation for the rotor
current in Fig. 2.3-1 ::J

'1')
.h

(2.3-3) ~.,

4
'I,
'I)
"

I)
')
:)
,)
,)
 IndUctiOD Machines

is divided top and bottom by the slip S, the result is

(2.3-4)

which suggests a single frequency equivalent circuit operating at stator frequency IDe. One such circuit
is illustrated in Fig. 2.3-2 in which the mutual voltages \T's.and \T'~ are represented by a single reactance
common to both the stator and the rotor portions of the circuit. Note that the actual frequency difference
between the stator and rotor is suppressed and only appears in the form of the "variable rotor resistor ~.

j IDeCLr-M)

Figure 2.3-2 T -Equivalent Circuit witb One Frequency for 8tator and Rotor

+
-Is .. ~

.!r.
a
-
Vs
2
a rr
S

a = arbitrary (non-zero)

Figure 2.3-3 Refen-ed T -Equivalent Circuit witb Abitrary Referral Ratio

5
 Induction Machines

2.3~3 Equivalent Circ .it with Arbitrary Referral Ratio 'a I

Fig.2.3-3 illustrate a third version of the equivaIent circuit in which an arbitrary "referral ratio" 'a'
is introduced. This circui is exactly equivaIent at the stator terminais to the circuit of Fig. 2.3-2 for any
value of 'a' other than zero. Note that the stator variables are unchanged but the rotor current is now an
equivalent current of value I,l/a much like referring the secondary current of a transformer to the primary
side. It is interesting and important to note that any value of 'a' can be used in Fig. 2.3-3 and hence there
are an infinite number of equivaIent circuits that can be used to represent an induction machine.

2.3-4 Leak:age and Magnetizing Reactances

If the quantity "a" in Fig. 2.3-2 is chosen ad the stator to retor turns ratio, the steady~state
equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.3-4 results. The retor primed variables are said to be referred to as the stator.
The final equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2.3-5. Although the equivalent circuit is conventional the
symbols used are nol.
rs j Ole(Ls - Lm) j Ole(L'r -L m)

I 2
Lr = (Ns/N r ) Lr
V -s r'r
s rI = (Ns/Nr lrr
T~= (Nr/N s ) Ir

Figure 2.3-4 T~Equivalent Circuit in Tenns ofPrimed Variables

-Is Xis = Ole(L s-L m )

rir

-
Vs
s
Xm = Ol~m

Figure 2.3-5 Per Phase Equivalent Circuit

6 .,.
'~,
~,I

,)
:)
:,)
')
:)
 IndudioD MachiDes

2.4 Steady State Performance

Steady state performance is usually described in terms of an equivalent circuit similar to that
shown in Fig. 2.3-5 but using symbols somewhat different than introduced in Section 2.3. The
restrietions on the use of the cireuit mnst be recognized. They are:
Constant rotor speed
Balanced sinusoidal excitation
Circuit pararneters constant (no saturation. eddycurrents, skin effect)
Methds will be introduced which are used to allow non-sinusoidal excitation, unbalanced excitation
and parameter variations to be treated; however. constant rotor speed iis always a requirement

2.4-1 Conventional Equivalent Circuit

The conventional equivalent circuitand conventional symbols are illustrated in Fig. 2.4-1. Note
the "1, 2" designation in place of the "s.r" subscripts. The resistor Rm is incl uded to account for core
losses and is often placed in parallel with Xm.

2.4-2 Torque and Power

The eireuit of Fig. 2.4-1 is a per phase equivalent of the machine. The voltage in the circuit is
therefore the phase voltage (line to neutral) and the eurrent is the phase eurrent. Power

rI j Xl jXz
+
-l} -I
2
~

-
VI Jim r2
-S

Figure 2.4-1 Conventional Per Phase Equivalent Circuit

calculations must include a multiplying factor of three (two for two phase) to account for the other
phases of the machine.
The power in the resistor r2/S represents the total power whieh crosses the air gap and is called the
air gap power

(2.4-1)
 IDductiOD Machines

Note that multiplying through this equation by the slip s yields

SPgp =3 112 12 r2 =rotor copper loss (2.4-2)

This result is very significant since it c1early implies that for high efficiency the slip must be small to
avoid high rotor copper losses.
There are three useful forms for the evaluation of torque:

311 12r l-S

T _ 2 2 S _ Developed Power
(2.4-3)
avg - ( 1 S)
- Olsm
Shaft Speed
-Y Vdo6(dlJt~
1),(~ uf1A/( ~ , 1{C!./'O ti (J,
Air Gap Power
= SynchronousSpeed -()/e
- -~
'
(2.4-4)

P/L
=3 112 12 r2 Rotor Copper loss f? .3.I/- ~
2.. (2.4-5)
SIDsm Slip Speed
The first is themost obvious since~it comesfrom dividing the~eveloped power (airgap power minus
rotor 12R losses) by the actual rotor speed. The second is the most useful since it involves the total air
gap power and the synchronous speed. Note that the correct torque is obtained in this case by dividing a
power which is too large by the factor (l-S) bya speed which is also too large by the same factor. The
final form is useful in again pointing out the need to operate with a small slip speed (or rotor frequency)
in order to have efficient torque production.

2.4-3 TypicaI Performance Characteristics

Fig. 2.4-2 illustrates typica1 characteristic curves for alO HP, 230 volt, 4 pole induction machine
operating from a fixed- frequency, fixed voltage power supply. The normal motoring region (first
-

quadrant), the generating region (second quadrant) and the breaking region (fourth quadrant) are
illustrated. Note that the current is very large except in the normal operating region near synchronous
speed. In the breaking region power is delivered to the machine mechanically as well as electrica11y and
the motor losses are very high. The maximum torque in the generator region is greater than for motoring
since the machine losses are supplied mechanically in this region.
The normal operating region near synchronous speed is illustrated in Fig. 2.4-3. In this region
(especially from zero to rated torque) the torque and the slip are nearly linearly related. There is also a
proportional but not quite linear relationship between torque and current The efficiency curve rises
from zero at zero torque to a maximum near rated torque(usually the maximum is somewhat below rated
torque) and then falls reaching zero again as the speed drops to zero. The motor power factor also

8
 Inductiou Machiues

4000
orgue Current

3000
,
I

Generating
"
,
Region Rateei

Current - Amperes

Torque - Newton meters

-150 -100 -50

-30 ,-20 -10

Developed Mechanical Power - Kw
I
Braking
Region

Torque urrent

-2000

FIg. 2.4-2 Perfonnanee Charaeteristies of a TypicallO Hp, 230 Volt, 60 Hz, 4

Pole Induetion Motor .

increases as the torque output increases reacbing a maxiInum again near rated torque. Maximum power
factor usually occurs somewhat beyond rated torque as illustrated in the figure.

2.4-4 Characteristic Slip Values

The curves in Figs. 2.4-2 and 2.4-3 are drawn using torque as the abscissa because in most
applications the torgue is the independent variable. The connected mechanicalload determines
9
 ,

InductioD Machines

Power
,

,
Factor
x
,)

O. 40 ,
J

)
::s )'
o..
o
- I
)
.-<

><: 0.6 30 )
o.. :)
r.t.l
fi) ~
;>. C1.)
o.. J
u
c
C1.)
'(3
E
~
:>
..... 20 )
ffi 0.4 cC1.)
;)
~ !:
.9 ::s ')
u U
~ .)

Rated~:
Torque
:~
,
I
)
)
o:)

,
)

,
Torque - Newton Meters
)
Figure 2.4-3 Performance Characteristics of a 10 Hp, 230 Volt, 4 Pole Induction
Motor in the Nonnal Operating Range
)

"
the torque required from the motor and this in tum dietates the motor speed (slip) and hence the eurrent,
power factor lld efficiency of the operating pOint However, it is important to reeognize that, from the
point of view of the equivalent eircuit of Fig. 2.4-1, for fixed frequeney operation the slip is the more
'.' )

---------
"
fundamental quantity. This is because onee the slip is speeified the circuit is completely defined.
Quantities sueh as power factor, efficieney and-input impedanee are thus uniquely related to the slip.
)
)

I
Furthermore, with a specified input voltage (or eurrent) leveI the torque and power output are also
uniquely related to the slip. )
)

The fundamental role of the slip ean be readily appreciated by noting that sueh quantities as )
maximum efficieney, maximum power factor and maximum torque oceur at speeifie values of slip. As )
an illustration, the sli? for maximum torque with any eonstant value of voltage ean be readily found. )
Replacing the portion of the equivalent eircuit to the left of r2/S in Fig. 2.4-1 by a Thevenin equivalent )
.)
'.)
10
)
)
)
)
)
)
 circuit yields the circuit shown in Fig. 2.4-4. Maximumtorque will cx;cur whenthe power in r2/S (the
air gap power) is maximum. From the concept of maximum power transfer this wiIl occur when

(2.4-6)

which yields the characteristic slip resulting in maximum torque for any fixed vltage. It is interesting
and important to note that when this value of slip is used in the equivalent circuito r2 is eliminated and
hence the maximum torque does not depend on r2. This is an impertant property orthe rotor resistance;
it determines the slip at which maximum~orqueoccurs but does not affect the vaIue ofthe maximum
torque itself.

+ +

..

Thevenin Equivalent Circuit Impedance Match for

as "Seen" from Rotor Maximum PowerTransfer

rT + jXT =jx2+ (r 1+ jx.IVfx m

VT =VI (jxml r1+ j(Xl +x.m

Figure 2.4-4 Thevenin Equivalent Cireuit or Induction Machine llJustrating
Detennination or Maximum Torque for Voltage Souree Excitation

As a second illustration of an easily determined characteristic slip, consider the slip which results
in maximum torque for a constant input current This characteristicvaIue can be found in the same
manner as in the previous example by simply considering the source to be a current source rather than a
voltage source. The Thevenin equivalent impedance is then simply j(X2 + Xm> and the slip for
maximum torque with constaot current is thus given by

(2.4-7)

These two important examples illustrate the existence of charactelistic slip values. There are a

number of other important characteristic slip values such as thase for maximum power output, maximum

11

 Induction Mach.ines

power factor and maximum efficiency. In most cases the expressions for the characteristic values are
too complex to be of general use. However, their existence and how they depend upon the machine
equivalent circuit parameters are important concepts. Fig. 2.4-5 illustrates the performance
characteristics of the machine of Fig. 2.4-2 and 2.4-3 as a function of the slip and clearly shows the
existence and importance of severa! of the major characteristic slip values. It is important to recognize
that these characteristic slip values are independent of the leveI of excitation voltage except in so far as
the equivalent circuit parameters are affected as described in the next section.

80 Torque

60
~

:;E~'

Z'I-o
>-..9
'uu
~s::tf , Slip for Maximum Torque
c:r 1-0 40
:::l~

1-0._ ~
,00004 for
o 1:: ::: Constant (rated) Voltage
E-UJo
o.. , ,
, I

20 I I I

!4-,S'ip for Maximum Efficiency

, ;...iI--Rated Slip
~Slip for Maximum Power Factor
O F---~--~'-'~------------~'---------------------------
O 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Slip -- pu

Figure 2.4-5 Perfonnance Characteristics Dlustrating Characteristic Slip Values for

VoltageExcitation

2.4-5 Torque per Ampere Considerations

The result expressed in Eq. 2.4-7 conceming the peak torque for current source excitation is of
great significance since it points out one of the major problems in applying induction machines; the fact
that the torque per ampere peaks at a very small slip and deteriorates rapidily as the slip increases.
Figure 2.4-6 illustrates this by showing the torque characteristics for constant voltage and for constant
current on the same torque vs. slip axes. Although they could have been presented for any fixed values
of voltage and current, rated voltage and current were selected as convenient values since this allows
identification of the rated torque point as the crossing point of the two curves.

12

 . Induction Macbines

General1y the slip for peak torque with current excitation (peak torque per ampere) will.be
significantly smaIler than the slip for peak torquewith voltage exCitation as shownin Fig 2.4-6. Tbis
can be seen frem Eqs. 2.4-6 and 2.4-7 since typically Xm issignificantly larger tban Xl eXCept in very
small machines. The slip for peak peak torque per ampere is aIso generally significantly smaIler than
rated slip as illustrated in Fig. 2.4-6. This is the case because the lossf:s in the machine are both core
losses and copper losses and the peak torque per ampere point has high flux aridthus high core losses. .
The high flux at the peak torque per ampere point can be explained by noting that as the slip is reduced,
more and more of the constaot input current is forced through the magnetizing branch as the rotor branch
resistor r2/S increases. The rated slip point is determined by an appropriate mi~ of the losses which
does not occur at the poiot where the copper losses alone are minimized.

~~
_ _-=.P.:=eak Torque Umited

- by Saturation

160

140

Slip for Maximum Torque

120 for

Constaot (Rated) Current

~
Z 100
GJ
::s 80
E"
o Slip for Maximum Torque
E-<
60 .... for
Constant (Rated) Voltage
40

20
: . - Rated Sl.iPip;-----~------_
O
O 0.05 0.10 0.15
Slip - pu
Figure 2.4-6 Torque Characteristics IDustrating Deeline of Torque per Ampere at
Large Values of Sp

The important poiot demonstrated ip Fig. 2.4-6 is the extreme decrease in torque per ampere as the
slip increases. This causes major problems when the machine is operated from a fixed frequency supply
and must therefore be started with fuIl ratedfrequency andcorrespondingly large slip (as willbe shown
the criticaI quantity is really slip frequency Sc.oe>. This problem is so serious it is one of the principal
factors goveming the design of induction motors, i.e., producing sufficient starting torque with a limited
amount of starting current. It is a fundamental problem of induction machines; they are It good"
macQines only when operated at smalI values of slip frequency Sc.oe

13
 Induction Machines
,:, ,.,

This issue is of sufficient importance that a more direct look at the physics of torque production in ,)
induction machines is appropriate. Figure 2.4-7 shows the rotating air gap flux wave and the rotor .J
voltages and currents produced in the individual rotor bars of an induction machine. In Fig. 2.4-7a :)
:,
."

:)
Voltage
..)
Amplitude .)

H)
,
"

J
.J
)
"

,)
,,
a) Low Sllp Frequency

B Wave - Velocity e w
Current
Amplitude
,)
,,
Voltage
Ampltud
~ )
)
Rotor Conductors "

,,
"

+ + + +
)
"

Current

~Olarity
Torque
,,

:)

Polarity

b) High Slip Frequency

,;,
~
Figure 2.4-7 Torque Production in an Induction Machine Showing Influence of
Phase lag of Rotor Current ~
1)
the conditions which pertain at small slip frequency are illustrated. The induced voltages in the bars can
:)
be viewed as motional voltages given by Bl v, where v is related to the slip frequency SWe = we -:" 00r
';)
(sometimes called the slip speed). Since 1 and v are the same for alI bars, the dis1ribution of bar voltage
!)
14 :)
:,
:,
)
')
'1
 Indadion MaehiDes

is the same as the distribution of the B field This is illustmtedin Fig. 2.4-7a as a set of arrows with a
sinusoidal envelope in phase with the B field. At small values of slip frequeney the bar impedance is
nearly purely resistive and the bar currents are thus in phase with the bar voltages. This is again
illustrated in Fig. 2.4-7a as a set of arrows with a sinusoidal envelope in phase with the B field, but of
larger amplitude to distinguish them from the voltage. The torque can now be visualized as the sum of
the Bl i forces on the bars multiplied by thr rotor radius. Since, at small slip frequency, the B and i
spatial distributions are in phase, ali conduetors contribute positively to the total torque as illustrated by
the "torque polarity" marks in Fig. 2.4-7a Since both B and i are-sinusoidal, the torque distribution is
of the fonn of sin2 as illustrated in Fig.2.4-8a.
The situation at high slip frequency is shown in Fig. 2.4-7b. The bar voltages are still in phase
with B and are Iarger since the slip speed is larger. Because the frequeney of the bar voltages is larger,
the bar impedance is no longerresitive only but contains a reactive tenn. The bar currents now lag
behind the bar voltages as shown by the current arrows in Fig. 2.4-7b. Visualizing the BI i forces on the
bars now results in some bars having positive forces and some having negative forces as illustrated by
the "torque polarity" marks in Fig. 2.4-7b. The result is higher currents but less total torque. The torque
distribution is shown in Fig:2.4-8owhere theregions ofnegative torcIue are clearly evident.
Based on these arguments, the reduced torque per ampere at high slip frequency is a direct result of
the phase lag of the rotor currents and the resulting spatial angle between the B field distribution and the
rotor current distributi0!l. Anything which can reduce this angle will improve the torque per ampere.

2.4-6 Parameter VariatioDS

Although the development of the equivalent eircuit is based on c:onstant pammeter values, realistie
variations in parameters are normally introduced as an approximation to yield better eorrespondence of
predictions and actual test data. The most important parameter variations are:

Stator and Rotor Resistance

Can be strongly dependent on frequency because of sItin effect, ,especially in the physically larger
rotor bars. Resistance increases with increasing frequency. In the rotor this natural variation is used to
advantage to increase starting torque in "deep bar" or "double cage" machines. Such designs use the
change in rotor frequency (slip frequency) between normal! running andstarting to increase the rotor
resistance at starting. In faet, it is only this skin effect induced rotor rc~istance increase which malces it
possible to obtain acceptable starting torques in large induction machines.

Magnetizing Inductance
Can be strongly dependent on air gap flux because of saturation of main flux path. Inductance
decreases with increasing fluxo Important when voltage is higher thanl rated value.

Core Loss Resistance

Depends on flux levei and frequency. Generally near itsmaximum value near rated fluxo
15
 IndUCtiOD Machines

Torque Spatial
Distribution

++++,+++
Current Torque

PoIari ty PoIari ty

a) Conditions at smalI sllp (high torque per amper.e)

',)
,)
~)
~)
veIocity IDr < < IDe
:)
:)
b) Conditions at large slip (poor torque per ampere)
'::)
:)
Figure 2.4-8 Torque Produdion in an lnduetion Machine Showing Distribution
of torque 00 Rotor Bars :)
:)
Rotor Leakage Inductance )
Same as above except skin effect causes the inductance to decrease with increasing frequency. )
Generally much less important than the resistance increase associated with skin effect.
',,'
Stator (and Rotor) Leakage Inductance ':)

Can be strongly dependent on current magnitude because of local magnetic saturation of leakage ,:)

paths. lnductance decreases with increasing current. Generally not a significant effect until the current ,:)

is somewhat beyond rated current. Especially important in line starting. :)

16 .)

:,
;)

)
)
J
 Induetion Madnes

2.4-7 Per Unit Representation

lnduction machine parameters and performance characteristics are often expressed in per unit

terms rather than in actual units. This facilitates comparisons betweeltl machines and is helpful in

clarifying the relative sizes ofthe machine parameters.

The most appropriate and common1y used per unit system is onc~ baseei on the rated output power
of the machine. The primary base quantities are:

VB = VR= rated rms phase voltage (2.4-8)

PB =PR =rated three phase output power (2.4-9)

IDa = ffiR =2mR =rated electrical radian frequency (2.4-10)

from which the foIlowing secondary base quantities are derived

(2.4-11)

.(2.4-12)

(2.4-13)

TB -- PB -_pPR (2.4-14)
U)mB Ws
where q is the number of phases and P is the number of pole pairs. It is important to note that in this per
unit system:
1) All computations use the same mathematical expressions as used with actual units except tha.t the
number of phases and the number of poles no longer appear anywhere in the computations.
2) Rated currentis considerably greater than 1.0 because IB does not incorporate the influence ofthe
power factor or efficiency.
3) Rated torque is slightly greater than 1.0 because TB is based on synchronous speed and not
on rated speed. Rated torque is equal to 1_ISR in per unit.

2.5 Macbine Types and Typical Performance

Polyphase induction motors are classified in the American Standards (NEMA) under five design
letters; A, B, C, D and F and each has different torque, current and slip specifications. Fig. 2.5-1
illustrates typical torque-speed curves for design A, B, C and D'machines; design F machines have low
maximum and locked rotor torque and are very limited inapplication. Each design classhas a power
leveI dependent minimum specified peak (breakdown)and locked rotor torque and a maximum specified
locked rotor current as well as a maximum or minimum specified slip.,
17
 :)
:)
InduCtiOD Machines
)
)
2.5-1 General Purpose (design B) Machines :)
The most widely used machine type is the design B general purpose motor. This type of machine "

must have a peak torque of at least 200% (except for 6 pole machines) and a locked rotor lorque varying :,
fram 0.7 pu to 1.7 pu depending on power leveI and base speed (pole number) as shown in Fig. 2.5-L )
There is a significant variation of normal machine parameteJS with machine size as illustrated in Fig. .)
2.5-2. The major variations are a general trend to smaller winding resistances and larger :)

magnetizingreactance in large machines. The pararneters in Fig. 2.5-2 are for rated speed operation; skin :)
effect and saturation cause the Iocked rotor parameters to depart significantly from these values. :)
)
:)
2.5-2 Approximate Performan~e Equations
:)
The relative sizes of the machine parameters as illustrated in Fi~. 2.5-2 pennit a number of
important approximate equations to be obtained. These help clarify the dependence of various
performance factors on the machine parameteJS and incIude (alI in per unit)
,
.)

:)
:)
(2.5-1) )

Peak Torque =T PK =----

V2
2(X 1 + X2)ooe
(2.5-2) ., )

:)
~,

Slip at T PK =X 1+
r2 X
2
(2.5-3) .)
.)
~)
Starting Current =1 =X 1 :
5 X
2
(2.5-4)
:)

:)

(2.5-5) :)

:)

No Load Current =lm= XVm (2.5-6) ,,

.)

The role of the Ieakage reactance in detennining the maximum torque~ starting current and starting
. ")
torque is clearly indicated. The approximations are more accurate for large machines where the
:)
resistances are small compared to the reactances.
:)
':)
2.5-3 Speeial Purpose Motors )
A special purpose motor is a motor with special operating ch.racteristics designed for a particular ,)
type of application. ..)
Design A motors are similar to general purpose design B motoes except that they have somewhat higher :)

peak torque and smaller fulIload slip (usually also smaller locked rotor torque). These differences ':)

18 ,)

:)
:,
)
)
:)
 Induction Machiues

1
1 1 1 I I
!CX) - - - - _1- _ _ _ _ _ J _ _ _ _ _ _ L ______ 1_ _ _ _ _ _ J _____ _

1 1
1 1
______ 1______ .J1 ____ _ __.J _____ _

1
I , ,

50 - - - - - -'- - - - - - ..J - - - - - - L

___ .- __ 1, ______ .J1 ___ _

O~------~ ______ ~ ______ ~ ______ ~~~~--~~~----J

o 100 2cx) 300

Torque - Percent of Rated Torque
(a) Typical Torque-Speed Characteristics

::s 250
Q.)
- - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - .. - - - - - - -- -
8"
o
lOhp lOObp lOOObp
E- 2 4 6 2 4 6
"'O
= 200 - - - 1- - - --- - - - - --- - "2 - - 4 _. - -6 -----
Poles
- --
.3
-'3
"
11
~
t.-.
150 I- - -- - - - - - - -- --- - - ~- -- - - ----
~ Peak Torque
....c:o
e 100 - - - - - - - - - -- 1-- ~- --- - -- --
~
Q.)
::s
50 - - - --- - - -- - - - - - - staring.
~T~que

8"
o
E-
o
(b) Standard Torques for Typical NEMA Design B Motors
(Design B only applies up to 500 bp)

Figure 2.5-1 Typical Characteristics or NEMA Design A, B, C, and D Machines

19

 .I

IndoCtiOD Machines
,
"

:>
;)
o
---- ----~--------~--------r----
I
J .
-r--------1--------~---
I J -g
g
o
;)
:)
~,

~o.8
.-
~ I
I
I
J
I
J'
....N :,
.0... o... - - - ., - - - ..:. - - - - r - - :)
I
I
. J J
I
I
.J ____ ...;_ I I .)
I -~--------r- :)
I I
I
I
I :,
-
I
.J _______ _ o :)
I---------~ o
ri.!
I
I :,
-..c= .~---------~ -------1- :,
~

ri.)

~
I I c..
~ I I ::r: :)
=- 00 I
;---------r- ------1---
I
:,
~
-=-
~
o c2
....
~
1-0 I
I
I
I
00
.5
....
te
o:::
...
,
"2 I j
~ "..J _________ I o (1)
... :::
~----

:;:J N
1-0 I
cf J
== ~ I
I
:,
--=
I
I
t=Il o
.,
I
(".l I I

fIJ ..J _________ I

o
..... ':)
Q
~ d
11 I
~------

r-------
(1)

.,---------,-------
J I

~
fIJ
~
= .3
~
00

~
I

-t---------r----
I
J
I ___________ LI
,
)

t=Il 19o .J
---==
I

J J
I
~ I I
)
I I
~
00 _.JI _________ I

------r-- I
~

J )
I
I
I
I .)
I

------------~----------~h_--~------~--------~~r_----------,
~
c:i
~
o
~
c:i
o
d
,,
j

l!Ufl J~d - ~OlrnlS!S~~

,
,
~
o
C'i
-
l!UO lad - aotml~~ ilI"fZ!l~ug~W

('()

<'!
o

.....
d
o ,
)

Slat~W - q~\f ~IOd )

)
Fig. 2.5-2 Typical Parameters for General Purpose (Design B) Induction Machines j

20 ,)

,)

)
,
)
 IndudionMacbines

imply that design A motors have lower leakage reactance and lower rotor resistance than design B
machines. Totally enclosed motors and the new high efficiency designs are generally design A
machines.
Design C motors are high starting torgue, Iow starting current machines. They also typicalIy have a
Iower maximum torgue than design B machines. Design C machines are almost always doubIe cage
machines which have greatly enhanced rotor skin effect. This resuIts in higher rotor resistance and
reduced rotor leakage at starting and hence gives high starting torque. At mted speed the skin effect is
smalI resulting in lower rotor resistance and reasonable fuII Ioad slip.
Design D motors are high starting torgue, high slip machines. This is accomplished by using high
resistance, Iow reactance designs in the rotor ( a rotor resistance of 0.2 puistypical). Typical
applications include impact loads where speed droop is necessary to alIow inertial energy to be utilized
and variable voltage speed controI applications with fan type loads (Ioads in which torque varies as
speed squared).

7<
2.6 Speed ControI
lnduction motor speed controI' can be accomplished by two basic methods: control of slip"
(excitation magnitude controI) or control of synchronous speed (excitation frequency control). Slip
control is inherently lossy and has limited application. Varying the synchronous speed bychanging the
stator frequency can be ~ efficient (or better) than normal 60 Hz operation and has wide application
using power electronic converters to supply the variable frequency.

2.6-1 VariabIe Voltage Speed Control

At fixed frequency, the torque for a specific slip depends on the voltagesquared (see Eq. 2.4-3).
The torque-speed curves, therefore, retain their shape but shrink or grow as V2. Speed control is thus
achieved by adjusting the amplitude of the torque speed curve until the torque required by the load is
developed at the desired speed. A typical set of torque-speed curves is shown in figure 2.~ 1 for both a
standard motor and for the type of high sIip motor needed for slip controlo Variable voltage speed
control is only useful for reducing the speed below the normal mted speed. Since the speed reduction is
attained by increasing the slip, the rotor losses are greatly increased (see Eq. 2.4-2). Rotor heating is a
severe problem and the efficiency of the machine is poor. These Iimitations restrict the application to
fan type loads where the torque decreases rapidly with speed reduction and generally requires use of
high slip (design D) machines. For a fan load (torque proportionaI to speed squared) it can be shown
that the maximum rotor heating occurs at 2/3 speed and that this worst case rotor power loss is givenby

(2.~1)

21

 Induetioll Maehilles
,
~'

"

where P2R is the rotor 10S8 at rated torque and speed and SR is the rated to slip. Note that if )
SR == 0.02 the worst case rotor 10ss is more than 7 times rated whereas for a high slip machine with SR == .)
0.20 the worst case rotor los8 is equal to 1.15 times rated rotor loss. This indicares the need for high slip :)

(design D) machines when using variable voltage for speed control applications. :)

:)

:)

:)

.L :)
I
Fan Load Characteristic J
______ L ______ 1_ _ _ _ _ _ J I _
100 :)
:)
:)
"

I
CI)
r:n
V=lOO%- - ~ :)
:::s :)

,
o
c: :)
8
..c:
g I I
~
CI)
_ _ _ 1_ _ _ _ _ _ .J _ . )
'
50 -
o .)
':)
':)
"'O
)
~ 25
c.. J
CI.l

V=50%
IDes'
I Ign D I
:, .)

)
o~------~--~--~--~~~~~----~------~- )
O 100 200
)
Torque - Percent of Rated Torque

Figure 2.6-1 Torque-Speed Curves for Fixed Frequency, Variable Voltage Operation
,,
)

2.'-2 Variable Frequency Speed Contror

,
)
For variable frequency operation it is convenient to redraw the equivalent cireuit in the form shown
in Fig. 2,6-2. With the slip frequency SOle (actual frequency of the induced rotor currents) held constant,
.J
note that:
1) Zg and Zx are linear functions of frequency
.)
,,
2) the division of I into 12 and Im is independent of frequency .,,
3) ~n is not a linear function of frequency because of fI
,
)
22

,,
)

)
)'
 InductioDMacbines

The behavior of the maehine for a fixed value of Sroe is, therefore, easily detennined. For
example, if the frequency is varied without changing the voltage amplitude, the behavior is characterized
by (neglect rI ,i.e. hold Vx constant instead of Vs)
I

r} : jX 1 =jOleLl jxz=jWeLz

+
-11 Im
.-
...
I2

~S -Grz).(l)"
.-
V5
- Sm '. e
e
zm la zx ... Zg

S me= slip frequeney

Figure 2.6-2 Equivalent Cireuit for Variable Frequeney OperatioD

1) eurrent inversely proportional to frequeney

2) torque inversel~ proportional to (frequency)2

3) synchronous speed proportional to frequeney

The resulting torque-speed eUlVes are illustIated in Fig. 2.6-3. The decrease of magnetizing reactance at
low frequencies caused by saturation and the presence of stator resistanc,e will affect the actual curves.
If the latio of voltage to frequeney (volts/hertz) is held constant, operation is ehaIaCterized by
1) current independent of frequency
2) torqueindependentoffrequeney
3) synchronous speed proportional to frequeney
- -
lIJe
, f...
-
S
t 2
---l

A representative set of speed-torque curves is illustrated in Fig. ~6-4. At low frequeneies the stator
resistance wiIl reduce the eurrent and torque as shown.

2.6-3 Constant VoltsIHertz OperatioD (Constant Torque CapabUity).

Variable frequency operation with constant voltslhertz is an important operating mode because it is
approximately equivalent to translatingthe nominal (rated operation condition) speed-torque curve up
ordown without ehanging the shape of the curve. Figure 2.6-5 shows this translation for the ideal case of
zero stator resistanee r l- The influenee of rI is ill ustrated in Figs. 2.6-6 and 2.6-7. These curves are
nonnalized using the rotor short circuit time constant

(2.6-2)
f
 .,
. .

Induction Machines

300 - - - - - -1- - - - - - i - - - - - - I - - - - - -1- - - - - - ,

1 1 1 1
1
1 1 1 , I

_ _ _UJ =3.0
_e_ _ 1_ _ _ _ _ _ ...1 _ _ _ _ _ _ I-
1
__ - -
1
_ _ 1_ _ _ _ _ _ .J1

____ 1, ______ ..I1 ______ L

1 ______ ,1______ ...! _
250
1

1
UJe = 2.5 1 1
- -,- - - - - - , - - - - - - r - - - - - -,- - - - - - ...
I '

,
, , , , 1
200 - - -,- - - - - I - - - - - - I - - - - - -.- - - - - , -
"O 1
CI)
CI)
o..
rn
I
1
til
::I
o - - - - - - - - - - - ... - - - - - - ~ - - - - -1 - - - - - ..I _
, 1 1
c:
e
..c: 1
u
c: ,
_1 _ _ _ _ _ _
I
.J _ _ _ _ _ _ L
I 1
______ 1_ _ _ _ _ _ .! _
1
>.
rn
150
1
~

.....o
I
1
c:
~
~ ~e= 1.5 1 I

~ , - - - - - - r - - - - - -,-
1 1
- - - - ... -
1

"O
(1) 1

&
rn
1
1 1 I I
100 - - - 1 - - - - - - r - - - - - -1- - - - - 1 -
1
1
1

------i------I-----
(J)e
-------1
= l.0 1

1 1 1
,
1

I
I
______ J _____ _ _____ 1______ JI _
50 I 1

-,- - - - - - , - -
I

I
I 1 Limited byI
- - - r - - - - - -,- roe--O5 , Sa tuIal..lon
, I ,
.;
,

1 1 I 1
I I
1 1

100
Torque - Percent of RatedTorque

Figure 2.6-3 Torque-SpeedCurves for Constaot Rated Voltage, Variable Frequency Operation
24

 InductiOD Mac:hines

The resulting non dimensional speed scale permits viewing these curves as "universal n curves
representing a wide range of machine sizes and operating frequencies. For example, as shown in Fig.
2.6-8, small motors have relatively small values ofthe time constantTr' ' in the range of 5 -10
~illiseconds. At 60 Hz the value of thenormalized synchronous speed moTr' is therefore in the range of
2 - 4 and in the curves of Figs. 2.6-6 and 2.6-7 the operating points are well down near the bottom of the
figures. The influence of rI is therefore very pronounced, and becomes increasingly significant as the
frequeney is redueed below 60 Hz. In contrast, a large m.achine (1000 Hp) can have a time constant Tr '
ten times larger (50 - 100 milliseconds, see Fig. 2.6-8) and a corresponding normalized synchronous
speed (00T r' of 20 - 40. Large machines are therefore represented by curves near the top of Figs. 2.6-6
and 2.6-7 even at 60 Hz. 8ueh machines have nearly the ideal characteristics of Fig. 2.6-5 down to
operating frequencies of the order of 5 - 10 Hz. In open loop adjustablle speed drives the effect of the
stator resistance is typically compensated by some form of nvoltage boost" , the exact form of which is
sometimes user selectable to match the nature of the motor load.
The curves in Figs. 2.6-6and 2.6-7 graphica.lly illustrate the substantial difference between the
peak torque in the motoring and gnerating regions caused by the stator resistance. This difference
becomes very large at low frequencies where the machine reactances have become small and the
resistances thus become the dominant part of the machine impedance.
IN
2.6-4 Low Frequency Current Anomaly
At very low frequencies vrhere the stator resistancebecomes a large part of the motor input
impedance the motor current follows an unusual pattern in which the current at rated torque is smaller in
magnitude than the current at zero torque. This unexpected behavior is in fact predieted by the standard
equivalent circuit without anyneed to invoke any second order nonlinear phenomena such as magnetic
saturation. The explanation is presented in Fig. 2.6-9. . ~:

For simplicity the leakage reactances are neglected; they are clear.ly small at very low frequencies.
The diagram is baseei on the fact that in a li-.ear cireuit:with a single yariable element the locus of tbe
impedance is always a portion cf a circle. In this case the locus of the n~ce j(J)J.m in parallel with
r2/8 is a semicircle with radius j(J)J..m. Adding tbe stator resistance completes the diagram yielding the
-~--------------
motor input impedance. The maximUm impedance (minimum current) occurs when the input impedance
vector passes through tbe center of the circle. If the stator resistance is small compared to the reactance
jweLm ' the maximum impedance will occur very close to the no loaci point This is the typica.l case at
normal frequencies. However, when the frequeny is very low the diagram C81l take 9ft the
~l!fjg\!!3tion shown in FiB. 2.6-9 and the maxirnnm jmpedaue Qg OCQJ[ weJl away [tom no Joad
leading to the anomalous bebavior noted previously.

,'
.
 IndUctiOD Machines
, ,)
)
300 - - - - - - - - - - I - - - - - - j" - - - - - -1- - - - - - , - :,
, ;,
, 1 ' ,)
1 , I me=3.0 1
______ ..1_
- - - - - -1- - - - - ~ - - - - - - lo - - - - :)
:)
1
1 I
_ _ _ _ _ 1_ _ _ _ _ _ ..I _____ _ .)
250
)
')
UJe =2.5 .)
- - - - - -,- - - - - , - I
1- - - - - - ~
1 )
:)
:;)
"O

00
C)

C)

o..
200

me= 2.0 1
.,
,)

C"ll
______ ..1_ :)
::s - - - - - -1- - -
o
s:: 1
"

e
.s:: )
Q
s:: 150 "

(/)
cu
C"ll
- 1 "
~
CIl )
c- IDe= 1.5
....os:: - - - - -
,
-1- ,- - - - - - ~
I
)
cu )
t:
,
1

~ )

"O 100
cu
cu I .)
o..

,
(/) I
I )
IDe= 1.0
- - - - - -I I
-------t- I
)

50 --- ,,
,J

, )

,, )

100 200
Torque - Percent of RatedTorque

Figure 2.6-4 Torque-Speed Curves for Constant Rated Volts per Hertz Operation
,, )

26 )
)
"

,
"

')
 IndUctiOBMac:hiBes

I Normalized
---- - I Rotor

q= 0.05) I Speed

---- I
r1 =0 woT;

-1.0 -0.5 o 0.5 1.0

Normalized Torque = TrrO

To = Peak Torque with fI =O

and

Rated VoltslH~rtz

Fig. 2.6-5 Torqu e Speed Curve s for Const ant Volts /Hera Opera tion
for Rateei VoltsIHertz and Zero Stator Resist ance

27
 Inductiou Maehines
,
,
)

,
;)

,')

:)
')
:)
I Normalized

I Rotor ~)

0=0.05 I
Speed :)
f 1 /f2 =1.0 I
I
I

oooT; ')
I

I :j

,.,
:)

:,
,,)
)
)
)
)
)

,,
)

,
,.,)

-1.0 -0.5 o 0.5 1.0

)
,
Nonnalized Torque = Trro
)
,,
To= Peak Torque with r1 = O
and ,
Rated VoltslHertz
Fig. 2.6-6 Torque Speed Curves for Constant Volts/Hertz Operation
for RatedVoltsIHertz and EquaI Stator and Rotor Resistance
,i'
:)
:)
::1)
28 1)
,;1)
,j

""

:,
')
~)
 badUctiOD Mac:hines

? I Nonnalized
I Rotor
0= 0.05 I
I ~~
rl fr2 = 2.0
oT,t'r
I (O
I

-1.0 -:-0.5 O 0.5 1.0

.Nonnalized Torque = TrrO

To=Pea.k Torque with rI =O

and

Rated VoltslHertz

Fig.2.6-' Torque Speed Cones for Constant VoltsIHertz Operation

for RatedVoltslHertz and Large Stator Resistance

29
 .,
:)
InductiOD Maehines
)
o :)
O
________ L ____ ___ _____ ,_
I
~---------~-

I I I
------ O
..... :.
I I I O
,---------~ ------~- ------ O ;)
Q,)..t:::
_u
~
=
r-
:,
I &:~ O ,)
-"---------"'1-- - - - - - - - -l- ------ ~
I :,
I

.s=Q ________ LI ___ _ I :)

=- I
- - .... - - - - - ~
I
- -l- -------
O
O ')
('.l
I
~ I
I :)
== ________ L, ________
I
:)
.-=

~
ri.)
I ~
- - - - - - -,- ------
I

I
O
O
. ;)
Q
~
--------r--------.--
I I
- - - - - _l- ------ O
r- ')

rIl
I
I
I
I
o..
::r: :,
= --------r--------
~ - - - _l- ------ O
.:::t
.-e:::;.....=
01:1
,)

','
I
~ I
I

..-=
~ I
I
as

"'"
,:)

= ----i-------- ,
Q.)

~ ~ ,j
rJ'l I I
I
&:
I
,)
I I o
--------i---------r-- --
I
I
I

r-------- J - - - - - - - - - L - - -
I
I
I
I
I

"', )

I
I
------------,---------r----
I I .)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,,
)

I
I I
I
--------L--------~---------r-------
I
I
I

,,
------------~----------~~----------~----------~~----------~ ..... )
~ ~ o
d d
l!UD lad -
o('I')
D10l::md ~8~

c
d d

o
,)

('.l ..... )
spuooasm!W - SllrelSUO;) aW1.L

('I')

~
O

--
d
o
,,
)

Slalaw - q~!d a{od

Fig. 2.6-8 Typical Transient Parameters for General Purpose (Design B) Induction Maehines
,,
;)

:,:,
;)

30
:)
,)
.1)
"

':,
.:)
 lDductiOD Macbines

Neglecting Leakage for Convenience

(Valid at Very Low Frequencies)

Maximum
~Impedance

RatedLoad

Direction
4- of . r 2
I ncreaslng'"""
S

Locus of Impedance
.~ r2 of
- in Parallel withj IDeLm
S (Semicircle)

Locus of Input Impedance of Induction Motor at Very Low Frequencies

2.6-9 Lo", Frequency Current Anomaly

31
 Induction Machines

This unexpected behavior is not of major concem of itself; the motor stiU functions and the voI tage
drop in the stator resistance can be made up by using voItage boost The phenomenon does however
illustrate the necessity to pay careful attention to lhe phase angle of the current when incorporating IR
compensation at low frequencies. Clem-ly simple amplitude dependent IR compensation would yield
totally incorrect voltage boost when faced with the behavior described above. This situation is
especially important in regenerative drives where large differences between motoring and generating
tarques exist as illustrated in Figs. 2.6-6 and 2.6-7. Here, recognition of the phase of the current is
absolutelyessential.

2.6-5 Capability Curves

When operated from a controlled variable frequency supply an induction machine has a capability
curve very similar to lhat associated with a dc machine. The ~canstant torque region" below base speed
is essentially identical to the de case; any torque leveI from zero to rated value can be provided without
exceeding mted stator current. A bove base speed the "constant power region" is approximated by a
constant vaItage, constant current limit curve (constant Kva) which in most cases c10sely resembles the
corresponding constant power limit curve of a dc niachine.
Below base speed, the machine is operated at constant volts/hertz. As descri bed in the preceding
section. the torque and current at any specifi~value of slip frequency SO>eare then the same for any and
- __ o _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ - - - - - - - _ ._ _- - - ___

allvalu~sofoIJemting frequenc}'. The limit curve is therefore obtained at rated slip frequency and
corresponds to constant values of rated current and rnted torque. Except for changes in cooling
effectiveness, rated torque can therefore beobtained at any speed. In practiee, some reduction in torque
capability is nonnally accepted at very low speeds unless a separate, speed independent, cooling system
is provided. Fig. 2.6-10 illustrates the capability curve for the constant torque. constant slip frequency
region below base speed.
Above base speed the machine is operated at constant voltage similar to the de case. Usually the
voltage limitation is imposed by the maximum valtage obtainable from the power converter; the
machine could be run at higher voltages at constant volt:slhertz if lhe higher voltages needed were
available. As in the dc case, the limit curve is determined by the torque available with both the voltage
and current held at their rated values. For the dc machine, constant voltage and current corresponds to
eonstant power and with appropriate control of the field flux (reduced as liCOr) a true constant power
output characteristie results with the torque decreasing as VO>ro However, as noted previously, in the
induction machine, constant voltage and current on1y implies constant Kva Although the flux in the
machine falls off as 1/00, the torque depends on the square of the flux and at constant slip frequency
would falI as 1/0>2. To maintain lhe torque at the required levei for constant power output therefore
requires operation at increased values of slip frequency as the frequency is increased. Although the
increased slip frequeney tends to produce a nearly eonstant power limit curve, the actual characteristie is
only approximately constant power. The "almost eonstant power region" is also shown on Fig. 2.6-10.

32

 Indudion MachiDes

200 I

,-,"V.l1~"OUU Volts/Hertzooooi"'~'''''''''
__- - - - - - Constant Voltage------~~
I

Constaot "Almost" Constant

Torque Power
Region Region

"Almost"
Constant Power
--- -----.
at . I
Increasing Slip Frequency' I

o~~~~~~~~------------------------------~--------------
O 100 200 300
Speed.- Percent o( Base SynehronQus Speed !
.1

. Figure 2.6-10 CapabUity Curves forInduetionMaehine Ope~ from a

ControDed Variable Frequency Supply

There are actually two basie differences between the constant power region in an induction
machine and in a de machine:
(1) the region is electrically bounded in an induetion machine and extends without bound(except
for mechanicallimitations) in a dc machine. and
(2) the region is only approximately a constant power region in an induction ma.c;hine and is
"exactly" so in a dc machine.
The first of these arises because the induction machine operated from a voltage supply has a limited
peak torque capability. As the frequency is increased. this peak torque decreases as the sq1lare of the
, ' " . .
frequency (see Eq. 2.5-2). An approximate upper bound on constant power operation thus exists at tbe
point where the peak torque varying as 110.)2 falIs below the torque required for constant power which
varies as 1/00, In equation form

(2.6-3)

where
33
 .J
:)
Induction Machines
)
TPKR =peaktorque at zero frequency
:)
~ =rated frequeney
;)

and :,
:)

:)
:)
(2.6-4)
:)
where ,)
:)
THP =torque required for constant power
:)
TR = rated torque
:)
)
:)
Equating these two expressions yields
:)
"

(2.6-5) :)
:,
)
Thus the upper limit for constant horsepower operation ean never exceed the latio TPKR rrR' i.e., about ~,
two for large machines and perhaps three for small machines. This concept is illustrated in Fig. 2.6-11. ':)
The fact that the limit curve in an induetion machine only approximates a constant power ,}
characteristic can be understood by considering the behaviorofthe equivalent cireuit as the frequeney is )
increased without ehanging the voltage. The limit curve corresponds to holding both voltage and current )
at their rated vaJues by increasing the slip frequency as the stator frequency ncreases. In general, to
hold I constant will require:
:)
,
1) an inerease in slip frequency to counteract the increase in secondary leakage reactance and ,,)
hence keep 12 from decreasing; )'
2) a further increase in slip frequency to cause 12 to increase to compensate for the decrease in ,)

magnetizing current. )

Depending on the significance of the second item (i.e., relatve size of magnetizing current), the input
power factor and torque can follow various variations with frequency. Table 2.6-1 illustrates the nature
,
,)

of the power factor and torque variations which result for typical small, medium and large machines. In
"

,
each case, the input current is held constant as the frequency is increased. The results in the table clearly
show that: ,
:)

1) there is always a finite limit on the "constant power region";

2) the "constant power region" is only approximately attained in induction machines;

,
)

3) low values of X m and Xl + X2 tend to give a larger "constant power region";

,
,)

34
,
,)

, )

,
)

 IDductioD MadliDes

4) a typical Design B machine with Xm = 2pu. Xl + X 2 =O.2pu can provide a "constant power
=
region" to about (Oe 2.5 pu. Larger machines are more limited (to about COe = 2.0 pu) and small
machines can operate at "constant power" to overme = 3.0 pu.

Limit at Breakdown
Slip Frequency
TpkR
TR

T(oo):::::--"':

o~--~----~----~~----~----~----~-+----~~--~------~
O 200 00
max 300
Speed - Percent of Base Synchronous Speed

Figure 2.6-11 Upper Bound 00 Constant Power Operation

35

 Induction Macbines

Large Machine Mid-size Machine SmaU Machine

xl + x2 = 0.25 xl +x2=O.20 xl + x2 = 0.17
x m =3.0 Xm =2.0 xm =1.0
v = 1.0 v= 1.0 v= 1.0

v = 1.0 V=I.0

v =1.0

r2/S S<DISRwR 11 cose Pin T

L 1.0 0.93 1.0 1.11 0.91 1.0 1.0

A 1.5 0.875 1.6 1.11 0.87 0.97 0.64
R 2.0 0.80 23 1.11 0.80 0.89 0.45
G 3.0 0..58 4.9 1.11 0 ..58 0.64 (0.21)
E 4.0 not attainable

M 1.0 0.96 1.0 1.22 0.82 1.0 1.0

I 1.5 0.88 1.6 1.22 0.83 1.01 0.67
D 2.0 0.82 23 1.22 0.80 0.98 0.49.
2.5 0.76 3.2 1.22 0.75 0.92 037
3 0.68 4.2 1.22 0.68 0.83 0.28
4 0.42 9.1 1.22 0.42 0.51 (0.13)

S 1.0 0.97 1.0 1..54 0.65 1.0 1.0

M 1.5 0.80 1.8 1..54 0.74 1.14 0.76
A 2.0 0.72 2.7 1..54 0.74 1.14 0.57
L 3.0 0..58 5.0 1..54 0.64 0.99 0.33
L 4.0 036 10.8 1..54 0.40 0.63 (0.16)
4.5 0.10 43.6 1..54 0.11 0.17 (0.04)

( ) indicates operation beyond peak torque

Table 2.6-1 Behavior of Induction Machines in the 11 Constant Power Region li - Ali values in pu

36
 IndudioD Macbines

2.7 Non-Sinusoidal Excitation

Most variable frequency power converters provi de an output whieh is non-sinusoidal. If the

various non-linearities (saturation, skin effect, eddy currents, etc.) are neglected, the excitation wave can

be resolved into its Fourier series hannonie eomponents and the equivalent circuit can beapplied to each

harmonic independently. The total motor response is then obtained from the sum of the harmonic

responses.

2.7-1 Hannonic Equivalent Circuits

The harmonie equivalent circuits are identical to the fundamental frequency cireuit except that the
element values correspond to the harmonic frequeney.This is illustrated in Fig. 2.7-1 where the circuit
parameters are expressed in terms of the harmonic order h and the fundamental frequency panuneters.
The harmonic slip is given by

Sh =hWe O>r (3.7-1)

hcoe
where thechoieeof the plus Of minussign depends uponwhether-the.phase.sequence oLthe harmonicis
the same or the opposite of that of the fundamental. In practiee the values f the secondary resistance I
and leakage induetanee are eorrected for skin effect in the rotor since theharmonie rotor frequeney is
normally quite high.

jhX1 jhX 2

+--~ ...
--I2h

J'hX J
1mh -r2Sh

Figure 2.7-1 Harmonic Equivalent Circuit

Because the harmonie frequencies are relatively large, it is often adequate to use ao approximate
harmonie equivalent circuit in which the harmonic slip is taken as unity (since hm.?> COr). Under this
condition the magnetizing reactance can also be neglected since it is very large compared tolr2 + jhX21.
The resulting cireuit is shown if Fig. 2.7-2a. Since h(X 1 + X:z> rI + f2, this circuitcan be funher
approximated by neglecting the resistances to yield the cireuit in Fig. 2.7-2b. The harmonic currents are
thereCore primarily determined by the maehine leakage reactance aod the harmonic power is simply
I 1thJ2(r l + r:z).

37
 )
lDdudion ~aclnes
)
~)
:)
+ _ .... :)
Ilh ;)
:)

.,
)

)
:)
:)
Torque and Power :,)
(a)
)
,)

+ _ .... ;,
"

Ilh .J
,)
)
"

,,
)
)
Current
(b)
,,
)

Figure 2.7-2 Approximate Hannonic Equivalent Circuits )

)
2.7-2 EtTect ofHarmonies
The primary effect of the hannonics is to increase the winding r2R losses and in some cases to
)
,,
produce significant torque pulsations caused by interaction of the harmonics with the fundamental. The
high slip associated with the harmonics coupled with nonnally small values of harmonic excitation
amplitude result in the average torque of the hannonics being typically very small. Deep bar or double

,,
,'~

cage rotors can result in large harmonic 12R losses because of the large influence of skin effect and the ,11

associated high rotor resistance for the harmonics. Figure 2.7-3 illustrates the nature of the change in
resistance and inductance caused by skin effect insimple rectangular bars. Note that the skin effect
f actors depend on the product of bar depth, the square root of the frequency and the square root of the
conductivity. Increasing any of these factors increases the skin effect resistance factor K and decreases
the skin effect inductance factor J. Note also, that the skin effect resistance factor K is linear with

38
 -- ~------

Indlldion Madnes

respect to the parameter z for z > 2.5. For these higher values of z (which are typical for harmonics) the
skin effect resistance factor K is proportional to the bar depth and to the square root of the frequency.
The non-sinusoidal wave form of the motor response is often difficu1t to premet by using the
Fourier series approach outlined here because a large number of harmonies may need to be evaluated.
Time domain solution methods can be employed if. for example, peak values in the time domain are
desired.

----r---'----r---r---'----r---'----r---'----I
I I I I I I I I I I
I I
I I

I 1/' I , , , ,
I 1 1 I I I I I I
5 I--_~ __ ~-;;.,;;:-~- _L - __ J. _ - - _1 ____ J. ___ .J ____ L ___ J _ _ _ _ I
1.0
I I I I I l-
I I I I I I
I I ,
I 1 , ,
0.8 4 ---T---.----r---j-
1 I I
I I I 1 1
-~---T---'----r---'---
I I 1 1
....., ~ . I
,-
I
I
I 1
' I -I
'- o
o I 1 I I I
~ 0.6 (1)3 ---T---~----r---~----r---T
::l ::l
ta -a I I I
> > I I I I

---l---~~::~~-~:}--
I
I
0.4 2 I -~~
I I
- - + - _. -
I
-1- --- . . --
, I
1 I I

0.2 1
I
1
~-....,j!_-~~.-=:-::- L - - - ~
, I
- - - -1- ___
K: I_ I
J. ____1____ .L ___ J ____ I
I I

I I I 1 I I I I
I I I I I I , I
I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I 1
O J I J I J I I ,
0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2 3.6 4.0
Valueofz
z= 0.138 xD x\lfc
D = bar depth in em K =ratio of ac resistance to de resistance
f = frequeney in Hz
e =ratio of bar eonduetivity J = ratio of ac induetance to de inductance
to eonduetivity of eopper

Figure 2.7-3 Sldn EtTect Fac:tors for Rectangular Bars in Deep Slots

2.8 Electrical Transient Behavior

Sudden ehanges in the electrical excitation can be analyzed by using a transient equivalent circuit
based on the assumption that the chan e is fast com ed to the.~~~ the ro!er flux can chanse.
~shorted coils ofthe cage winding act to hold the rotor flux constant for the period under
. ,
eonsideration.
~---

39

\ "
 IDdoctiOD Macbines
)

2.8-1 Transient Reactance

,)

)
The reactance viewed [rom the stator terminals obtained by setting the resistaoees to zero is called
the transient reaetaoee XIS' From Fig. 2.4-1, ,')

;)
(2.8-1) ;)
')
:)
2.8-2 Voltage Behind Transient Reactance ~,
Taking .'ro as the total rotor flux linkage before the sudden ehange takes place, the value of j...' ro
.:)
lS
:)
..>
(2.8-2)

The voltage assoeiated with 'ro is OlJ..'ro and appears in the equivalent eireuit as the voltage aeross the
.,:,
:)

equivalent rotor resistance r2/S. ')

)

(2.8-3)
,,
.)

The portion of this voltage whieh appears at the air gap is termed the voltage behind transient reactance ,
:)

)
)
(2.8-4) ')

,
')

)
(2.8-5) )
,,
The resulting equivalent cireuit is shown in Fig. 2.8-1. The analysis assumes constaot speed and ooLr.
,,
2.8-3 Starting Behavior
The eurrents eneountered during starting are called inrush eurrents and can be estimated from Fig. ,,
2.8-1 by setting E~ = O. In the transient state there is a de offset eurrent in the inrush which interaets
)
with the ac component to produce a torque pulsation at the instant of switching on the supply. When the

de offset disappears the torque tends to traee the steady state torque speed curve as illustIated by curve 1 ,.,

in Fig. 2.8-2. Depending upon the rotor inertia the rotor can overshoot synehronous speed (because of
,,
40
,
:)
:)
~)
 lDdudioaMachiIles

transient currents) producing a temporary reversal of power flow into the motor. This is illustrated by
curve 2 in Fig. 2.8-2.

Figure 2.8-1 Equivalent Circuit for Sudden Changes in Tenninal Conditions

2.0

CLl
::l
e-o 1.0 2) Dynamic Characteristie for a
E
Machine witb Small Inertia

O 1.0
Speed - pu

Figure 2.8-2 Comparison or Torque-Speed Characteristic:s

2.9 Quasi-Static Transient Behavior

In some cases the electrical transients are so rapid compared to me:chanicaltransients that it is
permissible to consider the system to be electrically in the steady-state. The steady-state speed-torque
curve is then used as an approximation to the transient torque characteri:stic.

2.9-1Implementation
1) Compute steady-state speed-torque characteristic for the appropriate excitation.
2) Using the steady-state torque-speed characteristic Te -, ftro mi) establishthe differential equation '
for motor speed Wrm.
41
 .'J
:)
InductioD Machines ,)

.)
T = f(ro m ) = J dW m + T (w ) (2.9-1) )
e dt L IID

:)
:)
The solution is readily obtained by direct integration. )
.)

2.9-2 Example :).

The steady-state speed-torque curve of a 5 watt servomotor is given in Fig. 2.9-1. If this motor :)

drives a load which is a linear function of speed )

:)
:)
)
and the motor and load inertia is J = 16.8 x 1Q-6 kg rn2 , find the time required to accelerate to full speed. )
)
I I I I :)
4000 _______ ~-------~-------L-------L-
I I I :)
. .. I
:,
Diehl Type FPE 25-12
5 Watt Servomotor
100 Volt Excitation I
I
,
__ I~ _______ I _______ L
~
I _______ L_
I .)
3000 :)
I I I I

I I I I

')
I
)
)
___ I
~- ______L_______ L_ .)
I I I
I I ::)
I
I
I _______ IL_
____ L
,
)

1000 -------~-------~-
.)
I I I I
I I I )
I I I
)
)
)
o ~---------~------------~---------~~~---------~ )
O 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
Torque - Newton-Meters .)
)
)
Exact .)
Approximate - - - - - J
Figure 2.9-1 Exact and Approximate Torque-Speed Characteristics of Servomotor )
)
42 )
)
)

,,
)
 .IDdu~ Machines

To avoid solving a non-linear differential equation, the speed-torque (;urve is approximated by the

straight line shown if Fig. 2.9-1. The equation for this line is

and the differential equation becomes (oo e = roem = 377 r I s)

doo
0.635--!!!!.. + 3.84ooB = 1210
dt

The solution of this linear equation is

ooan == 316(1_e-6.0S1)
1
T = -- = 0.165 sec
m 6.05

The time constant of the motor and load is 0.165 seco

2.10 Stabity Behavior

For small changes'about an operating point, an induction machine can be characterized as a fIfth
order system. That is. the motor responds to a small disturbance with c:urrents which are described by
time functions comprised of five exponential functions with the exponents given by the system poles.
These poles can change wideIy with the motor operating condi tion.

2.10-1 Roat Locus Plot

Figure 2.10-1 shows the typical motion of lhe poIes on the complex s-plane (root locus pIot). Slip'
frequency and volts per hertz are held fixed and line frequency is adjusted. Note that:

1) that there are two pairs of complex poles and one real pole.

2) the real part of the stator poles is essentially inversely proportional to lhe stator lranSient time
constant fi I x;. The frequency part is almast proportional to line frequency <De

3) the real part of the rotor poless inversely proportional to the rotor time constantrr I x;. The
frequency part is proportional to slip frequency Sooe

4) the real part of the mechanical pole corresponds 10 the mechanical time Constant (see Seco 2.9).

43
 IndudioD Madrlnes

-~-------~-------'-------I-------
I I I I
------- --------
I I I Stator Poles _ ...
I
I
I 1 I
I : 1 I 0.6
-~-------~-------~-------~-----------------Q&-----
I

I
I I
-~-------~-----------------------~-
I I I I

I I
t

I I I I I

I I I I 1

I I I I I

1 I I
I I I
I I I I
I ! I I 1

- -I - - - - - - -
' I
--!--- - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - ..! - - - - - - -
I
..J - -
1
-O. - - 0.2 - - -
1 04'
. I
Q2

I

:o.~ I
I ,
1

I -0.04 I ~.02 1
I 1 I 1 o/CJJn
I I.............. I I 1

I
I

I
1
I

I
--1- ---- -- +--;o~~~i-----+
~

------+-----
I
I
1

I
"..,.,1

---2- -- -
I 1 I

1 I I I I

I I I 1 I

I I I I I

I I I I I

I I 1
- ...J _ _ _ _ _ _ _ -I - - - - - - - , - - - - - - - _ - - - - - - - ..J - - - - - - --0.4 - - - -
I I I I

I I I

I
1
I

I , I
I 1
-~-------~-------,-------~-------

Figure 2.10-1 Root Locus ofao Induction Motor for Variable Frequeney, Constant
Volts per Hem Operation at a Constant, Positive Slip Frequeney (motoring)

44
 Inductiou MachiDes

4.0

Steady State Torque Limit \ ,

2.0

0.04

~ O ~+-~ ~~~--~------~-----7~------------------------------
E' 0.8 1.0
~ w~roB----"~

0.04

-2.0

Steady State Torque Limit

-4.0

Figure 2.10-2 Contours ofConstant Dampingfor Variabl4~ Frequency, Constant

Volts per Hertz Operation of ao Induction Motor at a Constaot, Positive Slip
Frequency (motoring)

2.10-2 Minimum Damping

Fig. 2.10-1 indicates a region of minimum damping near 0.2 per unit frequency. For a given set of
motor parameters a minimumdamping point always OCCUIS, generally between 5 and 25 Hz.
Occasionally, this minimum damping point is negative indicating that the machine is
dynamically unstable over a range of operating conditions. Damping is mainIy affected by the stator and
the rotor resistances, the magnetizing reactance and by the rotor inertia Fig. 2.10-2 portrays typical
contours of constant damping for constant volts per hertz operation over the entire range of operating
torques and frequencies. The minimum damping point is readily located.

2.11 Wound Rotor Macbines

Although cage rotor machines are the most widely used, wound rotor machines with slip rings
offer special characteristics which are required in certain applications.

45

.I
 .1
:)
InductioD Madnes
I )
2.11-1 Physieal Structure l
The physical structure af a wound rotor machine is: :)
1) stator configuration the same as for squirrel-cage machines. :)
2) rotor wound with sinusoidally distributed windings. The rotor is equipped with slip rings for :)
connection to an external (non-rotating) device. :)
:)
2.11-2 Equivalent Cireuit )
The equivalent circuit is similar to the squirrel-cage machine butincludes a term Vr/S to account :)
:)
for rotor excitation. The equivalent circuit shown in Fig. 2.11-1 is not valid when s = O but the
:)
equivalent circuit for a round-rotor synchronous machine can be used.
,)
J
:)
:)
+ +
';)

:)

V- )

,
-L
S )

)
)
)
)
Figure 2.11- ~ Per Phase Equivalent Circuit or a Doubly Fed Induetion Maehine
)
)
2.11-3 Speed Control-Variable Rotor Resistanee )
The simplest type of speed controI is to adjust the rotor resistance rr continuously or in stages. )
Fig. 2.11-2 gives typical torque speed profiles when rr is varied. At a fixed frequency, voltage and .)
. torque, alI of the voltages and currents in Fig. 2.11-1 are constant and hence f r /S is a constant(for Vr 18 )
=O). The breakdown torque is also constant as rr is changed as shown in Fig. 2.11-2 )
.)
2.11-4 Speed Control-Variable Rotor Exeitation )
From Eq. 2.4-5 the condition I: = O defines the no-load speed This speed corresponds to S =o for .)
a machine with only stator excitation. The zero torque condition can also be obtained by introducing a

,.,
"

rotor voltage to "buck out" the current caused by the s~tor voltage. Rotor voltage in phase with V s )
- -

,,
reduces the real part of Ir and hence affects the output torque. Rotorvoltage in quadrature with Vs
- -
affects only the reactive part of Ir (and Is) and controls the input power factor. Because the factor 1/s
modifies the rotorvoltage (seeFig. 2.11-1) the ~ffectofrotorvoltage is amplified. A small amount of
injected rotor Kva will correct the power factar associated with a large amount of stator Kva
.)
46 )
)
)
)
)
)
 1
I I 1 1 1

100 r~-~-~-;-~-tl-:-:-~-:..:-~-~.J~-~-~-_-~-_-~~~- -----;- -----~

I
r i)
C7.I
75
::s
o
s::
e
.s:::
(,)

~
Cf.) 50 - _____ ,______ .J1 __ _ _____ .J_

'
,
~... . I
cf
I
Cf.)
25 - - - - -
1

-1- - - - - -
1

.J - -

O~----~ ______ ~~~ __ ~ ____ ~-& ______- L

o 100 200
Torque - Percent of Rated Torque

Figure 2.11-2 Torque-Speed Curves for Varying RotorResistan~e

2.12 Unbalaneed Operation of Induetion Maelnes

Polyphase induction motoIS are intended for operation with balanced polyphase excitation and
zero, or at least small and symmetrical, source impedances. Typically, these constraints are realized in
most applications; there are, however, always small unavoidab1e unbalances in most supplies and the
influence of these unbalanced conditioDS can become significant in some.cases. There are also extreme
conditions of unbalance, either unintentional when a supply failure or an inadequate supply is
encountered or intentional, as for example, when single-phase operation is necessary.
One useful approa.ch to undeIStanding unbalanced supply conditions is to employ the concept of
symmetrical components to reduce the unbalanced situation to a combination ofbalanced situations.
This method has the advantage of clearly illustrating certain effects of unbalanced.excitation and is
useful as a conceptual tool in undeIStanding the general influence of unbalance.

47

 lnduetion Maehin~
,
\':,
~,

:)
2.12-1 Symmetrical Components :)
The symmetrica1 component concept consists of recognizing that any set of unbaJanced polyphase
quantities can be considered to consist of the sum of a number of sets of balanced polyphase quantities.
While this is not immediately obvious, it is easily proven; here the proof is restricted to three-phase
,
:)

~,

systems. )
As illustrated in Fig. 2.12-1, three symmetrica1 sets of three-phase quantities (voltages in the
figure) are defined; the first is the "positive sequence" set with phase order abc, the second is the
,,
:)

"negative sequence" set with. phase order acb, and the third is the "zero sequence" set in which alI th.ree
,
quantities are in phase. The magnitude and phase of the three sets are alI independent and are to be
.",,
,
chosen such that the sum of the corresponding phase quantifies add up to give a specific unbalanced
three-phase set according to the equa.tions

- - - - (2.12-1)
,
)

)
V b = Vbp + V bn + V bo
Vc = Vcp+ Vcn+ Vco ,,
)

That this is always possible is easily shown by introducing the relatioos between the sequence
components as given in Fig. 2.12-1 in Eq. 2.12-2 to yieId
,
)
)
Va = V-ap+ Vau + Vao f I )
- 2-
V b = a Vap + a V3D. + V.ao
- -
V c =aVap+a V an +V.O
2-
-

-
,)
f
~

"
'2
(2.12-2)
,
)

)
where a is an operator producing a 120 phase shift

a = ej120' = e j 2.nl3 = -.!.2 + J' ../32

0

,,
)

2. j24a' j4... J3 1 ../! )

a = e =E = -2: - JT (2.12-3)
:)
a3 = ei36G = ej2n = 1
)
- - )
This set of equations can be solved for V.P ' V an , V ao to obtain

Vap = 1/ ~Va + aV b + a2Vc]

,
)

Van = 1/ ~Y + a 2 yb + a Vc]

Vao=lI~Ya+Vb+Vc]

}
(2.12-4)
,
)

)
,)
,
)

,.)

)
)
 'lncluctiOD Machines

Positive Sequence Negativ~ Sequence Zero Sequence

Van V
~aO
- - - - I. .

- - -~ V bO

----~VCO
...
,..,
V
,..,
ap
Vcn
Vbp ,..,
Vbp=a Vap
2- ,..,
Vbn =aVan
VhO =VaO
-
Vcp =aVap
..., -
Vcn =a Van
2 VcO=VaO
Inverse
Transfonnation Equations Transformation Equations
,.., 1 [-...., - ]
Vap =-3 Va + aVb + a 2 Vc Va =Vap+Van +VaO
V =.1
3 [Va + a Vb + aVc ]
3D
2 ...,,..,
Vb = Vbp +Vbn + VbO

V=V
c +V +VcO
cpcn

Summation of Sequence Components to Obtain OriginaJ Unbalanced Voltages

I\Vcp
, \
I \

I ,
...,'
VJ.
\

"'r.-fr~Zvc v.
~----t""
~
,
bO b
~"--- . . . . . - -_......
, _--
~--- ,.., ..

,.." , ~ lIJJOo,J .-.,....--- V

Vbn'~' Vap Van aO
' / , ~

'./ Vbp
Figure 2.12-1 Three Pbase Symmetrical Components

49

 :,

:)
IndllctiOD Machines
"

UsuaIly in three-phase systems, the line voltages are the known quantities rather than the phase

- -
voltages. Expressions for the sequence components Vap andV an in terms of the line voltages can be

,
:)

:)
easily derived. The results are illustrated in Fig. 2.12-2. These equations are generally more useful than :)
the basic definitions in Eq. 2.124 sinee usually only line voltage information is immediately available. :,
The graphical construction in the eenter of the figure illustrates that locating the two points x and y by :)

adding the 6(JJ phase shifted bc voltage is sufficient to find the eomponents. The form of the equations :)

given at the bottom of the figure requires only knowledge ofthe three line voltage magnitudes; phase
,,
,)

,
infonnation is inherently ineorporated by employing the cosine law in the derivation of the equations.
Symmetrical components for two-phase systems are also of practical importance because of their
applicability to single-phase motor starting and to two-phase servo motoIS. Fig. 2.12-3 presents the
defining eqUations and an illustration of two-phase symmetrical eomponents. ;,
:)

2.12-2 Equivalent Circuits ,,

)

The ability to resolve an unbalaneed set of polyphase voltages into two or more sets of balaneed
voltages provides a simple means of extending the equivalent cireuit methods used for balanced ,,
excitation to the unbalanced situation. The extension of the theory relies on linearity and superposition
and, therefore, strictly speaking applies only to situations where saturation is negligible. However, it is ,
common praetice to employ symmetrical eomponents and make the usual corrections for saturation
without regarei for this limitation.
)
,,
Unbalaneed analysis is therefore carried out by resolving the unbalaneed excitation into
symmetrical components and using a separate equivalent circuit for eaeh sym.metrical set For the )

positive sequence, the eonventional equivalent cireuit is direetly applicable. Negative sequence )

excitation differs only in that it ereates a rotating flux wave in the reverse direction and hence the slip for
negative frequency is different. Since the rotation direction is reversed, the slip for negative sequence
,
)

excitation Sn is
,
)

)
(2.12-5) )
,
)
and the equivalent circuit for negative sequence is thus the same as for positive sequenee except S is
)
replaced by 2 - S as shown in Fig. 2.124. The torque developed in the negative sequence circuit
)
subtracts from the positive sequence torque as suggested by the speed torque curves in Fig. 2.12-4.
Zero sequence excitation is such that the three mmfs sum to zero in the air gap and hence there is
no resultant torque production. The zero sequence equivalent circuit therefore contains only the stator
, )

)
resistance and the zero sequenee reactance, which is typically somewhat smaller than the machine stator )
leakage reactance. In most cases of practical eoncem machines are operated without a neutral )
connection and henee the zero sequence current given by )
50 )

,
)

,,
)
 Induation Mac:hines

-
V 1 [-V _a 2V- ] =.-1 [-
=- V +E j6<t-]
Vbc
ap 3 ab bc 3 ab

Expressions for Symmetrical Component Voltages

-
Vhe

Line to line Voltages

Graphical Construction at Right Based on

- _ j60 0
""
-vab+ ~ Vhe
3Vap- 3V
ap-.---~......--,
_ _. _j60 ""
3V3D =Vao+ E Vhe
""
V
he

Note That the Location of Points X and y

,..,
Determine the Values of Vap andVao

With Only Line to line VoltageMagnitudes Known, the Sequence Components

Can be Found by Evaluating

Ivca 1
2
_1 v abl
2
A= c=
61 Vhel
The Symmetrical Components are then Givcm by

y
,. ,
Van =A+JC- .[ 6\131-V bc
I]

Figure 2.12-2 Symmetrical Components in Terms ()f Line Voltages

51
 :,

Indoctioa Machines :)

,)

:)
:)
Positive Sequence Negati ve Sequence
')
:)
-
vim :)
:)
)
-
Van :)
:,

- =-jV-
v'b
:"

:)
P ap
:,

Transformation Equations
Inverse
Transformati on Equations
:,
1

:)
:,

Vap =.1[v
2 a
+jv]
b v=V
a ap
+ Van :)

,
:)

:)
)

Summation of Sequence Components to Obtain Original Unbalanced Voltages :)

:)

.
:)
:)
.... ,.....
-- -~ ... -- V --~
:)
:)
V an
ap :)
:)
:)
:,

:)
Figure 2.12-3 Two Phase Symmetrical Components :)
;)
:)
:)
:)
:)
:)
52 :)

.,

,)

')
:)
:)
 1
InductioD Mac:bines I
i

+--~~
rap

Positive Sequence System

rao
j~

+~
ran
-..T

Negative Sequence System

Figure 2.12-4 Positive and Negative Sequence Equiv:alent Cireuits

53
 InductioD Macbioes
, )

(2.12-6)
, :)

is exactly zero. If the machine has symmetrical windings (i.e. no fault exists) the zero sequence voltages
are also zero and the zero sequence does not exist at alI. Since tbis is the typical case in machines, the ,, :)

zero sequence will not be inc1uded in the following analysis.

Ana1ysis of an unbalanced situation thus consists of; ,
1) resolving the unbalanced excitation into symmetrical components,
2) using the sequence equivalent circuits to calculate the symmetrical component
response, and
,, )

3) combining the symmetrica1 component responses 10 obtain the total response. .)

AIthough, again strictly speaking, the symmetrical component method requires linearity, it is )
common practice to recognize the bigher rotor frequency associated with the higher slip of the negative
sequence circuit Thus deep bar effects are introduced independently for the positive and negative
,
1

sequence systems using the rotor frequencies of Sf for the positive sequence and l
(2 - S)f for lhe negative sequence. Typically, a single value of xm is employed in both systems, usually :)

determined by-tbef>OSitive sequence excitation leveI although it is roughly proportional to the algebraic
sum of the positive and negative sequence excitation.
.,
::)

:.'
2.12-3 Torque and Power
Typically, torque and power computations cannot be made using superposition because the
,
.)

"

computations involve product operations which are not linear. However, the symmetrical component ,)
method has special properties in this regard and such computations can be made. ,)
Thus, for example, the total power input to an unbalanced machine can be calculated directly in terms of :)
the unbalanced pbase quantities )
"

(2.12-7) )
:)
or in terms of the sequence components :)
"

(2.12-8) ,)
:,
:)

where the multiple of 3 occurs because of the choice of the component definitions and may be viewed as
necessary because the equivalent circuits are per phase circuits.
,
:)

:)
Fig 2.12-5 summarizes the power flow in an unbalanced macbine. At the left side, the total air gap :)
power P gp + Pgn is shown as the difference between the input power PIN and the total stator 12R I08S. :)
The two air gap powers are shown separately and the rotor 10ss, SPgp for the posi tive sequence and (2 :)
S)Pgn for the negative sequence, is subtracted from each as shown. To supply the negative sequence )
54 :)

,
)

,
)
 Indudion Machines

rolor 10ss requires a reverse flow from the right side in the amount of (1 - S)Pgn ; this reverse flow
represents the power subtracted from the positive sequence air gap power as the positive torque
overcomes the negative torque created by the negative sequence excitation. The net power available as
developed torque is then
(1- S)(Pgp + Pgn) as illustrated in the figure. Fig. 2.12-5 clearly shows the degradationin performance
to be expected as a result of unbalance. The figure alsosuggests visuillizing unbalanced operntion of a
polyphase machine as equivalent to having two identical machines on a common shaft, one supplied
with the positive sequence voltage and one with the negative sequence voltage. The torque of the two
machines is in apposite directions but lhe currents, power input and losses are additive.

2.12-4 Torque Pulsation

When a polyphase machine is operated with balanced excitatioIl, the tarque produced is constant
with respect to time. However,. under unbalanced conditions, the presence of both a forwardrotating
(positive sequence) field and a backward rotating (negative sequence) field causes the torque to have a
pulsating component as a result of interaction between the two fields. Since the fields pass each other at
twice synchronous speed, thetorque pulsates attwice line frequency. The amplitude of this pulsating-
torque can be evaluated from the expression

T 2pk'" -;-f'aI:' IIv -,

3PIc p Em I! m- Y rp (2~12-9)

where
ap = positive sequence air gap voltage
an .. negative sequence air gap voltage
y rp =positive sequence rotor admitance =[( r z IS) + jx z r
Ym =negative sequence rotor admitance ... [( r 2/(2- S)+ jx 2)]-1

Inspection of this equation shows that the pulsating torque is zero al zero speed (s =:= 1, Y = Yrp) and
DI

tends to be maximum at or near synchronous speed (s = O, Yrp "" O andYm is large). Torque pulsation
is one of the serious effects ofunbalance and can often cause objectionable noise and coupling or
winding damage.

2.12-5 Voltage Unbalance

Even smalI amounts of voltage unbalance can cause a large current unbalance because of the large
difference between lhe impedance of the positive sequence andnegative sequence circuits. At S O, for =
example, the positive sequence impedance is approximately the magnetizing impedance while the
55
 ~ ~~
~'

~_ ~~ _ I
....
(l-~pgp
N
~

~
(t

..,
~ p.10 -- Pp + pn P g=Pgp+ P gn I (1 - S) (Pon - Pon ) Pout

Co

~
~ , Mechanical 8:
c
(t
~ ~
fi

e;' (1- S)P Loss g

~ ~ gn a:
~ P ~
=
[
gn r
m
~ (2- S)p
a. Stator 12 R gn
~
CT
~"ti PI'n= Re [Va1*+
a
Vbl b* +Vc 1*c ] = Re [3 Vap fap* + 3 Vall 1*]
ao

I:r'

~ StatorI~= fi UfJ '+liJ2 +1 ft] = f{3Ira~1 \ 3I I.:t]

~ P
[- T=Tp-Tn=-;-e(Pgp-P gn )

~uw~v~~~~~v~u~~ww~w~wv~~~~~~~y~~U~~U~~~~WV~WW~~~'
 Itaduction MadJines

negative sequence impedance is approximately the totalleakage reacUllllce (since 2 - S:::: 2, which makes
the resistive part smalI compared to the reactance and the magnetizing reactance negligible). At no load
it is quite common to find significant current unbalance even when lhe supplyappears balanced; eloser
inspection of the motor voltages will usually reveal a small voltage unbalance. As an illustration,
consider a machine with x m - 3pu, Xl + Xz = 0.2 pu. With an unbalance such that 1% negative
sequence voltage and 100% positive sequence voltage exist, the positive and negative sequence currents
are approximately (assuming that Vap and Van are in phase and neglecting resistance)

- 1
1 = - = -J'0333 pu
ap j3
-I 0.01 .
= - = -JO.05pu
ap jO.2

The resulting motor phase voltages and currents are

ral- 101jV bl- 0.995 rei- o. 995

~al== 0.338 pbl= 0308 rel= 0308

Thus, although the difference between phase voltages is onlyabout 1.5%, the currents differ by about
10%.
In contrast to the sensitivity of current unbalance to a voltage unbalance, lhe effect on average
torque is very small. This insensitivity results from the fact that the torque depends on the square of the
voltage coupled with the fact that the negative sequence circuit operates .a.t high slip for normal
conditions. Thus, wilh 1% negative sequence voltage and a slip of 0.02, the negative sequence torque
will be 10-4 times the torque which would be produced with 100% voltage at a slip of 2 - 0.02 = 2.
Since the torque at S = 2 is already small, the final result is very small and in most cases can be
neglected. For large unbalances the influence on torque can be significant, of course, but for the case of
small voltage unbalance it is significant
Fig. 2.12-6 illustrates how the normal speed torque curve for balanced excitation can be used to
predict the torque for any unbalanced voltage condition. The positive sequence torque is obtained by
reading the normal curve at the specific slip of concem and correcting the value by lhe square of lhe
ratio Vap to VR where VR is the voltage associated with lhe given, balanc;ed operation, speed-torque
curve. The negative sequence torque is obtained by reversing the speed-torque curve ei.e. reading the
value at (2-S) ) and correcting by the square of the ratio Van to VR. The total torque is then the
differencebetween the positive and negative sequence values. Wilh this procedure. lhe speed-torque
characteristic for any specific unbalanced condition can be detennined from a single speed-torque curve
for balanced excitation.

5]
 Induction Machines

"Ripped" Curve
for ,

"VRVolts ~ T

Negative Sequence ror

-..T

Original Curve

for

ft\R Volts

Balanced Exci tation

T=Tp -Tn

Figure 2.12-6 Unbalanced Torque from Balanceei Speed-Torque Curve

58
 Induetion MachiDes

2.1U Single-Phase Operation

Single-phase operation is a special case ofunbalanced operation in which one of the motor currents
is forced to zero by open circuiting the winding. The basic procedure outlined in the preceding sections
cannot be applied directly because not alI of the voltages are known, hence the symmetrical component
voltages cannot be found directly. However, an equivalent circuit canbe deduced by the following
procedure.
Consider a three-phase machine operated with phase a open and phases b and c connected to a
single-phase supply as shown in Fig. 2.12-7a The constraint on the phase a current can be interpreted as

- - -
(2.12-10)
Ia = Iap + I.... = O

which ca.n be forced by connecting the positive and negative sequence circuits in series. The voltage

V bc can be expressed in synunetricaJ component form as

(2.12.-11)

Using the relations Vap = IapZp, V"" == luZa and Eq. 2.12-10 allows this result to be rewritten as

(2.12-12)

Finally, writing Ib in symmetrica1 component form

(2.12-13)

permits expressing Eq. 2.12-12 in the final form

(2.12-14)

This result is illustrated in Fig. 2.12-7b. The torque is easily shown to be the difference between the
positive and negative sequence torques as in Fig. 2.12-5.
If the voltage Vais to be computed, the symmetrical component voltages Vap and V an are first
foundfrotn

(2.12-15)

59
 Inductioo.Mac:hines

ra =0
rb =-1c
\lbc= vI..!.

c b

-
Vbc
(a)

Single Phase Operating Constraints

+--~

-
Vbc

r2
2-S

(b)

Equivalent Circuit

Figure 2.12-7 Equivalent Circuit for Three Pbase Maebine Operating Single Phase

60

 lnduction Maclnes

v- an = -- f b_Z- =
I Z = ___ IZ
_J'_b (2.12-16)
ann 2 n {:;'3 n
a -a -v~

fram which

(2.12-17)

For a normal single phase motor, an equivalent circuit can be derived in a similar fashion using two
phase symmetrica1 components. The result is illustrated in Fig. 2.12-8. The circuit is clearly very
similar to that of the three-phase machine in Fig. 2.12-7, the only difference being the way the machine
impedance's are defined; for the three-phase case the circuit elements are line to neutral valves and thus
the stator impedances rI, and Xl, appear twice whereas for the two-pha~e machine single-phase operation
involves only one ofthe phases. The factorsof 112 multiplying the rotO{ impedances in Fig. 2.12-8 also
occur as a result of the way the rotor parameters are defined in a two pbase machine and can physically
be explained in terms of the positive and negative sequence rnrnf's each being of one half amplitude
compared to the total mmf.

2.12-7 Impedance Unbalance in Two Phase Machines

Unbalanced stator impedance's create a difficult analysis problem;~,,,.,
methods are not especially well suited to this situation. The most important practical application occurs
in the starting of single-phase motors where the typica1 case iDvolves two-phase operation with unequal
impedances in the two windings. Fig. 2.12-9 is an equivalent circuit for this situation. Note that the
impedance unbalance enters as acoupling impedance between the positive and negative equivalent
circuits equal to one-half the difference between the phase a and b impedances. Although the circuit in
Fig. 2.12-9 correctly describes the unbalanced impedance situation, the c:omplexity of the circuit makes
analysis difficult and generally requires extensive computation to clarify a specific problem.

61

-/I
 ..,
,)

,
Induction Mac:hines
)

"

:,
:,
:.)
)

,.,
,)

V- .l
a .)
.)
)
(a)
Constraints for Single Phase Operation :,, )

jX2
2 )

+-----~
,..,
Ia
,, )

)
)
)
,..,
V
a
j X2
2 ,,
.)

,
)
r2
jXm
2
2(2 - S) J,
:~
~

(b)
Equivalent Circuit
.,:,
:~

'1..
Figure 2.12-8 Equivalent Circuit for Two Pbase Machine Operating Single Phase ,;)
or for Single Phase Motor ').
"
)
:)
:)
,'.
62
:
,)
.,
44j.#

)
')
,
 Induction Macbines

+
-

Vae

Zbe
+

(a)

Connection Diagram

Zae

+ +
-
Vaep -
Vap
1 - -
2 ae-~)
-(Z

+ +
-

Vaen -
Van ]Zn

Zbe

(b)

Symmetrical Component Circuit

Figure 2.12-9 Symmetrical Component Equivalent Ciircuit for Two Pbase

Maebine Operating with Unbalaneed Stator Impedances

63

 ECE 411

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES

Appendix 2-1

PRINCIPLES OF INDUCTION MACHINES

Selection o( the Pole Number of Induction Machines

for

Variable Speed Applications

7 Pages

1997, D.W.Noyotny,T.A.Lipo
 ,
J

,
)

)
)
)
)

,
)

)
)

,
)

,,
)

)
)
,
,,
)

)
)
,
,,

,
)
)

,
o:,
)

:1)
:)
:)
:)
.;,

d)
-/

-I)
"

<')
'"
 Selection of the Pole Number of InduCtiOD Macbioes
for Variable Speed ApplicatiODS
FengLiang* D. W. Novotny*** Renyan Fel** Xingyi Xu*

* Ford Motor Company

** Emerson EIectric Company

***University ofWiscoDsin

Abstract-Tlae seJectiOD of dae pole Dambcr for

indnctioD IDoton sDpplied frolD a CODsunt
freq1leDcy S01ll'Ce is straiPt forward because the
poJe. alUDher.. is. detenaiaed .'. solei, b, . the
syac:hroaollS speed .. req1lirecl . for tIle applicatioa.
Howeyer, the.,elflCtioDoftlaepolll aamber for
iDvener-drTea iaclllctioD .otonis.um Dlore
iDvoJvedbecausetJae. pole aa.Der isaot
detenaiaed Ity siacJe., "'iaeti. . ractor ia these
cases. lia priacipJe, ...,. ........ DIUIlher cu be
daosea as dae polelllllllhr .. _anue tlaefreqaeacy
caa be adjasted ..d .. daere(ore~. tbe.,..cJaroaoas -4Pole 2Po1e
speed caD be coldl'oDed.1a lia.. aIIJ cIesind ftIae. Macbjne Machine
For ttaaeapplicado_ dae seiectioD ottlae pale
Dumber typicaU,. iJlyoJftS IllUlleroas factonud I'ipn 1 Curreat~.ia 2~ aad4-Pole M'ClljJl(
pan-."" aad.,..,......
trade-of!'s, _ , of triaida are ideadfied aad daeir mllSllllil dIe Basic TMer'e"~ ofT~ witIlRespec:t 1
,nUeDCe OD described Pafe'NI:iiber";;c. " , ." '.
.J dais paper. So... ......... CIHICIuio_ 011 dae
selecdoD ot pole DDIIIiter are alio ,"aatecl. _ it s . . . _ ""'01 1IIeissues . . qai1esiDP1ar t
dIase fa:ecU.. medelipGfdcJ,,,,,dJilll. This nwfimim ca
lN1'RODUC'nON poviIte'aseiaI:'pith"~-iIl-~i_iaJ:'.nw:hi~ ai diffeaez
Frum a fundamellra l aH .... prvdLII:1ioII paspeai ve me poIe IlllJllber. n. IItselaafaliredowlt tarqae iA d
pale JIUIIIbeI' cf 3D elec:ic mw;hi. . ia cf DO ~ siace madriaes is sboWIllD be dIe lIIIjor dil1lCliallbetWwa de a,
both B aDd i are revased lDIder elCbpole . stiown ia Pia. I. iDduc:oa 1MC!hi~ ia . . . . . . ITlr:I.~nl"poJe nmnber. J
Forme same B aad i. ear::h coadacror camribares t&e same
sampJe desip iSpawased QWipMial a,~ . . a four
corque ud cleariy me raa. aque isaJso ... SIIII& There are.
poIe morGrIDiD.............. _,analpis.RIII!Is UI
'lowever. maay iJ:DportaIII secaad 0IdIr effIas of mechoice of
.discu"i:Ia. s....... CCMl:I'wirm~. poJe DIIIIIbe
l'Ole Ilumber wbich shoulcl be ccmsidered ia reIacm to tbe
selec::Maft _ aIso ID.ra- .
c)vera.ll rorque-speed n:qai&ememsof"lcbspeci6c:appJic:aIion.

)inc:c for a Jiven spced tbe fiequeDc:y s prvpanioDal to dle

MAGNE'DC,cmCtD.T
oole number aad lhe iJlverrer 105$._ tbe moror imD losses
ODe 01 dIe.IDDltSipifia 1h"tr:IS lIIOCi"WJwidllbr
tncrease as me lequac:Y iIlcrases. *' a,aIy raIisc Choices

or lhe pole aumber are usaaDy ara OI" four pola (acept for

poJe aamlMralises.1lej: I " 01.._ . sma1fttlupeE,poIe wbid

msu1Is .IDIIl. iDI::re:IIiqdle nmnW of paies. Fac IDe SllDC
'1ery speciallow speed appficaIiaas). 1lIis simarimacauld be
~ flux dIsy _ spadal fIax'ftrilricm lbeeu pll'paJe i!
alte=i ir speciaI mamriaIs sadias powdered IOIl OI' very rhin

.mtinaUons o low 10lS sree1 amuscci to l'Iduc:e iIOIl loaes. _lIlIm'"

<iuch speciaI purpose. bigh COSI mlcbiDcs will nal be
considered in tJs paper anel me focas wiD then:fore be p1aced
...n lhe chOice belweea two aDd f_poIe rrpc:hincs.
direcdy pmpcIIIiaa.~ tbe paJe. . ,.mch c:Iemy dKn&ses
ofpoia iacn:aes.. To....;..rai. me .... tJm
_M.
.deasity iJ,l me. - - 1114 rararyala Ibe , . tbicLaess in a
two pale mw:bi_1RMIki bawIDbe twice _ ai .'OIIr paie

lbis bas t1IO~ imlWD 011 dIe mapec SD:iiCUIR

.

In me foUowing sectioas effons are made to idemify lhe .

L

of a two po1e uw:u"w: ,

..nportaDt second arder eft'ecIs cf dIe po1c namber oa me motor 1) for me same .... m....., me raa Dl1ISt lia.,. a saWIer
-ameter:s aDd p::rfollnaace by comparins rwo-paIe aDd four dbnnetrr 1bIa falir poIe.DMXar.1IICl
.e morars of tbe SAme overaIl outside dimensiODS. The 2) me space leftb me l'Ob yoke s aJways ma,smaII to
",.:.de uffs iU"'otved in the pole number seledioa are pointed OUl acbieve ~.same , . tJax dasiIy Da a four polelllOlCl'.

The first of these means that a four pole motor wilI produce
more torque for the same B and i since it has a larger rotor
diameter. The second suggests that the rotor yoke in two pole
mocors will typic:ally operale at higher flux density than in
four pole motOIS unless 5pecial provisiollS are made to ulize
the shaft to carry some t1ux or the air gap flux density is
reduc:eci This implies tbat lhe degree of saruration of the main
flux parh of a [WO pole machine will generallyexceed tbat of a
four poJe machine.
An appreciation of me rotor yolce space problem can be
aaained by noring that the reiation between the rotor radius f r
and tbe pele pitch ~ is
P't
f r =~ . (l)
2:n:
where P is the number of poles. Allowing equal space for
510[5and teeth. me yob: thic:mess required to bave me same
average B in me teeth and yolce is
dy = O.25-rp (2)
Sinc:e (1) gives
fr = 0.32;, for a 2-pole machine
, rr = O.64'tp for a4-poJe.ma:bine .
rr = O.9'tp for a 6-pole mac:biDe
and lhe rotor radius rr must acccmmoda!e the shaft radius. tbc:
rotoi slot deptb as well as tberolOr yob it is c:lear tbal tbe
. available rotor yolce space dy is always insulficieDt ia a lWO
pole macbine. about right widl- four poles ud more than
suffic:ielll wKh six.or more.poles.
MAGNETlZING REACTANCE
SIare wbereas it bis very sipiRc:anr effects iaductioa macbiJr3
The mapetizjnl iDductaDce of a rIRe pbase machiae is
ODe major iDflueDCe Il Ibe iDdUCIOD mac:bime is to set. &
given by
L IDS p. ) 1tO~
=k f-tN s
g (3)
where a1l symbols are defined in tbc: DOcacm section. fi CID be
seen tbat lhe mapetiziDg inchJcr:anee oi a four pole moror wiU
be one founh of rhat oi a two poIe mocar jf ali cxber qaamities
are kept tbe same for both mac:bines. However.. a four pole
motor with me same physical air gap length as a two pole
motor generalIy has a smaller effecIiw air pp lenglh because
iE has a shoner flux padI and usually bas a lower samraon
levei. The smaller effective air gap leapb. bigger bole IIld
possibly longa' stack oi a four pole moa heIp mate up for
lhe dec:rease in cbe mapetizing iDductaace ro some extenL If a
two pole motor is very bigh1y samrated it migbt be possible
. forthe magDClizing iaciuctaDc:e of a four pole motor ro be as
high as ORe half of tbat of a twO pole motor with cbe same N's.
In suc:h a case a fo~ pole motor would have rougbly the same
magnetiziDg reactance bec:ause tbe frequenc:y is double for a
four pole maIOr aI me same speed. .
Typic:ally tbe tums. N's. of a two pole motor would have
to be inaeased (or decrea.sed in me four pale madUne) to make
up for lhe extra tlux associated with tbe larger diameter of a
comparable four pole mac:hine. nus would furt:ber inc:rease the
magnetizing inductance of the two pole machine compareci to
,
J
,
)
the four pele and make it Ver}' unlikely that a fOUI.j
machine wauid ever have a magnetizing reactance as 1ar.'i:
for the two pole case. 1
The physical basis for tbe increased magnetizing I. J
a four pole machine is simpJy Ehat for the same tow tum.)
turns per pole are smaller by two (the ratio of me '.~(
numbers). Thus to produc:e the same B requires twic-.:J
magnetizing cum:nt. 1be induc:tanc:e is doWll by rour sin~
t1ux linkage per pole is down by four (lhe tlux by [W'O IDO (
blmS by two) and lhe tocai flux linkage down by two.:')
increased magnetiz:i.ng current of higber pole number mac;:"
results in low power factOr and is a strong argument in favqt.
lower pole Ilumbers in induction m a c h i n e s . J
WINDING RESISTANCE )
For me same total EamS. the resistances oi a four ~~
motor are iaherently smalIer Iban mose of a two pole m')
since me end tums are approximarely.one haJf as long. ti...:
addition. the tums are c:baDged to c:cmpensare lhe voltagt.~
me Iarger diamerer (ad beDce flax) of tbe four poJe macl::)
lhe diffezac:e. iD lhe resistaDce wi1I be increased. 1be 1011&
n:sisraDc:e oi higher pole rmmber macbines creates a ~
winefiDg 12R 105$ advanage favoring bigher pole II1DIlO
wben winding losses ;n a domiuDt Ioss as. for exampk-~
Iow speed. Tbe adwmage is greaJeSt wheD compariDg two Gil
four poles anel ctimjnisbes ia impcxtm= for six orlDDle por':)
)
LEAKAGE INDUClANCE )
All of tbe preamngCOHilFiCUlS apply equaDy weD . . : )
to induaioa mac:biaes. Bowever. in de nw:Iriaes me wiDcIJW
Ieakage incblctaDc:e lias 0011 a minar iDfluence in dle se.:J
upper bowxi OD thc CODSIaDI power regioa wbile tbere is .~
couespouding efec:uical boaDd. in dIe de machine (except for
limit GIl tbc: specd for. acceptable c:omm1llatioD). Tbe ~
r'
~mP,ODeDts of ~ ~ .~lIcraDce bav~ me followi...c
priDpal de:peadeDcia GIl dliiWJSIOaS. ,
, )
P.
T
. ws.
= kNs2 t~Sl
2. .
14':.)
~
J .
Siace a four pole motor bas a Iarger bore diamerer than ~
c:omparable lWO pele moror it coWd possibly bave more szar'
slots (i.e. laqer St) with tbe same slot dimensioDS (i.e. di)
same Ps) IIld stiIl bave tbe same tootb flux deDsity. As ~
result the slot leakqe could be slighrly reduced c:ompami to_
two pole machiDe. 1bere is.. bowever. no direct influcnce .,
the pole number. :;>
 Again ir can be seen that therc is no direct influence of me pole
number but that a fourpole motor can bave smaller zigzag
inductance than a comparable two pole motor if rhere is an
increase in the swor slot number. The zigzag penneance also
depeneis inversely on lhe air gap lenglh.
End-Winmng Leakage bldactaDce'
TIME HARMONIC LOSSES
2
Thetime harmoaic fosses caused by Iwmoaics in ti
Ns 2
Le =kpkl~ (6)
A four pole motor wilI bave smaller end-winding inducWlce
than a c:omparable [wo pole motor because it has shorter end
winding tIImS. lhe effea of the poIe nllDlbcr isapproximately
inverse as shown in (6). . wou1d sugest tIw dIe Josses wouJd be lower. However. sinc
Harmoaic ~kale lDdac:taace
00
I,k = k(i)1.toD~le!~)2
n=2
The poJe number has me strongest direct iDflueace on the
hannotiic Ieakag indW:tliic:e:--T& sqDaelaw cfePeudence
occurs for the same reason as described earJier for me
magnedz:ing iaduaance.
Total LeakaplDcIIIaac:e
Siace onIy two of me four m;Vor'. c:ompoiIeaas of leakap
macbine bas. nrice.1be I-br illdacranctiaad nrice thl
mductance bave any directdepei:ldDc:e OD me pole 1IQI1Iber.1be
Jeakapiaduaance of a fourpale mac:tiiltemisJtt.be ~ 10
be down by apl*"';"'-Iy ar.:. affaar.
be only moderarely smaller tbaD dJat of a lWO poIe macbinc;
This would resuIt ia a Jeakqe naeraac:eal me SIIDe speed
which would be sipificaady biper!ar tbe toar poie mw:biae
H~wever. me change D l1ImS needed to equalize me raminal
voltage for tbe lWOuacl toar pole macbiD!!S wiD tcnd to mab
nxnr d ......r. 1'IIis CID be sjll'ifirursiDce.dIese laaa vaay
the leakage iDducamce of me four poIe 'II3CbiDe lower. wbich
makes the leakage reac"ilcc 01 lhe macbiaes mare nearIy equaL
Note tbt tbis is opposite 10 tbe effect oi me cbaDp in mms
in lhe four pa1e moa tw.llse oI.... 1arpr rarnr cInt.mr aad
ou lhe magnerizing reaaaace wbcftme aaJcmcy is to IIC::I'eUe
lhe difference betweeIl me madIiDes.
CORE LOSS
The fundamental frequeDc:y. maiD tlux c:cn losses per unit
volume caused by lhe functag.,nal tlux is generaIly cxpressed
in me fonn
Pc = Ocb f + Kc f2) B2 (8)
If lhe f1ux densities in different parIS of me scaror lDd lOtor are
lcept the same for bom motors. me core 1055 per unit volume
of a four pole motOr is higher tban tbaE of a twOpole motor
oecause me frequency is twice dw oftbe two pole lDOIDr' if me
;peed is me same.
On the other hand. a four pole motor has a smaller core
volume thaD a two pole motor because the starDr yoke is
.inner. 1bis is a desired feamre iD terms of iron losses.
Since lhe iron 1055 inaease dueto me frcquency iucrease is
(j'pically mOR: significant than the imn 1055 decrease due to rhe
smaller iron volume. tbe rotal iroa 1055 of a four pole motoI
usualJy bigbcr tban tbat oi a comparable two poIc mocor.
Similar argmnents CID be applied to rhe cxbe:r fundamen
freqeacy iron losses lha! constitute a portioD oi the may lo!
inverter wawfDnn depend SIrOrlgly onthe leakage reactaDce 21
windiDg resisIaDcC SE dIe bannoDic fnlqullcies of imerest. f.
lhe low order balmonics. such as tbose assoeiatecl widl six stt
operation above base speed. .tbe compatison dc:peDds mong.
oa how me leakage reactaIlees of me two maddDescompar
If mey are close. tbe lower resistaac:c of.tbe four pole macbir:
thebarmonic frequeacies are twice as biab.1bere are addi1iom
skin eifed iDCiuced iDcreases in.the effective harmoni
reiSWJce wbidl read to iDcrease me faur poIe JImDaajc losse
(by ahoata iactor of ..J2). It is lite1y dw ds iDcrase,
barmoDic n:sistuce wiJl resaltin Ibe four poJe lDOIDr bavin,
bigber baamaaic Iosses aIdIese JUper speeds
Allowe:r~ wbaelbe~barmoaics aR at .'
:::~==a!t:r;~~=~-=
c,ieldiag a . . . . lII*1Ipm,. dleswill::laialfleq--.y). ni:
c:an be a ve.rysipifhat dift'aeaee becweca two _ toar pok
machinessiJa lar_ ame fnDdame.MiequIIICYlea.tqr
.IaCIaDCe (aad beaca 1be_ bnItdowa.aqae>_ two pok
JaCllace 1& dIe swidriDi fi'eqIlIllCy ...... M ... aje Joss wiJj
.
O'lilElt LOSSES
1'be wiDda&e _ oi a toar poIe ""CbiDe willbe Jarpr
Iban for a ~ awapole n_M.ebeclase of dIe.Jarpr
Im lhe' cube of _ dia".,.. 'lhe pulsadoll fIux loaes c:aased
by me pllSSIIr 01 ........ .ad nxar .... wiJI alio be biaber
dIe JibIy aR of IllllllIlols. .
.GDIERAL. TJlENDS
BaseeI 011 dIe ..,.... prUpenies lIId pinmew Vlriloas
oudined in ... JftC....., secoas ceftIin . . . . . . . . . in rbe
comparisoD betwea tWo aad toar pole mw:hiJu=s c:aa be
.'llDed
Total Loues ad ElftCi.q.
At low speeds me copper losses are domin- aad .. a
resu1t me dec::reaeI:i faMamenraI bqueacy copper as in foar
pole mac:bines lads to reduced lDI:al losses iD a .f..- pole
motor. Heace. dia ~ of a toar poJe marar iscecrad
to be biaba' dIIII "- Df a CDIDpDble two pole 1DDIDr alow
speeds. Miliprinl apiDst dDs 1IeDd is Ibe c:Jar iIfvaaIIae oi
me two peJe mw:frine iJI tenD$ ,Df bmDoaic . lCIICS ai lo_
speds wbere tbe invencr switcbing f'reqaeacy bIrmonics
dominare. If tbae hlrmotJic losses.arelaqe as a resalt ofa
low inverter swicching frequencY or a poor maclu1ation

strategy, the fundamental frequency advantage of the four pele
machine could be overcome and lhe two pule machine become
the more efficient mac:biDe even aI low speed.
As the speed increases the iroD losses and windage become
more and more significant ~pared with the copper 1055 and.
as a result. lhe increase in thcse losses in a four pole motor bas
a greater and greater effcct on the totallosses. Ultimately. lhe
total losses of a fom pole motor can be expected to exceed
those of a comparable two pole motor as the speed increases.
Beyond some particularspeed. the efficiency of the foUI' pole
motor will lik:ely become lower than that of the comparable
two pole motor.
Power Factor
To have higher power factor. tbe magnetizing reactance
o.eeds to be Iarge and the leakage reactaDces need to be small.
Baseei 00. the preceding analysis it is clear that a four pole
motor will bave Iower toralleakage inductance tban a two pole
motor. But since me frequency of the four pule motor is twice
of tbat of a two pole motor. it is required tbat the totalleakage
inductance of tbe four pole motor be balf of that of the two
pole motor in arder to bave lhe same leakage reactance for
bolh. lt is 1:ely tbat a four pole motor Can bave a leakage
reactance essenr:ially equaI to a comparable two pole motor if
lhe tums are applOpriately selected.
As noted earlier. me UIlS3DJI3ted magnerizing reactance of a
two pule motor is likely to be at least twice lhat of a
compamble tour pule macbine. If a two pole motor is very
bigb1y satumted then it may bave)owermagnetizing reactance
than a four pole motor but tbisis not likely following:
reasonable design practice. In general tbe iDflucnceof the pole
number is more signifiwmt tban lhe effect of satmation aod lhe
magnetizing reactaDceof a two pule motor is expected to
always be higba' than that of a compa:rable foor pole motor.
As a result it seemscJeartbat me power factor of a two
pole motor will a1ways exceed tbat of a comparable foUI' pule
mac:hine.
Low Speed Torque aDd Power
The in<:reased rotor diameter of a foor pole macbine gives a
clear advantage in low speed torque production. Tbis advantage
is strengtheaed by lhe lower winding resistaDce and associated
reduced heating which allows a larger Cw:JeJlt for the same
temperature rise. The increased ou1pUt.power aI any speed is
accompanied by ao inaease in volt-ampe:re inpat since for fixed
tumsbotb current and voltage are increasecL Theefficiency and
power factor treDds identifieci previously indicare tbat at these
low speeds the four pule maclJine is likely to be more efficient
but have a lower power factor than a comparable two pole
machine.
1bus. if the volt-ampere input is not Iimited, lhe four pole
machine can produce more power at a bigber efficiency than a
two pole motor ai these low speeds. Howevc:r. it is possible
that if tbe volt-ampere input is limited, a four pule machine
may DOt be capable of prcducing as much output power as a
two pole machine ar a given speed despite baving a better
efficiency.
,
High Speed Torque and Power
,
)
)
At high speed., in the constant power regioa. tbe I
reactance bec:omes a very impoltallt factor in deten.. )
induction machine capability because of its role in limiting : ,
breakdown tarque. The design of me iour pole motor ntl ..
requires that the leakage reactance be limited to aIlow attaini',
high speed operation with a wide Constallt power region. ~
typically requires reducing me tmns anel lhos increases the fi\.iA
density, which impacts tbe bigh frequency core losses. r.)
decreased leakage reactance aIso increases the low arder ~
harmonic losses. The reduced turns also decreases ti:"
magnetizing reacrance wbich further WOISellS me power facr3
of the machine. Note tbat the changes in dcsign requjred ~
improve operation of a four pole mac:hine at higl! speed wo._
against everything which provides the low speed advantages ':)
the four pole macbine. Therefore, ar high speeds lhe two po~
m.acbine tends to be more ef:ficient, have much better pow....
factor and more easily allows a large constaot power regi":)
without compromising other aspects of overaIl performance. )
SPECIAL ASPECTS OF TWO POLE MACBINEf'.:)
Two pole macbines exhibit several features which lead f,Q,.
manufacruring and operating problems tbat are unique to tL~
Strllctural and magnetie properties of two pule machin~ 3
These include [1]: .
1) difficulty in me insertion of full pitcll, form wound como")
2) inadeqwIr.e rotor yoe spacc which often requires
smaller tban desiIed sbaft di;nnerers.
3) sevCle "curvaDm';cffects" in tbe design of
o. )
,
approprlar slot aDd tooth sbapes. .J
4) creatioa of sbaft aDd bearing flux as a result of unequal 34)
gap clear.mce. .,
S) more comp1ex behavior reJar.ed to UllbaJiIIC"ed radial )
magnetic puIl causecl by la eccemric r o t o r . )
SAMPLE D E S l G N S )
To ilIustrate me general trends discussed abov~ a pajr ota.
sample designs was carrled out for a rareei oUlpUt power of ~~
hp. In the sample designs. tbe stator outer diameter, stacJ'.3
length and air gap leagth are kept ideatical for both tbe fout..,.
pole and two pole motors in arder to have a base for th.. ~
performance comparison. For the reasons presented above. ~
tour pele motor bas a larger stuor bore aad fewer tuIDS. The""
turns were chosea such rbat tbe air gap flux densities in lhI.. . I
two machiaes were approximately equal for equal applier''3
vultages: Table 1 preseDts lhe principal dimensioos of lhe two~,)
macbiDes.
As soown in Table 2. tbe parameters of lhe two machi="o:.)
are in general agreement with the discussion of the precedia'-.
sections. 1be four pole motor has lower resistaDce an'--::'
magnetizing reacI3Dce while the totaIleakage reactance of thr-:)
two motors are nearly equal 50 as to obtain the same raage of.
constaot power operation. The parameter caleulatiom.:)
incorpor3lC satUration and tcIIlpCI3Dlre effects as CID be SCCD by
comparing the paramet.ers at different speeds in the table. ':,
0'
,)
 Table l. Prin . iDcluded. It is. however. iDterestiDg ~ note that wirh roughl~
Svmbol 00 eq~leata.P ramDCeS. me hanno~c losses in ~six s~
Do Swcr Ourside regIon ar higb speed would be essentially in me mio of tbe
Diamerer total resistaDcesof tbe machiDes whic:h. is abou& 1.5 at me
SworBore 110.6 nun 122.0 mm fundamenraJ freqaency. Since me frequency of tbe four pole
Dis
Diameter machine is aboUl two times tbat of tbetwo pofe machiDe.skin
65.0 mm 65.0 mm effeet would inc:reasc me foar poleresisrancebyabout"'2
Ie Stack Lengtb
wlch woald raughly c:ompeasare forthebigbcr lWO pole
Ns Pbase Winding 216 198 resistaDce yielding"roasbIy eqaaJ six srep harmonic losses.
Tums Table 4 presems me perfcrmaDce dais for cbe two motors
bI Sraror Toodl 29.9 mm 27.0 mm aad Fig. 2 10 Fig. 4 illusnre tbeperf01'ID3DCe c:omparison in
Hei gnphic:a1 form.' '
h2 RotorToolh 11.1 mm 10.0 mm
Heisrht Table 4. PerOlmaace Data of tbe 5 bp Morors

Swor Slol Widtb. 9.0 mm 6.5mm Raleei Tanp= IIp to 3SOO!plll

Romr SIOl Wiclrh 5.4 mm 6.0 mm Rarm Power Aboft 3500 r'DID '

Swor Yoke Height 26.0 mm 23.2 rum Q)

Jmm) 1500 2SOO 3500 4500, 5500 6SOO 7500
Air 0.45 mm 0:45 mm
VolL c

(V) , 200 330 460 460 ~ ~ 460 i

Two Pole I
2
.{Q} .
1.07
.EfJid.,
(~)

76.4 84.5 87.7; 88.5 ~ 88.6' 81~6 ........

0.73
Cos+ .919 .898 .888 .923 .918 ".904 .884
.2-:~ p~~ I 1.40
0.87
10.81
113
I (A)
I
6.61 ~17 6.01 5.73
"

5.76 5.85 5.99

.,

'4;Jete
I I 287
137 I~:
, 1.10
0.79
. , Slip .065 .035 .025 .Q24 .025 .026 .m
I .,te
,4!le I 393
188 I~~ 1 10
0.79
, m
Sg
.673 .693 .698 .558' .453
.'"
.375 .316

' FCMII' . . .

TabJe 3 sbows lhe 1055 breakdown oi me two motors at Ema.

~e base speed of 3500 rpm. As poued out ia me above (~)

77.7 84.7 87.5 87.8 88.1 88.1 87~9
analysis. me foarpole motor has lower copper tosses but
igherwiadaF aDd imDlosses. eos. .843 .826 .118 .148 .855 .852 ' .839

Table 3. Loss Break Downll3SOO I

(A) 7.14 6.69 6.54 6.29 6.21 6.24 6.34

151.6 99.3 103.7

Stip .043 .024 .018 .018
. .018 .019' ~020
.
111.8 71.7 125.5 Bg
m .685 .696 " .700 .551 .448 .371 .315

10 COmpale tbe performance of lhe two DIOIDIS. me efficiency.

. Jwer faaor. iDput cum:maacl fIa deasity wae .calcuJated at
';fferent speeds. Below base speed.1be voJalbenz nmo was
tept CODSWlt anel me vol. ilKoft3sed as tbe specdiDcreased.
.bove tbe base speed lhe. voltap was kept C01ISWlL The
'tput power of lhe motors are equal to eaCb otber al ali
:eds; up to base speed the torque is nred tonpre aDCl above
..se speed lhe power is approximarely rar.ed power. In me
"ficiency calculadon the time barmonic losses are not
"From fig. 2 it caa be seea cbat ai low speeds me
faur pole
motOr bas biper effic:ieacy bUl ai bip speeds it tas lower
efficieacy.The.crossow:r is dose IOdIe base speed of3S00
rpm. As sbown ia Fia. 39 the toar po1e JIIOIDr" ~ bas
lower power facur lha tbe t'M) pole morcr. aad M . n:su1t me
iDput current cf. toar pole maror is bipcrtbaa Ibal of'tbe
cwo pole motor ..vim dIe ame ourput power mci tbe same
voltage. as sbowa ia Fia. 4.
 )
;)
The somewha1 unexpectcd sbape of the power factor curves. reqWred incn:ase in slip frequency causes tbe rotor cunen.J
showing bom a local minimum and a local maximum. c.an be
expiained as foUows. AI very low speeds the high power
factor is a rcsult of the effccts of swor resistance. In the
constant torque regioa below base speed. the flux is neariy
become more reacrive and tbe power factor again fa lJ '")
c:reaUng me local maximmn. '.
,.,
constant anel the power facror dimjnisbes as tbe speed iDcreases 7~~~--~----~----~~~~
because lhe stator resistance beccmes Iess and less significanL ~,

As me macbine moves imo me COIISWlt power region tbe flux }

reduces and the core bec:omes Iess saauared. 11s raults in In
iac:reasc in the magnetizing reactaDce whic:h Ic:ads to a higber
power faca creating me local minimmn near base speed. As
the madDe moves funher into me constaDt power region me
~r---~--~------~--~--~--~
---
<
c
4-pole Motor

~
=
to)
...
--
c

--
~85
~
EI

2-pole Motor

4-pole Motor
~
:I 6.0

g 5.5
a 2-pole Motor
)

e
W80 S.O
~
O 2000 4000 6000

7S
Specd (lpIIl)

fig. 4 Sraror Cmrea& 'Comparison

,
.J

J
1000 3000 SOOO 7000
'.)
Speed(rpm) CONCLUSlONS :)
Fi,. 2 EfticieDcy Comparison Tbere are iwpcx1:aDt 1nde-offs bclweeu two po1e aad fOt~
pole inductiOll madrines !ar 'Y8riable speed dme appI.ic:aIian,
0.96 aad it s impossible to coaclade tbat ODe pole number i~ ,
a1ways tbe beSl reprdIa$ o{ tbe dI:Iails of 1bc appiicatioa.
selaon cf poJe npm""
is bIsed OD dIe physical c:oasni~
'l1l',
. 0.92
EI 2-po1e Motor OD dimeasioas. mw:rta' VA raa:iq. aDd tbe required torque- "
speed ebaracb:ristics. MaDufacuIriD& cost wiII a1so Q!ways h'
-o
(J
a imponant facuJr 10 be tabu iDto 1CCOIUlt. The foUowiD'3
general swcmeDtS em provicle gaidaac:e in dJe selectiolJ..,

.'"
:I
~
0.88
betweea two ;md faur pote inductioa ma:hir.Jes for specific ap~
~~~ 3
~
cc: 1) Four pole motars bave lower willCllg resistance
ccasequeady J.ower copper 1aaes. ,
m.'
0.84 2) Foar po1e DIOUJr'S baw 10wer mapetizing racamce. ~
consequeDdy lower povc facrcr.
4-pole Motor 3) Four pole DIOIDIS bave Iower 'leakap iDductaDCe 3Il(-:)
cOllsequent1y ril bave higher time barmollic losse~
0.80 COEreSpOIKDg to Ibe PWM swiIcbins freqaeacy.
1000 3000 SOOO 7000 4) Four pole DIOIDrS bave bigber fimdamema1 frequenc:'3
for me same speeci lDd c:oasequemly Ibey usuaJly llaw bj...... ,
Speed (rpm) fundamemaI ftequcDcy imn Iosses
order time barmonics.
_mexe skiJl dfect ft
::.)
'

Fig. 3 Power Facr.or Comparison S) foqr pole motors geaeraDy blve bigber efficiency ~
low speeds but lower efficieacy high speeds. .
,
')
I',
~)
"
J
 6) Four peje mo[ors have higher power density if there is Ice =eddy cum:nt Joss coeffident
no volt-ampere input limiL If lhe volt-ampcre inplll is limited kh =bystereSis loss c:oefficient
a four poJe motor may llCX be capablc of prodllCillg as much . len =barmoaic wiDdiDg facror
OUEpUl power as a r:wo pele macbine aI a given speed because
of me lower power factor. Kp =coefficic:nt wbich depcnds oa wiDdiag pirch
7) Four pele motors are less sCllsitive lO air gap n = hamlOIlic: arder
inaa:uracies aud are generalIy more easily manufaaured.. Ns =numberofscries tumsperphase

P = pole Ilumber

In general. four pele machines wilI be advantageous for Pc = ccre 10$$

applicalions wilh a limized speed nmge adlor a high PWM

Ps = slot pmneanc:e

swiu:lng frequency. Two pele maclIines can offer improved

ovaaJI performance wIten a VCJY wide speed range is required
ancVor when a low PWM switcbing Dequeacy must be used.
pzz =z:igzag penueaace
tr = rorar radius

SI =stator sJot ngmber

NotatioD 'tp = pole pircb

B =fJux cIeIlsity
Bg = air gap fJux deDsity
Ois = sramr iDside ctiamefer . RefereaftS
f =fi:eqaency [I} H. C. I. de ]ona, AC Mgrgr QesilD. Hemispher
BC =eff'ecr:ive air pp lq1b PubJbhiDg CcanIioa. ln9
lo . =su.:~ 1eDgth .,.
[2] PIIilip L Alger. De N"Dm ofIgdg;tjqn Mirp. GcxdoJ
Lms =magDetizing iaduaance aad Brach Sc:ieDce pqt,Jjsfw. 1965
=
k . dimensicmal proporticma1ity constallt
[3] 101m L OJdeabmp, aacf SteveD C. Peat. "ScJecIion _
k 1 == wiDding factor
Desip cf aJa Jl~ Drivea Iaducon Meu fal" A Tr:acor
Cc = ead-wiuding djmemiOll coefficiCllt Drift Sys1a1".lEEEIIAS '.t\mmal Meeag. 1983

\
.,

,
)

,
)

}
.,
)
)
)
)
)

.:>
 Chapter3

PRINCIPLES OF SYNCHRONOUSMACmNES

3.1 Physical Structure

A round 70t07 machine has a unifonn air gap witha slotted stator and rotor as in Fig. 3.1-1. Three
symmetric sinusoidally distributed stator windings forming a balanced three phase set lie in the stator
slots. Each sinusoidally distributed winding produces a sinusoidal distribution of flux having P poles (P
even). The rotor slots accommodate one winding which sets up an approximately sinusoidally
distributed flux having P poles when excited with De current (field winding). Only the fundamental
component of the field distribution links with the stator fundamental field and the remainder can be
considered as leakage. Round rotor machines are generally large, high speed machines
(turbogenerators).

. Axis of Field Winding

(Rotor Direct Axis)

Axis of

Phasea
Field L~~~~
Winding

Fig. 3.1-1 Idealized Round-Rotor Synchronous Maehine

Salient-pole machines also have a symmetric polyphase set of stator windingsas above. The field
winding is formed by winding concentrated coils around projecting or salient rotor poles as in Fig. 3.1-2.
The air gap between the stator and rotor is therefore non-unifonn. Again, field nux which does not link

D. W. NovotDy, T. A. Lipo 1997

 Principies olSyuchronous ~I )

cause the field flux to approaeh a sinusoidal distribution and hedce

./
~eair gap ean be eonsidered to be ,
)

approximately sinusoidally distributed. Additional rotor windings (amortisseur windings) are often used
to improve the transient response of generators and to produce starting torque in synchronous motors.
These windings again talce the form of uniformly distributed bars connected by end rings similar to
,
,)

)
those of a squirrel-cage induction machine.

Axis of Field Winding

,
)

(Rotor Direct Axis) )

,,
,
)
,,
Axis of ,
)

Field _--r'i"'"
Winding
Phase a
,,
)

,
,
,
:)

"

::,
,)
j
Fig. 3.1-2 IdeaIized SalientPole Synchronous Machine
:)
)
3.2 Principie of Operation
'")
Excitation of the stator windings with balanced, sinusoidal vqltages produces a sinusoidally
J
distributed, constant amplitude rotating flux density wave. Rotation of the rotor in synchronism with
this rotating flux wave results in no net flux change in the rotor circuits and consequently no induced
rotor currents. Excitation of the field winding with De current produces P poles of rotor flux which
:,
,
.)
interact with the P stator poles to produce torque. In the case of a salient-pole machine, movement of ,)
the rotor by an angle relative to the synchronously rotating stator fiux wave produces a change in the ,)
amplitude of the stator flux and hence produces torque (saliency torque) even with zero field excitation. ')
With the rotor at any speed other than synchronous speed there is no synehronous torque although the ,)
machine may have induced rotor currents and develop induction motor type torques.

2
,)
,,
)
)
)
)
)
 PrincipIes of ~ynchronous Macbines
3.3 Equivalent Circuit of a Round-Rotor
'\, /
Machine
A simpIe equivalent eireuit of round-:-rotor machine operating in the steady-state ean be
developed by using the same concepts as used in Thevenin's Theorem in circuit theory. Fig. 3.3-1 shows
typical pIots ofopen-circuit voltage (OCC) and short cireuit current (SCC) measured at the stator
terminais as the field current is varied. The open circuit voltage is the Thevenin equivalent interna!
voltage Ei' When saturation is neglected this voltage ean be caIeulated directly in terms of field current
Itr as

(3.3-1)

where E i is the nns voltage and Lsr is the per phase mutual inductance between stator and rotor.

1.25

1.00 - - - - - - - -
I
I
I
.... I
I
~ 0.75 Short Circuit
"""
::3
Current
U
"""
o
~
.. 0.50

>
0.25

o
Field Current - Amperes
Fig. 3.3-1.0pen Circuit VoItage and Short Circuit Current Characteristics

A pIot of the ratio of the open-circuit voltage to the short-circuit current for the same field current
defines the Thevenin equivalent iIppedanee Zs at each operating point. The nominal impedance jg
obtained as the slope of the line from the origin to the point A for rated voltage as in Fig. 3.3-2. Tbe
resulting equivalent eireuit is given in Fig. 3.3-3. lt should be mentioned that the subject is

3
 )
PrincipIes of SynCbroDOUS Machines
)
)
Ys

:'Ope . ratlng p'

,

....
CIl

O I
I Olnt
at If= I fo
,

:>
G.)
!:lO
I
I
I ,
-:>
c=
.....
o
I
:)

U
.....

~
J
,
..
.)
::
a.,)
c- )
O
)
)
so
Short Circuit Current - Amperes ,)

Fig. 3.3-2 Volt-Ampere Characteristic of a Round Rotor Synchronous Machine ,

,
)

)
Zs = rs +jX s
)
rs jX s )
)
+
)
)
)

,,
)

,
Fig. 3.3-3 Per Phase Equivalent Circuit of a Round Rotor Synchronous Machine
,, )

actually more eomplex and more accurate methods of measuring the saturated synchronous impedanee 'li.
.,1
are available.
:)
An alternative approach to developing the equivalent eireuit for a uniform air gap maehine is to
:)
start with the eonventional induetion motor equivalent eireuit. At synehronous speed the slip is zero and :)
the equivalent eireuit rotor resistor r2/s beeomes an open eircuit implying (eorreetly) that there is no
'::)
indueed rotor eurrent. An injeeted de rotor current (the field eurrent) will appear in the eircuit as an ae e:,
eurrent souree of value IfrCNr INs) as shown in Fig. 3.3-4 (a). If lhe rotor portion of this eircuit is now ::)
eonverted from a eurrent source with a parallel reaetanee to a voltage source with a series reactance the :)
4 :)
')
')
"

)
)
 Principies ofSynchrooous Machine$
result is as shown in Fig. 3.3-4(b) which is clearly in agreement with Fig. 3.3-3. Note that this approach
makes it clear that the series reactance in Fig. 3.3-3 is the reactance resulting from the totalflux
produced by the stator current. In induction motor tenns it is equal to the sum of the leakage reactance
and the magnetizing reactance and is therefore typically much larger than the usual 0.10 pu stator
leakage reactance associated with induction motOIS. Theair gap portion (the magnetizing reactance)
depends inversely on the air gap length and this is the principal dimensional parameter controlling the
value ofXs .

jX 2

(a)

rI j <eLs =j(Xl + )J

(b)

Fig. 3.3-4 Derivation of Round Rotor Synchronous Machine Equivalent Circuit from the
Induction Machine Equivalent Circuit

5
 Principies of Synchronous Machines
3.4 Torque-Angle Curve of a Round-Rotor Machine
As noted in Fig. 3.3-3 the internal voltage E i is, in general, displaced from the tenninal voltage by
,
an angle (the torque angle). In large machines the stator resistance is typically small compared to the
stator reactance and can be neglected leading to a simple and useful power expression in terms of V s' :Ej
,,
)

and . With Is == O the current into the machine is ,,

0 8
- _ Vs eJ -:qeJ _ V s _90 _ Ei .(-90o)
Is - X - X e:J X eJ (3.4-1) )
J s s s
)
or, solving for the component of 15 in phase with Vs
)

Ei ,(CO: 90
Is cos9s == - Xs cos u -
Ej. co:
) == - Xs S10 u (3.4-2) ,
)

This result can also be easily deduced from the phasor diagram shown in Fig. 3.4-1 where the vertical .:>
)
distance between the phasor Vs and the tip of Ej is expressed in terms of as Ej sin and in terms of 9s
as IsXs cos es . The minus sign in Eq. 3.4-2 is a result of arbitrarily taking as a negative quantity for
motor operation when Ei lags Vs.
,:;,
)

,)

)
)
)
)
----~~-----'

)
)

,
)

.)

Fig. 3.4-1 Phasor Diagram of Round otor Synchronous Motor )

)
)
The power flow into the machine is
)
P s == 3Vsls cos es (3.4-3)
and using the result in Eq. 3.4-2 yields
,
)

V E )
P s =-3 Xls sin (3.4-4) )
Since no power is supplied to the field from the stator, and with rs =O, this is also the output power at )
the machine shaft. When is negative P s > O which corresponds to motor operation. Conversely, when )
is positive the machine is generating. The torque is equal to the power divided by the synchronous )
mechanical speed roef(P/2) )
)
6 )
)
)
)
:>
)
 Principies of Synchronous MaclaiDes

T = Ps (3.4-5)
e IDJcPl2)

(3.4-6)

Fig. 3.4-2 gives a pIot of shaft torque vs. torque angIe as de:fined by Eq. 3.4-6. Thepeak torque Tem is
eal1ed the pull out torque.

(3.4-7)

Stability ----I~I

Limit

GeD:~rating
8>0
Stable Unstable
~

Unstable StabIe

Motoring

<o

...._ _ _Stability
,...., Limit

Fig. 3.4-2 Torque-Angle curves for a Round Rotor Synchronous Machine

The power and tarque ean also be expressed in tenns of E i Is and the internal power factor angle y
between Ei and 1s. The results are
Ps =3Ei Is eosy (3.4-8)
and

 ,
,~

,,
PrincipIes of Synchronous Machines
)
P EjIs
T e =3 2 - - cos"'{ (3.4-9)
ooe
These last two results are useful when the machine is operated from a controlled current source as is ,
often the case in machines driven by power electronic controllers.
,,
J

3.5 Phasor Diagrams for Round-Rotor Machines

The behavior of synchronous machines is most readily visualized in terms of phasor diagrams :)
showing the various stator quantities. In most cases the computations necessary to evaluate machine )
performance are simpler and more direct if the geometry of the phasor diagram is exploited than if the )
phasor equations are used directly.
,
)

,
J

)
)
)
)
:)
)

b) Motor with lagging cuuent

)
a) Motor with leading current
(overexcited) (underexcited) )

,
)

)
)

,)

,)

)
c) Generator with leading current d) Generator with lagging current )

(overexcited) (underexcited) )

Fig. 3.5-1 Phasor Diagrams of Round Rotor Synchronous Machine for Constaot Terminal
Voltage and Current
, )

)
)
8
, )

.)

,
)

)
 Principies of Syncbronous Machines
Fig. 3.5-1 shows examples of the voltage and current phasor relationships for both motoring and
generating conditions. When connected to a fixed voltage, fixed frequency supply, leading or lagging
power factor operation is possible in either mode by proper control of the field excitation as will be
explained in the next section. Note that the torque angle and power factor angle 6s are measured from

3.5.1 Constant Power Loci for Round-Rotor Machines

In large machines the stator resistance has little effect on performance and can often be neglected
(except for efficiency caIculations). Fig. 3.5-2 shows the voltage-and current phasor relationships for
motor operation with the stator resistance neglected. With a constant input voltage and frequency, the
locus of the tip of the current phasor and of the tip of the internaI voltage phasor for constant power
(input or output with rs =O) are the two straight lines shown in the figure. These fines resuIt since the
quantities Is cos 6s and q sin both represent power when Vs is constant The transition from point (1)
with a Iagging power factor to point (2) with a leading power factor is the result of an increase in field
excitation and the resulting increase in Ei . Operation at a leading power factor is referred to as
o\"erexcited operation since it requires..a.large fieldcurrent. In effect,the magnetization being.supplied
by the field winding is more than required to generate the terminaI voltage and the machine takes
demagnetizing (leading) current on the stator side to compensate.

I
I Locus of I for
;/constant Power

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I IsXscos6 s =Ei sin
I
I

II 6 s2 I"
I

: Ei2
-------------- ----,------------
q) '" Locus ofEi for 2
Constant Power

Fig. 3.5-2 Phasor Diagram of Round Rotor Synchronous Machine Showing Constant Power Loci

 PrincipIes of SYDchronous Machines

Figure 3.5-3 illustrates the transition from one power leveI at point (1) to a second, higher power
leveI at point (2) with no change in fieId excitation. In this case there are two sets of constant power Ioci
,,
and the transition occurs with a constant value ofE i . Note that the change in power (increased load on ,
the motor) results in increased current and an improved power factor. lf the originalIoad point had a
lagging current (underexcited), an increase in load wi1l generally increase the current but make the
power factor worse (more Iagging) as can be easily verified from a diagram similar to Fig. 3.5.3. The
,,
,)

curves of stator current versus field current for alI possible loads are called the V-Curves and a typical

set is shown in Fig. 3.5-4. The minimum current for any loading occurs at unity power factor and results ,
)

in the minimum points of the V's on the figure. Leading power factor is to the right in the "overexcited"

portion of the figure. ,

:

J
PI P1 )
:~ Locioflfor
J
.-


i ' Constant Power
:,
)

I
I
I
, )

I
1
J
"IIiI:~-...oIj!""----......-
IVs
....."""--""''''''~ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ",
,
)

)
)
)
,,
PI
I
I
,
.)

---:::~~-~:~-r---r-- )
Constant power\ Ej 1 =E i2 )
)
------------~-----------------G)
)
.)
)
Fig. 3.5-3 Phasor Diagram o Round Rotor Synchronous Machine Showing Influence of
Change in Loading ,)

}
,)
)
10 )
)
).
)
)
)
 Prindplesof Synchronous MachiBes

Line of Unity
Power Factor

Stability _
Limit ----......

t
Stator
Current
150% Load

Leading

Field Current ...

Fig. 3.5-4 V-Curves of Round Rotor Synchronous Machine

3.6 Salient-Pole Macbines

Unlike the symmetrie magnetie situation in a round rotor machine, in a salient pole machine the
armature reaction mmfencounters a different reluctance in the various different angular directions
associated with operation at different power factors. This situation ishandled by resolving the total mmf
into two components, one aligned with the field poles and one orthogon:t to this direction. Because the
component of stator mmf whieh produces fiux aligned with the salient field poles ean produce much
more flux than the component in the orthogonal d.ireetion, it is associated with a larger reactance than the
component nonnal to the pole and a simple steady-state equivalent eircuit for a salient-pole machine
does not existo The machine is best described directly in terms of a phasor diagramo

3.6-1 Phasor Diagram of Salient-Pole Machine

In order to construct the diagram flIStconsider again the round-rotor case illustrated in Fig. 3.6-1.
The voltage vector Ei arises from rotor field current and since, from Faraday's law, tbe voltage leads the
flux producing it, the direction normal to and lagging Ei is the field fiux axis (direct-axis or d-axis).
The direction normal to and leading the d-axis is the direction along which Ei is aligned. Tbis direction
is called the quadrature axis or q-axis. The components of the phasor 'fs along the two axes can now be
located. In the case of a round-rotor machine the reactance encountered by the d- and q-axis current
components is the same, i.e., Xs. In the case ofthe salient-pole machine these two reactances are

11

 Principies of Synchronous Maebines

,
)

different. Since the q-axis is in the direction of the interpolar space Xcis > Xqs ' The per-phase phasor
diagram of the salient-pole machine readily follows as shown in Fig. 3.6-2.
,
)

,,
)

,.,

~=---_--"-or-------"'''''---'''''''
-
EI
-------
q-axis

:)

"'
:)
)

I d-axis
,
,)

:)
)
Fig. 3.6-1 d and q Axes Located on the Phasor Diagram of a Round Rotor Synchronous Machine.
,
)

)
)
:)
}
)

-
E
I
q-axis ,, )

)
)

,.
)

d-axis ,
Fig. 3.6-2 Phasor Diagram of a SalientPole Synchronous Machine.
)
)
One difficulty which can arise in using the phasor diagram is locating the q-axis. For example, if
:)
the terminal voltage, current and power factor are known the frrst step is to locate the q-axis so the
:)
current can be resolved into the two components ~ and Iqs. lt is not clear from the diagram in Fig. 3.6
.)
2 how this ean be aecomplished. The addition of the phasor ji;;Xqs in Fig. 3.6-3 provides a solution :)
since the end of this phasor at point A in the figure lies on the q-axis. While point A is indispensable in :,
locating the q-axis, it has no physical significance beyond being on the axis. Onee point A is located the :)
12 ~,

.:)
:,
')
"

:)
 . Principies ofSynchroaousMadnes
current components can be found and the solution proceeds as in Fig. 3.6-2. One can also use the
geometry ofFig 3.6-3 to deduce the length ofthe segment BA =lcisCXcis - Xqs) and thus fmd the value
of Ei from the amplitudes of OA and BA in the figure

(3.6-1)

q-axIS

BC= IdsXds AC::= IdsXqs

BA = Ids(Xds- X qs )
d-axis

Fig.3.6-3 Phasor Relation Between Terminal Voltage and q-Axis of a Salient-Pole Machine.

3.6-2 Measurement of Xds and Xqs

The simple Thevenin equivalent circuit approach used in SectioIl3.3 can be extended to salient
pole machines. ,The open circuit voltage again defines the Thevenin equivalent voltageEi' The ratio of
open crrcuit voltage to short crrcuit current again defines a V-I characteristic as shown in Fig. 3.6-4. The
slope of this characteristic defmes ~s. The measurement of Xqs is more diffi.cult since the q-axis
eontains no Thevenin internai voltage. The impedance ean be measured by applying an externai voltage
by the test set up shown in Fig.3.6-5. The q-axis is Iocated by phase shifting the applied voltage until a
current maximum is located. This phase shift is then maintained and a pIot of applied voltage to
measured current obtained as illustrated in Fig. 3.6-4. The slope ofthis curve is Xqs '

3.6-3 Torque-Angle Curve for a Salient-Pole Machine

Again with rs = 0, the power into the machine is

Ps =3Vsls eos as (3.6-2)

=3Vs(Iqs cos + Ids sin ) (3.6-3)

13

 Principies of Synchronous Machines

,
)
,,
,,
EI - - - - - - - - - - - -

'o . peratmg P'

at lf= Ifo
omt
,
V E
X = _ds =_1
ds lds ldso
,,
)

q-axis
,,
,
)
,
Idso
Short eireuit Current - Amperes
,,
)

Fig. 3.6-4 d- and q- Axis Volt-Ampere Characteristics for a Salient-Pole Synchronous Machine.
,
)

"

)
)

Auxiliary
Synchronous
Machine
Synebronous
Machine
UnderTest
,,
)

Three - __- - - r :)
Phase --+-.,..----1
Supply --+--+-r---\
" )

,
:)

Variae Phase
Shifter
, ~'

)
)
Fig. 3.6-5 Test Connection to Measure X qs )
)
,)
)

,,
,)

14
,, )

, )

:
 Principies ofSynchronous Machines
From the vector diagramo Fig. 3.6-2

V s cos = &+ Xdslcis (3.6-4)

Vs sin 0= - Xqslqs (3.6-5)
Substituting into Eq. 3.6-3

_ 3 Vs Ei . :: ~ V 2 CXcis - X gs) . 2 ::
P s-- (3.6-6)
X s sm u-2 s ~:xqs sm u
The torque is
T = Ps (3.6-7)
e mJ(PI2)

- 3P [V.sY.~ smu+2
Te-- . :: .!.V 2 CXcis -Xgs) .'. 2~]
S Y. y_ sm ,U (3.6-8)
2roe ~~ ~~6~S

The torque-angle curves defmed by Eq. 3.6-8 are shown in Fig. 3.6-6. The stability limit is now reached
before B=O.

Stability
Limit ----:~....."""-

-45

Fig. 3.6"() Torque-Angle Curves for a Salient-Pole Synchronous Machine in the Motoring Region.

15

3'~7 Variable Frequency Operation

PrincipIes ofSynchn>noos Machines
,,
)

Since a synchronous machine always operates at syncbronous speed the only means of speed
control is to vary the stator frequency. Unlike an induction machine which must operate at increased
,
)
slip frequency to provide increased torque, the synchronous machine only requires an increased torque
angle and maintains exact synchronism with the applied stator frequency for allloads within its stable
operating range. There is, therefore, no speed change associated with load changes and speed control is
,, )

as exact as the frequency control in the stator supply. ,,

3.7-1 Constant VoltsIHertz Operation
Below base speed operation is normaIly at constant voltslhertz as for an induction machine. The
,
)
internaI voltage E i is proportional to speed (and hence frequency) and thus automatically maintains

constant internaI voltslhertz if the field current is not altered. For a specific, fixed value of current the ,,

:)

IXs voltage drop is also proportional to frequency. Thus, if the Irs drop is small and can be neglected,
with constant voltslhertz input voltage and a constant current the voltage phasor diagram maintains its
. ,

shape and simply shrinks or grows in proportion to the frequency change. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.7- )
1 where it is c1ear that the frequency change ean take place.without altering the torque angle or the.
,),
power factor angle. 1t follows therefore that with these angles held constant the power input will change .)

in direet proportion to the frequency and the torque will be the same at any frequency. The actual torque )
,)
and power at the new frequency will of course depend on the load requirement at the new speed. The
)
important point of the discussn is that at constant voltslhertz the relationships between torque, current,
power factor and torque angle are unaItered by changes in the frequency. The only change is the size of
the phasors in the phasor diagram, the shape of the diagram is unaItered.
,
:)

, )

.)
)

-15 ,, )

,, ~.

E1 }
Base Frequency 50% of Base Frequency
, )

Fig.3.7-1 P.,asor Diagrams IDustrating Constant VoltsIHertz Operation )

)

The constant voltslhertz made of operation is thus very similar to the corresponding mode in an ,

induction machine. For any specified torque the machine will have the same current and power factor at )

J
16
,
)

)
)
:)
)
 Principles,of Syn~nous Macbines
the same torque angle for any frequency. The same is true in an induction machine except that the,(~lip
frequency plays the same role as the torgue angle and remains eonstant.
Fig. 3.7-2 illustrates the torque-speed characteristics which result from constant voltslhertz
operation. At each frequency the torque-speed eurve is a horizontalline extending from the maximum
negative torque for generator operation to the maximum positive torque for motor operation. The solid
portion of the curves represents the operating range within which the current is less than the rated
eurrent. As indicated in the phasor diagrams of Fig. 3.7-1, the operating torque range is independent of
frequency exceptfor very low frequeneies where the influence ofthe stator resistance becomes
significant and reduces the torque eapability. A detailed analysis of the effect of stator resistance is
presented in Seetion 3.7-4.

Solid Lines - Torque Available for ~< Rated fs

coe .
COa
Envelope
ofMaximum
-----------.....1.0'
----,-------
Generator
Torque
------------+------------
0.75

0.5
Envelope
ofMaximum
- - - - - - - - -------t----
0.25
Motor
Torque

-1.0 -0.5 O 0.5 1.0

Fig.3.7-2 Torque-Speed Curves for a Synchronous Machine Operated at Constant VoltsfHertz

3.7-2 Constant Voltage,Variable Frequency Operation .

Above base speed it is often necessary to operate at constant voltage because of the limitations of
the variable frequency supply. In this case the increase of the internal voltage Ej as the speed increases
would cause the phasor diagram to alter in shape. For a fixed current the effect is to cause the power
factor to become more leading as illustrated by the phasors Eit and lsl in Fig. 3.7-3. In this figure the

17

 Principies of SynChroDOUS Machines )

base speed phasor diagram is represented by the phasors EiO and IsO' Increasing the frequency to 1.5
.)
,,
times the base frequency will make the internai voltage Eil equal to 1.5 EiOand for the same current
amplitude the phasor current 1s1 results. Because ofthe leading angle of 1s1 the power input for the ,
higher frequency condition is less than at base frequency.
Constant power operation can be acbieved for the bigher frequency if the amplitude of EiO is ,,
appropriately reduced by reducing the field current. This is illustrated in .Fig. 3.7-3 by the phasor
which is adjusted such that the IsXs drop equaI to 1.5 IsoXso is accommodated at unity power factor. For
Ei2
,,
the case illustrated tbis requires a reduction in field current to 81 % of the initial value as the frequency is
increased to 150%. In general, the amount ofreduction depends on the value ofthe reactance X s and
,
will be different in different machines. ,,
)

~)
"
:)
J
:)

,)

J
j1.5 I sl Xso
,
.)

,
;)
)

)
)

Ei2= 1.22I Eiol&'"

)
,
If2 =0.81 I fo
,,
~

Fig.3.7-3 Phasor Diagrams Dlustrating Constant HP Operation

)

If the field current is adjusted to maintain a constant power factor (typica1ly unity or near unity), a
:
)
constant power region above base speed can be obtained. The torque available without exceeding rated
)
stator current falls inversely with the speed exactly like a dc machine. Unlike an induction machine this
:)
region is not electrically limited by eventua1ly reaching the maximum torque point. As illustrated in Fig. ;)
3.7-4. with proper field weakening the synchronous machine approaches but does not reach the :)
maximum torque point of its torque angle curve. :)
18 ,)
:,
:')'"
,)
,
:)
 PrincipIes of SynchroDO~ Machines

Solid Lines - Torque Available for 's< Rated Is

me
COa
3.0

Envelope 2.5 Envelope

ofMaximum ofMaximum
Generator ... Motor
Torque Torgue
2.0

1.5

1.0

-:LO -0.5 0.5 1.0

Fig. 3.7-4 Torque-Speed Curves for a Synchronous Machine Operating in the

Constant Power (Field Weakening) Region.

3.7-3 Capability Curves

Figure 3.7-5 illustrates typical capability curves for a synchronous machine. In the constant torque
region the machine is operatedat constant voltslhertz and constant field corrent. The developed torgue
for a given torque angle and CUITent is independent of frequency and bence rated torgue can be produced.
at any speed in this region without exceeding rated current.
In the constant power, constant voltage, field weakening. region the field current is reduced to
maintain operation at or near unity power factor. The power input at rated current is therefore cOIlStant
and the torque falls inversely as the speed. The maximwn torgue capability falls more rapidly initially
and approaches the rated current torgue curve in the limit of very large speeds.

3.7-4 The Influence or Stator Resistance

While neglecting the effects of stator resistance is usuaI1y acceptable in Iarge machines, in smaller
machines (especia1ly permanent magnet machines) and in a1l machines at low frequencies the resistance

19

 )
Principies of Synchronons Machines
has important effeets. To examine the influenee of rs' a modified form of the torque expression in Eq.
3.4-6 incorporating Is will be obtained.
,, )

)
)
)
Constant
Volts/Hertz
-_..~ ~--------- Constant
Voltage
......
--------II_~ )

Envelo~
of
,
)

)
Maximum Torque
)
E )
c::
Torque Capability ~,
at
,,)
Rated Current
~)

"
Constant Torque
at J
Constaot Torque Angle ,)
and
Constant Field Current
Constant Powe;r-------==
at
Increasing Torque Angle
With
,
>
)

O~----------------~--------------~~--~------------~
2~
Field Weakening
3IDR

Speed - radlsee
)
,
)

Fig. 3.7-5 Capability Curves for Synchronous Machine Operated from a Controlled ,
}

Variable Frequency Supply )

)
For simplicity the development will be for a round rotor machine; the behavior of salient pole ;
machines is qualitatively similar but the resulting expressions are much more eomplieated. The power
deli vered to the internai voltage E j. (see Eq. 3.4-8) correct1y represents the developed power Pd in a
round rotor machine (but not in a salient pole machine) and will be the starting point of the derivation.

(3.7-1)

With E i as referenee phasor the current ean be expressed as

(3.7-2)

from which the component of Is in phase with Ej ean be written as

20
 PrincipIes ofSynehronous Maebines

V E
Iseosy= ZS cos(---,4-Zleos(..,-4
s' s
V E
= Z s eos ( + 4 - Z I eos 4> (3.7-3)
s S

where <I> is the angle of the stator complex impedance Zs. The developed power ean then be expressed in
theform

(3.7-4)

which can be simplified by observing that

r
cos cp =~ (3.7-5)

and w~th 4> =90 - a (where a = sin -1 (rA))

tS
cos (o + cp) =cos (o + 90 - a) =- sin ( - a) ~S~ =-"fr. (3.7-6)
Eq. 3.7-4 becomes ~

C' _hl ti- - ($

b""'Vl - "i;(3.7 -7)

Note that this result reduces to the simpler one in Eq. 3.4-4 containing only a sin oterm when the
resistance is zero. Compared to the simpler result, the effect of the resistance is to phase shift the sin 8
term and to subtract a constaot at all values Q. . Figure 3.7.-6 illustratesthe nature of the power-angle
. ~

curve when the resistaoce has a significant effect. From the figure or from Eq. 3.7-7 it is clear that the
peak motoring power is redueed by the amount of the eonstant term 3Er r/'4? and occurs when - a =
- 90' rather than at 8 = - 90.
The torque is obtained from Eq. 3.7-7 by dividing by the synchronous mechanicaI speed (21p)coe

(3.7-8)

Since the variation of the torque as a function of frequency at low frequencies is a major concem, it
is useful to examine Eq. 3.7-8 in some detail. To simplify the work, and make it more general. it is
useful to eliminate some of the terms in the equation by nonnalizjng with respect to the idealized peak
torque for a maehine with zero resistance, Tom' where Tom is equal to

(3.7-9)

21
 ,

Principies ofSynchronous Machines

,
)

)
,,

2
E1 r s

Z~
,

,,

,
)

,,

)
)
I ,

Fig. 3.7-6 Power-Angle Curves for Synchronous Machine Showing Intluence of Resistance ,,

:)
The resulting norm.alized torque equatio~ is
)

(3.7-10) ,

::)

J
where )
,)
(3.7-11) .., .'~

Algebraic manipulation allows expressing Eq. 3.7-11 in terrns of the non-dimensional parameters rlXs '",

')
and EjNs
)
,)
(3.7-12) ~)

,)

;)
Figure 3.7-7 illustrates this result for Xslrs from 100 to 0.2. The reduction in peak torque and the shift in
"

it's angular location at lower values of X/rs are clearly evident. A somewhat surprising result is that the
."

22 :)
,
)

, )

,)
 ----------,,,,. ----_.,. ------~ ---

Prindplesof SyncbroDous MachiDes

100 - - TI - - - - - - - -
I

,....I----......- ------,-----+-----... ~ 900

I

50 --T------- I

~~----~--------~------~~----
I
__... 89
: Ei = 1.5 .... I
I~ I S I I
I
I
I
30 - - + - - - - - -
I I --------~--------~--------~------
I I
I I I I
I I I I

20 - - I- - - - - -
I . ~~------~--------~------~~----~~87
I
I Peak to Pek Torque
E' ,
I
I ,! =1.0
I S I
-- ... ----
I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
Xs 5 --~--- ~~~--------~--------~~--------~--~~79~-
I I I
I I I
I I I
I I I I I I __
3--4--
I
~---~---~----~--~-----+--------~
I I
I
I
I I
_ _ _ _ _ .L

I
I
I
I
+IIIII1---~----------~--------
I
... I
-----~ ...Jt/r63D- - - - - I
_L - -.
I
I
I
I
I
I I

I l--t::~----i-'
: I I
a) Maximum Torque: .
~.1 I
0.5- - t- ------ - I
I
--~. .- - . . ; _ - - - _ ; . -. .~27-----~----
I
----r- I
I ~ Generator Motor ~ I
I . I
I
03--r--------r-----
I
I
--------T--------r-I

I I
I

I I I
I I I I
0.2 - - r - -
-1.5
- - - - - - "" - - - - - - - - I-
-1.0 -0.5 O
------ ... --------~_.
1.0
0.5
Normalized Torque
Fig.3.7-7 Infl.uence of Stator Resistance on the Torque-Speed Curves for a SynchronousMacbine
Operated at Constant VoltsIHert2:

23
 Principies of Syncbronoos Machines
)
motoring torque can disappear entirely as shown by the curve for EiNs = 1.5 in Fig. 3.7-7. Below the
)
frequency where X/rs =1.0 this curve is entirely in the generating region. Note that this phenomenon

is enhanced by larger values of E iNs and is therefore associated with the ability of a sufficient1y large
,,

,,

internaI voltage to create a phasor diagram in which the power delivered to E i is always negative. In
practice this only occurs at very low frequencies and is of no real concem except possibly in small
permanent magnet machines.
)

3.8 Transient Behavior ,,

)

When the machine has no damper (amortisseur) winding. fast machine transients can be handIed in
the same manner as for induction machines by considering the field flux linkage to remain constant. ,
3.8-1 Transient Reactance and Voltage Behind Transient Reactance
)
,,
Let X'ds be the reactance viewed from the d-axis of the stator terminais with the resistances set
equal to zero and the field short circuited.
,,
)
(3.8-1)
)
,
where
,
)

(3.8-2) ::>
::>
)
and Xfr is the field self-reactance. The quantity X'ds is called the direct-axis transient reactance.
)
Since the fieid flux linkages fr are taken to be constant. that portion of fr which produces air gap
)
flux is aIso constant. The resulting voltage E'q is a sinusoidal quantity and is called the voltage behind
J
transient reactance
j
,)
(3.8-3) )
J
where the ~ is inc1uded to give the.rms vaIue ofE'q' The constant value offield flux linkage to use in :J
..)
Eq.3.8-3 is that which exists before the transient has occurred and can be computed from the phasor
')
diagram which applies before the change from the equation
:,)

(3.8-4)
, )

,,)
")
The phasor diagram valid afier the change has occurred is shown in Fig. 3.8-1. )
24 ;)
)
)

,
)

.)
 PrincipIes of Synchronoos Macbines

q-axis
I
I
I
I
lcts
Is

d-axis

Fig. 3.8-1 Phasor Diagram of a Salient-Pole Synchronous Machine Valid after Sudden Changes

3.8-2 Transient Torque-Angle Characteristics

From Eq. 3.8-1 note that X'cts is much smaller tban Xcis. This results in higher pull-out torque for
sudden loads than would occur for slowly applied Ioads. The torque-angle equation which applies
during transient operation isreadi1y obtained in the same manner as Section 3.6-3. The result is

- 3P [VsE'g . ~ .!V-'(X'ds-Xgs) . 21:::]

Te-- (3.8-5)
X' smu-2 s X' y_ sm u
2coe ds ds-qs

A typical torque-angle curve for the transient case compared with the: nominalsteady-state curve is
shown in Fig. 3.8-2. It should be mentioned tbat without field regulation this additional available torque
is on1y temporary. The transient currents induced by the sudden change decay with the time constant

(3.8-6)

Figure 3.8-3 shows a machine swingin the torque-angle plane. Note that although the machine surviveS
tbe frrst swing it eventually pulls out of step as the large transient torque decays to tbe steady state value.

3.9 Dynamic Behavior

.,Wbereas steady-state rotor oscillations do nol often occur with induction machines when
connected to a stiff ac bus, the same is not true of syncbronous machines. Whenspeed is adjusted
25

 ,,
Principies 01 Syndaronous MachiDes
)
~O --------t--------~-------}-------~----- )

,
I I I
I I I )
' I I I
Copstant Eq~ I I

,,
I I I I
I I I )
I I I
3~ --------~------- -------~--- ----~----
I

I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
::I
o..
I
I
I

-------1-- ----r-------,------- I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,
)

,
I

I I
r---- )
I
I I I

,,
J I I
I Constant Ei )
I I
I I

1.0 - - ---
I
-1--------1-------
I
I
I
I

I
I
I
.JI ________ L_
I

I
I
I
,,
I I I
I I I
I
)

,
I
I )
I

O~--------~--------------------~------------~~
O )
Torque Angle B - electrical degrees

Fig.l.8-2 Steady-State and Transient Torque-AngIe Curves

,,
)

)
)
)
3.0 .)
)
::I
o.. ,)
2.0 o
)'
:,,
::I
8"
~

1.0 :,)
:,)

,,
)

-540 0
-450 0 _360 0
-270'
Torque Angle 0- electrical degrees
O

I ,
)
Fig. 3.8-3 Step Change in Load Torque from Oto 2.5 Per Unit
)
26 )
)
)
)
)
)
 Principies of Synchronous Maddnes
by maintaining constant voltslhertz, instability regions can often be found, generally inthe motoring
region. A fulI dynamic model of the syncbronous machine results in a non-linear seventh order system.
For stability studies the mode! can be linearized and a pIot of the characteristic roots utilized to examine
the factors affecting stability. The results indicate the same general behavior as for an induction
machine:
1) the macbine has a pai! of complex stator peles having a frequency component proportional to
line frequency. These peles enter the right half plane if instability OCCUfS.
2) a pair of complex rotor peles resulting from damper currentshaving much bigher damping.
3) a real pole produced by the field circuit time constant,.
4) unlike the induction machine a pai! of complex mechanical peles resulting from the
electromechanical swing of the machine torgue angle during transients.
Contours of constant damping indicate minimum damping occurs in the motoring region. Fig.3.9-1
shows such a pIot where the parameter M m is the maximum resonant peak related to the damping ratio
"zeta" by

1
Mm = - - - - (3.9-1)
2~
Parameters having the greatest affect on stability are 1) the saliency ratio ~ tXqs. 2) the excitation
ratio E:fVs ' 3) the stator resistance andq-axisrotorresistanceand4) the rotor inertia

0.75
2.5
0.50 2.75

0.25

5.
I
0.8 0.9 1.0
Q) Frequency - pu
&-0.25 2.75
15
E-<
-0.50

-0.7
-
-1.0

-1.25
Fig. 3.9-1 Contow"S of Constant Damping for a Salient-Pole Synchronous Machine

27
 PrincipIes ofSyncbronous Machines
3.10 Synchronous-Reluctance Motors
Synchronous-reluctance motoIS are widely used in adjustable speed drives where speed must be ,,
adjusted but accurately regulated. It is in principIe simply a salient pole synchronous motor without a
field winding although the rotor construction is usually much more complex in an effort to obtain a high
saliency ratio XdslXqs .
,
)
)
3.10-1 Physical Construction
)

,
The stator is wound conventionally with tbree sinusoidally distributed windings. The rotor is
)
constructed in a variety ofways generally employing some type offlux barrier so that the flux in the q
axis of the machine is much less than in the d-axis. Typically. the rotor is then die cast as in an
induction machine so that aluminum fills the barriers although this operation is not essential if line start ,,
)

capability is not required. A typical rotor punching is shown in Fig. 3.10-1. There are a large number of
variants of the structure shown in the figure, a1l aimed at large values of the saliency ratio ~fXqs. The ,,
axially laminated structure in Fig. 3.10-2 yields excellent saliency ratios but is expensive.
,
)
,,
)
Flux )

)
,
)
}
)
)
)
)
)

, )

}
)
)
)

- Magnetic Material
,
)

Fig. 3.10-1 Typical Rotor Punching for a Synchronous - Reluctance Motor ,

"'
)

28 }
)

,
,
 Principies of Synchl"OllOUS l\fachines

Flux Barriers Cast aluminum)

d-axis

_ - Magnetic Material

_ - Structural Material

Fig. 3.10-2 Axially Laminated Rotor for a Synchronous - Reluctance Motor

3.10-2 Phasor Diagram and TorqueEquation

If present, the cast aluminum rotor conductors permitstarting by induction motor action.
However. during normal steady-state operationtorque is developed at :synchronous speed entirely by
means of the saliency of the rotor. The rotor will tend toalign itself to ,a minimum reluctance position
with respect to the stator flux.
The phasor diagram. is readily cbtained from Fig. 3.6-2 by setting E i = O. The result is shown in
Fig. 3.10-3a for zero stator resistance and in Fig. 3.10-3bincluding stator resistance. Point A, located by
subtracting jIsXqs from Vs locates the q-axis as in the salient pole machine. The torque equation is also
obtained from salient pole synchronous machine theory by setting Ei = Oin Eq. 3.6-8 to yield

29
 ,,
.1

,,
Principies of SynchronoDS Machines

,,
,,
./
./
.... ....
.... ....
.... ,
,,
./
'd-aus
./

.
.... ....
,
, ....
, ....
" .. q-axis
,
)

)
(a) zero stator resistance )
)
Ui)

,
;)

-I ds ./ ./'
)

,,
"" ....
.... .... "

,
....
./ .... , .... )

,,
./

/ .... ... )
./d-axis "
" ... :)
.. q-axis
)
(b) including stator resistance )
)
Fig. 3.10-3 Phasor Diagram or a Synchronous-Reluctance Machine )
)
,)
,)
(3.10-1)
)
for the case of zero stator resistance. In Fig. 3.6-6 the curve wbere EfVs'= O is the torque-angle curve
for a reluctance motor with zero stator resistance.
, )

The developed torque including tbe influence of tbe stator resistance can be found by methods )
)
similar to that used to derive Eq. 3.7-8 and is given by
)
l

,
)

;)
;)
)
30 )
)
)
)

,)

 Principies of Synchronous Machines

Note that this equation reduces to Eq. 3.10-1 when rs = O and that, like the corresponding situation for a
syncbronous machine (Eq. 3.7-8), the effect ofresistance is to subtract a constant torque andto phase
shift the curve such that Te = Odoes not occur at = O.
The phasor diagrams in Fig. 3.10-3 indicate that the stator current in a synchronous reluctance
motor is always lagging the q-axis by the angle "{leading to generally low power factors. When
resistance is neglected, the angle "{ ean be caIculated from the equation

V s eos
1. Y. y __ cos
tan Y =~ = ~"<ls =~ -"- (3.10-3)
Iqs V s sin Xw. sinS
X qs

At the peak torque point of =45 this reduces to

/'~----~
X
~~Y=~' (3.10-4)

-............--------- ._---------_.~

resulting in a power factor angle of

(3.10-5)

which clearly indicates the importance of the saliency ratio in determining power factor as well as
torque. Figure 3.10-4 illustrates the phasor diagram of the synchronous reluctance machine operating at
the pullout torque point with = 45 .

" " ",

," " ", ,

d-axis
",
"
,
", ,
",q-3XIS.

Fig. 3.10-4 Phasor Diagram 01 a Synchronous ReluctaDce Machine at Pellout Torque

31

Principies ofSynchronous Machines )

3.10-3 Equivalent Circuit

Although it has generally been stated that a simple equivalent circuit for salient pole machines does
)
,,
not exist, a circuit model for the synchronous reluctance machine has recently been presented[ 1]. The
,
,,
circuit has value in comparing the synchronous reluctance machine to an induction machine ofthe same
)
size as well as helping to make clear the significance of the size of Xqs and ~s in determining the
properties of the synchronous reluctance machine.
The development of the circuit is accomplished by expressing the power component (in phase with
Vs) and reactive component (90 lagging Vs) of the stator current in terms of V s' o, Xqs and X ds ' The
0
)
,,
first step is to write the two current components in terms of Iqs and I<fs (see Fig. 3.10-3a and recall that
8 is negative for motor action) ,,
Is cos e =Iqs cos o + ~s sin (3.10-6) )

(3.10-7)
,,
)

FromFig.3.10.3a
,
V s cos 0= ~Xds (3.10-8)
,
::)

:)
(3.10-9)
::,
SoIving for the currents Iqs and ~ and substituting into Eqs. 3.10-6 and 3.10-7 yields ,,
)

I o V s sin cos o V s sin ocos

scosu= 1C + X (3.10-10) ~)
~-qs ds
)
J
I . e V s sin2 V s cos2
s sm = y~
4'"qS
+ X ds
,)
)

(3.10-11) ,
.l

)
where the last line of Eq. 3.10-11 is obtained by adding and subtracting Vs sin2 lXcis to the frrst tine and )
using the identity sin2(i + cos2(i = 1. ,
Combining the two current components to obtain the phasor stator current yields j
:)
Is = Is cos H-jIs sin e .)
=-j;
...
~ ~s
- V s [Xl
qs
- xl
eis
] sin (cos + j sin 8) (3.10-12) , :)

32 , )

)
J

,,
)
 Principies of SynchroDOUSMadrlnes
The trigonometric term in this expression can be manipulated as follows

sin 8 ecos + j sin 8) =sin (e j ) = sin .~

. e -.lu

sin 1
= cos 8 - j sin 8
=
cot - j 1
(3.10-13)

and the term involving Xqs and Xds can be replaced with a new p~am.eter Xp where

1 1 1
(3.10-14)
X p =Xqs - Xcis
or
(3.10-15)

The phasor equation for i's can now be written as

I =_.~_ Vs =.Vs + ___V......s'---_ _ (3.10-16)
s :J Xds Xp (cot 8 _ j 1) J ~ Xp (- cot 8 + j 1)

The circuit described by this result is shown in Fig. 3.10-5 where thecot has been replac~by tan to
emphasize the relationship with the induction motor crcuit model.

Fig. 3.10-5 Equivalent Circuit of a Synchronous-ReluctanceMachine

The similarity of the synchronous reluctance motor equivalent circuit to that of the induction motor
is striking. The direct ax.is reactance Xds is the equivalent magnetizing reactance of the reluctance motor
while the reactance X p is equivalent to both the leakage reactance and the rotorresistance of the
equivalent induction machine. The tan is equivalent to the slip frequency of the induction machine.
The obvious parallels between the induction machine equivalent circuit and the syncbronous reluctance

33

 Principies oI Synchronous Mac:hines

,
}

motor equivalent circuit provide a useful background of experience when dealing with synchronous f
reluctance motor issues. For example. the peak torgue will occur when the apparent rotor resistance
-Xpltan 8 is egual to the Thevenin impedance seen looking back toward the source. For ideal voltage
source excitation. this impedance is zero in parallel with X ds ' the combination in series with Xp ' Thus,
,
)

)
when the source impedance is small compared with Xp, the Thevenin impedance reduces to jXp and the
peak torque occurs when ,
)

)
cot 8 = -1 (3.10-17)

which is in agreement with earlier results (Eq. 3.10-1). There is clearly the same advantage as in an
,, )i

induction machine to having a large Xds to minimize the magnetizing current and thus improve the

power factor. The peak torque given by , )

)
(3.10-18)
,)

,)'
demonstrates that X p plays the same role as the ttalleakage reactance in an induction machine and
,:)
should be minimized to yield a large peak torque. Note. that for ~ X qs the limiting value of X p 1S ,,)
equal to Xqs indicating the general desirability of making Xds as large as possible and X qs as small as
=
possible. For X qs = 0.2 and ~ 2.0, the peak torque production properties of a synchronous ,
:>
reluctance machine and an induction machine are roughly comparable since Xl + X 2 = 0.2 and X m
are typical values for a mid-size induction machine. Saliency ratios in the range of 6 to 10 are readily
=2.0
,,
':,
achievable with some of the modem rotor designs currently employed.
J
3.10-4 Variable Frequency Operation )
Below base speed in the constant torque region, operation at constant voltsJhertz results in a phasor
diagram which only shrinks whiIe maintaining its shape 50 long as the stator resistance is negligible.
..

,)
,
)

Motor pullout torque is again independent of line frequency when stator resistance is neglected. At low
)
frequencies the stator resistance begins to absorb a larger and larger portion of the applied voltage and
the pullout torque drops. Th~ torque-speed curves are similar to those in Fig. 3.7-2. Eq. 3.10-2 can be
used to determine the actual reduction in torque capability caused by the stator resistance.
,
)'

)
In the constant power region the synchronous reluctance machine behaves similar to an induction
)
machine in that, fron Eq. 3.10-8, the pullout torque falls like lIme2. As the machine moves to higher and
)
higher frequencies the torque angle can be increased to continue to use the full current rating of the
)
machine and power source. As in the induction machi.l1e. the power is only approximately constant since
the power factor varies as increases.Eventually the torque angle will reach the pullout point at = 45'
and the (approximately) constant power region ends. Beyond this point the capability curve follows the
,
)

)
lIme2 characteristic associated with operation at =45. )
)
34 )
)
)
)
)
)
 Principies of.Syncllronous Macbines

0.4
Pullout
Torque ' "
-

0.2

.....
'2
::3

"o"'
C.
I
O
o 0.2.
::3
8' - per unit
o
E-<

-0.2

-OA

-0.6

Fig. 3.10-6 Region ofInstability for a Synchronous-Reluctance Motor with Constant

VoltsIHertz Operation

3.10-5 Dynamic Behavior

Steady-state stability is again a problem when operating from an adjustable frequeney supply. Fig.
3.10-6 shows a typieal instability tegion.Poorest stability oceurs at n~loadin the neighborhood of 5 to
10 hertz. The principal parameters affecting stability are the salieney ratio X&' X qs , the rotor inertia J
and the q-axis rotor resistanee (east aluminum eage resistanee). Stability eanbe markedly irnproved' by
adjusting the salieney ratio so that it is small atno-Ioad where stability is pOorest and bigh at heavy loads
wbere it is most needed for torque produetion. This ean be accomplishe~d by use ofsaturating imn
bridges in the rotor (see Fig. 3.10-1). Fig. 3.10-7 indicates the d- and q- axis saturationcurves for such a
motor. Note that X ds =Xqs until the q-axis begins to saturate.

35

 ,
PrincipIes of Synchronous Madnes )

,,

,
)
1.0

Vds ,)

or )

Yqs )
(pU) )
)
0.5
')
:>
J
:"
)
:)
)
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
)
lds OI Iqs (pu)
,,)
"

Fig.3.10-7 d- and q-Axis Volt-Ampere Characteristics for a Synchronous-Reluctance Motor )

3.11 Permanent-Magnet Motors

,

,
)

This type of AC machine is increasingly used as a motor in servo applieations using rotor position ,,)
dependent switching of the stator currents to produce brushless de machines. To a lesser extent they are )
also applied in adjustable speed drives, but are generally limited to small sizes at present. Cost of the
magnets and rotor assembly has so far prevented widespread use.
,
)

3.11-1 Physical Construction

The stator is once again wound conventionally with three sinusoidally distributed windings. Some
"

,
)
small brushless de machines use concentrated cai! stator windings and supply trapezoidal stator currents
)
rather than sinusoidal currents. Rotors are constructed in a wide variety but generally fall into two
)
general classes. . In buried magnet designs the magnets are held in place by steel pole pieces or
)
keepers. Flux barriers guide the flux into the d-axis of the rotor. Qften the flux barriers and additional
)
rotor sections are filled with aluminum to produce a cage winding and induction motor starting torque.
A typical buried magnet rotor configuration with radially polarized magnets is shown in Fig. 3.11-1. It ,)

is also possible to arrange the structure to utilize circumferentially polarized magnets as shown in Fig.

36
,
)
)

)
)

,
)
)
 Principies of SynchronousMacbiDes

FluxB

d-axis

_ - Magnetic Material

~ Permanent Magnet Material

Fig. 3.11-1 PM Rotor Construction using Buried, Radially Polarized Magnets

3.11-2. This configuration allows the magnet area and the pole area to be signif!cantly djfferem., thus
providing a focusing ofthe magnetic field when low fiux density magnets are employed. Air gap
magnet designs are also used in which the magnets are fastened d.irectly on the rotor surface. In these
machines there is no damper structure and the machine does not produce any induction motor.starting
torque. Figure 3.11-3 shows the structure ofthis class ofmachines.

3.11-1 Magnetic Circuit ConsideratioDS

At present there are two types of permanent magnet materiais of interest for rotating machines;
ferrites and rare earths (Samarium-Cobalt or,N~odymium-Iron). Ferrites are the older of the two and are
characterized by low values of B (0.3-0.4 tesIa) and Iow cost while the newer rare earth types provide
much Iarger values of B (up to 1 tesla) but are much more expensive. Both materiais are characterized
by nearly linear demagnetization curves with slopes elose to !lo as illustrated in Fig 3.11-4. Note
thatusing the lower horizontal scale in units of JlJfrn' the slope of the demagnetization curves is unity.
The linearity and slope of Jlo means that these materials look like air to externaI applied fields; a fact
37
 ,)
PriIlclples of'Syuehronous Macbines
)
)

Flux JjaIner~
, )

,
)

)
)
, q-8XlS )

,
)

,
:>

::)
:)
:)
., .:>.

:,

ij,WAIII - Magnetic Material 'I

.,)

. ~ Permanent Magnet Material

,,
JJ

Fig. 3.11-2 PM Rotor Construction using Buried, CircumferentialIy Polarized Magnets

J
"
)
)

)
,
,,
J

,
:)
:,

:)
.,'I)

Fig. 3.11-3 PM Rotor Construction using Surface Magnets

:,

:1
38 :)
, )
)
)
,)
')
 Principies of SyndlrollOllS Madnes

--------------------------------,------------~1.~
-1000 -800 -600 -400 -200 o
Hm- Kiloampereslmeter

Br, 1.00

AirGapLine

0.75

Em-TesIa
OperatingPoint
w1~ Current
Demagnetizing ~------~-'~~~~~~~~~~ 0.50

0.25

o
-1.25 -0.75 -0.50 -0.25 O

(
J.loHmTesla

-0.25

Fig" 3.11-4 PM Demagnetization Curves and Air Gap Line

which has very significant effects on the properties of pennanent magnet machines. As in alI pennanent
magnets. demagnetization will occur if ~e value of -Hm, exceeds the value -Hei (Fig 3.11-4) where the
linear portion of the demagnetization curve ends. One of the great advantages of bo~ ferrite and rare
earth magnets is their resistance to demagnetization. both requiring actual reversal of the directionof B
to cause demagnetization. This is in sharp contrast to many older types of magnets, such as Alnico,
which could be demagnetized by a sufficiently 10ng air gap and hence required a magnetic keeper to
avoid self demagnetization.
39
 PriDciples ofSynchroDOUS Macllines
,
In permanent magnet machines, the typical magnetic circuit driven by the permanent magnets is

llustrated in Fig. 3.11-5. To introduce some of the basic concepts used in applying permanent rnagnets

,
l

)
a simplified ana1ysis will be presented which omits many important second order effects such as magnet
lealcage flux, saturation in the iron, slotting effects and the distributed nature of the winding mmf. , )

,, )

,
)

)
)
)
,)
j
'")
,)
)
.)
,')
.)
":)
"

Fig. 3.11-5 Ampere's Law Path for Simplified Magnetic Analysis ,, "

Writing Ampere's Lawaround the path illustrated in the figure, and assuming zero winding mmf, results
')
In
.)

(3.11-1)
j
,,
where lhe terms apply to the gap, the magnet and the iron respectively and the symmetry of the structure
is employed to cross the air gap where the H fields are equal and opposite (one pole pitch apart). The
,,
continuity of the flux results in
)
or (3.11-2)
,)

)
where Bg and Bm are interpreted as average flux densities. If the mmf of the iron core (HA in Eq.
:)
3.11-1) is neglected, Eq. 3.11-1 becomes
:)
'h)
or (3.11-3) '.
,,..
. j.,
40
 PriDcipJes 01 Syacbl"ODOUS Macbines

Combining Eq.3.11-2 and 3.11-3 results in

(3.11-4)

which is commonly referred to as the air gap tine. This relation between Bm andl\n in combination
with the material demagnetization curve which also relates Bm and Hm determines the operating point of
the magnets.
Figure 3.11-5 illustrates the air gap line and an operating point for mre earth magnets. Note that
shortening the magnet length or increasing the air gap mak:es the slope of the air gap line flatter and
reduces the value of Bm. The influence of the armature mmf (armature reaction) on the magnet
operating point can be deduced by going back to Eq 3.11-1 and adding in a term representing the
equivalent mmf = NeqI

(3.11-5)

Once again neglecting the JP.1Ilf ofthe imn and solving for Hm

(3.11-6)

The implication of this result is shown in Fig, 3.11-5 by the operating point with demagnetizing CITent
The operating point in tbis case is displaced from the vertical axis by the mmf required by the air gap
plus the externaI mmf as shown in the figure. Since tbe effective penneability of the magnets is 1Ao, the
change in the operating point is small for normal currents. The possibility of driving the magnets
beyond Hci. under fault orother abnonnal conditions and tbus permanently demagnetizing the magnets
must be considered in the design processo

3.11-2 Phasol" Diagram and Torque EquatioD

Torque is developed by the stator flux interacting witb the excita.tion flux provided by tbe rotor
magnets in exactly the same way as in wound field machines. Additio~ k,rque is prOducedby th~ rotor
saliency in buried magnet machines. The amount of magn~tic matenal is typicaily chosen to provide
good power factor at mted lo3.d and the air gap and rotor shape are designed sotha.tdemagnetization of
the magnets will not occur at heavy loads. Since the excitation cannot be changed some motors ruo with
leading power factor at light load producing high no-load tosses.
For air gapmagnet machines there is no saliency effect and the uniform air gap equivalent circuit
of Fig. 33-3 applies. Since the effective air gap is very long, the armature reaction mmf does notcreate
much flux and the synchronous reactance is very small; only slightly larger than the stator leakage
reactance. AlI of the results and properties outlined for uniform air gap machines in Section 3.4 and 3.5

41

 PrincipIes of SyuChFODOUS Maclnes

,
>
apply to air gap magnet machines except that Ei is constant and can not be adjusted to controI power
)
factor. In addition, the smaIl size of lhe reactance Xs alters the nature of the phasor diagram since the
)
IXs voltage drop is much smaller in relation to Vs and Ei and the Irs drop becomes more significant by
companson.
In buried magnet machines the phasor diagram is the same as the salient-pole synchronous
,,
)

machine (Fig. 3.6-2) with the excitation Ei constant. There is, however, an interesting and important
difference between wound field salient pole machines and many buried magnet machines in that for
many buried magnet machines the q-axis has a lower reluctance than the d-axis because of the presence
,
')

)
of the body of the magnet in the d-axis flux path. This results in X qs being larger than ~, the reverse )
of the situation for wound field machines. While this has only quantitative effects on the phasor diagram )
it can completely change the shape of the torque-angle curve since it changes the sign of the reluctance ')
torque term in Eq. 3.6-8. Physically, the reluctance torque is now in a direction to align the q-axis with J
the stator flux which is opposite to the magnet flux which is trying to align the d-axis with the stator )
flux. The two components are therefore in opposite directions for small torque angles. .)
The resulting torque-angle curves take the shape shown in Fig. 3.11-6. For low values of E i IV s
thecurves initially show negative torquefornegative anglesandonly swing positive after the angl.e
.,
')

')
becomes large enough that the magnet torque dominates. The result is an unstable region for small
)
torque angles as shown in the figure. One significaot effect of this unstable region is to create a situation
where the .change from motoring to regenernting operation ca.n occur in a large "jump" in torque angle
.,
,)

rather than a smooth changeover. This can occur when the machine is operating on a curve like that for
Ei IV s = 0.5 in Fig. 3.11-6. As the loaci on the motor diminishes the torque angle diminishes (in
amplitude) and the torque reaches zero at a finite torque angle (about - 60" in Fig. 3.11-6). The torque
,
.}

.)
now reverses sign and the torque angle continues to diminish in amplitude. When the negative peak is )
reached at about - 30 the stability boundary is reached and the m.achine rotor will be forced ahead (by
0
)
the overhauling load) to the stable point on the regenerating curve at about + 30 0
Such jumps wiIl occur )
whenever the changeover from motoring to regenerating occur. The small angle unstable region can be )
avoided by keeping Ei IVs large enough ar by active controI techniques based on current controI.
,
)

3.11-3 Variable Speed OperatioD

The torque-speed curves for constant voltslhertz operation are similar to Fig. 3.7-4. Since field
,
)
)

weakening is not possible, operation above base speed at constant voltage will invariably result in poor
power factor (leading) and significantly less than constant power output. Operation above base speed is :)

substantially petter for buried magnet machines because of the hgher reactance (increased armature :>
reaction) of these machines but is still poor by comparison with machines in which the field flux can be
:)
reduced.

42
 Principies 01 Synmrono-.s Machines
Stability
Limit -----.....

Transition from

Regenerating to

Motoring

.. -~135 O'

-r~l--
Transition frem
S biI ' . Motoring to
~imi~t)l Regenerating

Fig. 3.11-6 Torque - Angle Curves for Buried Magnet Machine with Xqs> Xds

43

)
)
)
.,
)
)
)
)
)

,
)

, I
 Chapter4

Scaling Laws For AC Electric Machines

4.0 Introdudion
In AC eIectric machines, as in many engineering devices, the physica1 size of the device has
important fundamental effects on the operating characteristics. Gene:rally, these "size effects" tend to be
favot:able to large size machines although not all aspects of perfonnance areaffected in desirable ways
by an increase in size.The purpose of the following material is to explore the influence of size on AC
electric machine characteristics and topresent basic relationshipsthat express the inherent natural trends
of machine parameterswith respectto specific, size dependent, qharacteristic quantities.
These relationships are calledsC'aling laws since they allow inf~IUlation from one or more known
designs to be scaled. up ordO\vn to determine other similar designsofdifferent size. Theyare intended
to express basic relationshipsbetweendevice characteristics andphysical size. In their most useful
form, they relate alI device characteristics to a single characteristicphisical dimenSion orquantity. In
the simplest case, ali lineardimensions change by the same mtio andhe~ inaspecific fixed
relationship to the charactenstic quantity. However, as will be demOi1Stl'3.ted,a proportiOnal change of
alI linear dimensioDS doesnot ustJallygive desirable results and significant departuresfrom simple
proportionality are neceSSaI)'to achieve satisfactory performance. As a result of these departures from
simple linear scaling thre is a significant difference between scaling laws based on different
characteristic quantities. The optimum choice of characteristic quantities is the one that yields the
simplest scaling laws since clearly their utility is greatly enhanced if th4ey give simple and clear
indications of change.
The f ollowing material isbased on the work of Professor H.C.J. DeJoog and his colleagues as
summarized in Professor DeJong's monograph Ac Motor Design with Conventional and Convener
Supplies (Reference 1). In this reference the choice ofthe pole pitch (in meters) as a primary
characteristic dimension in electric machines is shown to result in especiaIly simple and concise scaling
laws. The development is based on a representation of the machine in terms of a unit area (one square
meter) of air gap sUIface. This "inside oriented" approach is well suited to design considerations and
there exist simple relations between the airgap referred machine quantities and the terminal quantities
commonly used for machine anaIysis. The approach yields a valuable bridge between the physical
consideration inherent in machine design and the more abstract mathematical problems encountered in
steady state and dynamic machine analysis.

4.1 The Influence of Size

Before treating the more complicated situation in electric machines it is useful to examine a simpler
case of a similar nature to iIlustrate size dependence and the problem of finding scaIing laws and suitable
characteristic quantities. Fig 4.1-1 iIlustrates a simple shell type transformer and the associated physical

@D. W. Novotny, T. A. Lipo 1997

 "

}
Sc:aling Laws
,
~I~~---------------------------w ~I )
)
... _--_ _._-----_ _---_._---------------------.------------------------------_.
... ----_ ... -._.-----------_ ... _---_ .... _------------
,,
----_ ..... -_.........
.. _----- ..........
_----_._-----_ )
L -:-:-:-:-:~-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:~-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:~-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:----:
_______ : : :-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-:-: d
---------------------------------------_._-------------- .. ------.-.-----------------.
-:::::::::.-:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::--:::::::::::::::::::::::::::_-:::::::::::::-----~

It"I~_-- b ---~~I~-- 2c --I~"""I""~II--- b ----~... )

),

, )

,, )

a :)
J
:)
,,
.:)

,
.)
)
)

v
,)

+
,)

v == rms voltage (V) N == number of tums (no dim) )

.I = rms current (A) B = peak flux densi ty (T) )

f= frequency (hz) J = peak current density (AJm 2 ) )

Rw = winding resistance
R = per unit resistance
(O)
(pu)
p
~
=resistivity
= permeability
(Qm)
(h/m)
,
)

X m = magnetizing reactance (O) Ac =core area =2cd (m2) :.

X mpu =pu magnetizing reactance (pu) Aw :: winding area =ba/2 (m2)
:,
:)
Xl =leakage reactance (O) Ai =leakage area ::::: bd (m2)
.,"
X lpu = pu leakage reactance (pu) fi =leakage path length ::::: a (m)
:)
f-c =core length ::::: 2h+2b (m) f-w :: turn length ::::: 2d+4c (m) "1.)
'-i'

'"
"
Fig 4.1-1. Shell Type Transformer ':)
:,
2 :J
:,
"

)
:)
;)
 ScaliDg LaW$
dimension that deseribe the deviee. We first eonsider the deviee in terms of the actual (ohmic) terminal
quantities and subsequently consider use of normalized (per unit) quantities.

4.1-1 Pbysical Units

Using the notation in the figure the basic equations relating the terminal electrica1 quantities, the

device dimensions and the internaI (electromagnetic) material dependent quantities for the primary

winding are:

V={2'JtfNBAc =({iJt) x (N Ac) x B x f (volts) (4.1-1)

<'~n
1 JA w 1
I = ..fi(N) = x x J (amps) (4.1-2)
{i

p.ew
R=N(AwlN1 = 1 x (lwN2 3 xp (ohms) (4.1-3)
Aw

N2A
.-: ut2Ae~ 2:n; x (-~ x f.1 x f (ohms) (4.1-4)
Xm - f
c te

N2Al JA.o N2A~

Xl=m( . fI. j = 2:n; X (- X JA.o x f (ohms) (4.1-5)
fI.

In the second fonn of each equation the expression has been separated into four parts; a constant term, a
termdependent on physica1 dimensions, a term dependent on the internai electromagnetic quantities and
material properties, and the frequency dependence (if any). This subdivision is helpful in placing the
size dependence of the tenninal quantities in evidence. Thus, for example, if the core flux density and
the current density in the winding are kept constant along with the frequency while a1I linear dimensions
of the device are increased by the ratio D; the voltage varies as NOZ, the winding current asD2Nl, the
resistance as N2D-l, and the reactances as N2D. Other useful terminal quantities such as volt-amperes
(S), winding loss (PR), peak stored energy (LI2J2) and the time constaot (T) can be easily evaluated.
Table 4.1-1 presents a summary of these relations and gives the scaling laws in terms of D, representing
any characteristic physical dimension, or in terms of the volt-amperes S.
A number of interesting and important results can be stated based on the simple scaling laws in
Table 4.1-1. For a11 increase in alllinear dimensions with the same materials, electromagnetic densities
and frequency:

1)The volt amperes increase as 1)4, while the volume and weight increase as 1)3. Hence the rating
per unit weight tends toincrease linearly with size.

 ScaliagLaws
,
)
)
4.1-2 Per Unit Representation )
There are many reasons for using a per unit system for expressing AC machine parameters and
performance. For OUI present purposes the major reason is to eliminate the tum dependence of voltage ,, )

and impedance leveI and thus express impedance voItage drops directly in terrns of voltage leveI. This
allows easy interpretation of the importance of impedance voltage drops and also allows direct
,
comparison of different size machines by simply comparing their per unit impedances. To compare )

quantities such as rated voltage, rated current, rated KVA etc., it is necessary to compare base quantities )
)
since the per unit values of such quantities are by definition equal 10 one.
)
The most useful per unit system for the present example (Fig. 4.1-1) is one which uses rated voltage,
rated current and rated frequency as the base quantities.
:,
)
,)
(4.1-6)
,)
,)
Note that the choice of fB equal 10 Jated frequency is equivalent to choosing a time base equal to one
)
period of Jated frequency operation. )
The resulting equations for the base quantities and their per unit quantities are summarized in Table )
4.1-2 where again the equations are separated into four parts to emphasize scaling laws. The subscript R ,)
is used throughout to indicate a r;:ated quantity. To allow evaluation of opemtion at otb.er than rated
frequency, the frequency has been retained as a variable. In interpreting these equations it is important ,)

to recognize that for a frequency change the base frequency remains fixed. Thus, if a 60Hz device is
operated at 90 Hz, the per unit rated voltage, per unit rated volt-amperes and the per unit reactance
,
)

increase by 1.5 and alI other per unit quanti ties remain unchanged. Note also that at base frequency the
per unit reactance and per unit inductance are equal but that this is not true for operation at other
,
)

frequencies.
Since the base impedance is not dependent on D for this example, the per unit impedances scale in
,
)

the same way as the ohmic impedances. However, the turn dependence of the impedances is eliminated
and it is now quite clear that tbe linear increase in leakage inductance will create unacceptable problems
,
)

for transformers and induction motors. To maintain about the same voltage regulation in transformers
and the same peak torque in induction motors requires that the linear increase in L pu be overcome by
,
)

)
design modifications to produce a leakage inductance (or reactance) which is independent of size.
:)
In a transformer there are a number of simple and direct means for modifying the design to controI
:)
the leakage inductance. These include varying the spacing between the primary and secondary, :)
changing the area/length ratio of the leakage path Aeflf> or separating each winding into sections and :,
interleaving the sections. Fig 4.1-2 illustrates these concepts using the shell type transformer shown in :l
Fig 4.1-1. Interleaving portions ofthe primary and secondary windings reduces the maximum mmf '~)
producing leakage flux and thus reduces the leakage reactance. An alternative view of interleaving is J
')
6 )
"

;)
:~
)
,)
 ScaJing La",s

Table4.1-2

Per Uoit Quantities of tbe Transformer of Fig.4.1-1

Quantity Constant Geometric Material Frequency Scaling Law Scaling Law
Term Fador Fador
D S
Base
Voltage
..r2x NAc BR fR N1)2 NSl/2

VB=V R

Base 1 Aw 02 S1I2
Current JR
..fi N N N
IB=IR
Base AcAw BRJR fR S
Volt-Amps
~=VRIR

Base AcN 2 BR
Impedance fR N2 N2
Aw JR
Za=V~B
Rated f
Voltage 1 1 1 1 1
fR
VR
Rated
Curreot 1 1 1 1 1 1
IR
Rated Volt- f
amperes 1 1 1 1 1
fR
SR
Per Unit 1 lw JR 1 1 1
Resistance Ac BRP fR D S1I4
R 23t

Per Unit Aw JR f
Magnetiziog 1 B R fi D S1I4
lc fR
Reactance
Xm
PerUnit Aw JR
1 O S1I4
Magnetizing lc BR fi
Inductance
Lm
PerUnit AeAw JR f
Leakage 1 -
I.;.Ac BR J.I.o fR
O S1l4
Reactance
Xl
Per Unit At.Aw JR
Leakage 1 - -
ft.Ac
BR !-Lo D S1l4
Inductanee
Li

7
 ScalingJ,.aws
,
,J

)
that it divides the winding into subwindings which have fewer turns and relatively little mutual flux
resulting in a lower net reactance. For example, recall that the inductance of two coupled inductors in
series is LI + ~ + 2M. Therefore, in a transformer winding split into two halves and interleaved, each
,,
)

half would have an individualleakage inductance of approximately 1/8 of the original single winding (a
)
factor or 1/4 fram N2 and 1/2 from the change in leakage area Ai) The totalleakage inductance of the
)
interleaved winding is then between 1/4 of the original if the mutualleakage inductance M iszero and
1/2 of the original if the mutual leakage inductance M is equal to the self leakage inductance (perfect ,,
)

-,
)
)
)

,
:)

:)
,)

,
)

,
Low Leakage Geometry High Leakage Geometry
,)

)
,)

,
:)

,
)

,)
)
)
)
Interleaved Windings )
. (Computation must include
mutualleakage flux) )

Fig 4.1-2 Control of Leakage Inductance Through Design Modification

)
,
)
coupling). These relatively simple modifications are not applicable to rotating machines because of the
)
need for mechanical separation and relative motion between primary and secondary windings. The

"

typical machine solution to controlling the leakage is to use more slo18 per pole in large machines as will
)
be explained in detail in later sections.
)
8
,, )

, )
 ScaJiDg Laws
The conc1usions stated in items 1-8 in Section 4.1-1 are ali also obtainable from the base quantities .
and per unit impedances listed in Table 4.1-2. In general, the per unit fOIlIl has the advantage of
clarifying the leakage reactance problem, making such quantities as per unit loss (equal to per unit
resistance) redundant, and eliminating the unnecessary complication introduced by the wide variation in
terminal voltage (winding turns). There is, however, a point of possible confusion in interpreting the
geometric dependence of the per unit parameters in Fig. 4.1-2. This OCCUIS because the base impedance
is dependent on the ratio of the core area tothe window area AJAw Asa result the winding resistance
geometric factor becomes the ratio of the winding length to the core area rather than the winding length
to the winding area. Note that while the scaling law remains the same, the geometric factor for the per
unit parameter becomes something which is much less intuitive than for the physical parameter. These
saroe comments hold for the per unit reactances and inductances.

4.2 The Choice or a Charaeteristic Dimension

Because of the need to control the leakage reactance and to handle. the cooling problem and other
such design requirements the concept of simple proportional sca1ing of ali lineardimensionsis
unsatisfactoryeven for relativelysimple design problems suchas thetransformerofFig:4.1-L'The
choice of an appropriate characteristic dimension thus becomes a primary consideration in developing
useful scaling Iaws.
Over a small size range it is c1ear that economic considerations favor using a single lamination
design and simply varyiDg the core thickness (d in Fig. 4.1-1). Within such a range the core thickness
might be an appropriate characteristic dimensiono However, our concem is not with smalI variations in
,
size, but with large variations of perhaps 100: 1 or more. Over such a large range i t is necessary to make
fundamental changes in the proportions of the device - i.e. to change the lamination design itself. The
scaling laws we seek represent the variation of the "average design" over a large range of the
characteristic dimensiono Minor design variations, such as varying the number of laminations. give rise
to a variation around the average; the "bandwidth" resulting from the minor variationswiIl hopefullybe
small compared to the large variation of the average design over the full range of size. Whether it is
possible to find useful scaling l~ws clearly depends on how large a range of design sizes exists. Ir the
range is small. the minor variations wiII obscure the more fundamental (;hanges in the basic design.
In any case, the charactestic dimension chosen to represent size must be one which wiIl reflect the
fundamental design changes and not the minor variations. For the device of Fig. 4.1-1, clearly the core
thickness would be inappropriate. Either of the principal core dimensions, h or w, wouId be likely
candidates since they do reflect the lamination size and have a direct influence on alI of tbe device
parameters. One might also make a case for the core dimension c. In a rotating machine the situation is
further complicated by the rotor motion and the existence of multi-polar designs. The optimum 'choice
in any situation depends on the way in which the various design requirements are influenced by device
proportions. Experience and access to large amounts ofdesign data are preTequisi tes 10 selection .af the

9
 ScaliagLaws
., "]

:)
best characteristic dimensiono Our major concern is with the AC machine and for this device the choice
)
of an appropriated characteristic dimension is clearly outlined in Reference 1.
')
")
4.3 The A C Electric Machine
,)
The nurnber of types of AC electric machines is very large ranging fram small reluctance type
,:)
machines (stepping mataIS, timing motors) to very large uniform air gap synchronous machines. For
)
simplicity, we restrict our consideration to machines in which reluctance torques are absent ar at least
j
play a minar role. The emphasis will be on the induction machine although some results for synch
ronous machines will be included to illustrate differences in design requirements. The basic structure
under consideration is therefore the uniform air gap cylindrical machine illustrated. in Fig. 43-1.
,:"

:)
j
4.3-1 Important Physical Dimensions )
The most important physical dimensions of a unifonn air gap machine are shown in Fig. 43-1. The :)
principal core dimensions are the inner and outer core radii ri and ro. However, the magnetic aspects of :J
the core are better described by the yoke andslot depth d y and dg and by the pole pitch "tp The relations ~)

between these internai dimensioDS and the ra.dii are: ")

j
(m) (43-1) "
:)
,;)
21trj =2-r" Np (m) (43-2)

(m) (43-3)
,
',;)

)
)
)
For general purpose induction machines the internaI rotor core dimensions can be taken as identical to
)
the stator core dimensions for scaling law purposes. In practice the rotor slot dimensions are somewhat
)
different but with the usual choice of nearly equal numbers of slots on rotor and stator the differences are
:)
minoro In synchronous machines the rotor core is usually quite different than the stator since the rotor
winding is neither a uniform cage winding nor a polyphase winding. Much ofthe following material
applies specifically to induction machines but can also be applied with greater approximation to the
,,

stator core of synchronous machines. ')

4.3-2 Pole Pitch as the Characteristic Dimension

In seeking a characteristic dimension for scaling law purposes it is clear that the core length.e is "
,)

inappropriate for the reasons described earlier. The influence of retor speed on cooling makes it evident )
that the use of one of the principal dimensions (ro ar ri ) as the characteristic dimension would require )
that the pole pair number Np also have a major influence since it determines, in par!, the rotor surface j
speed V. This difficulty is overcome to a large extent by selecting the pole pitch 't'p (in meters along the

10
,
)

)
)
)
 .SC!aIiDg Laws

I~

A subscript "2" added to any quantity refers to a rotor quantity

NT =Total number of stator slots q = Number of phases

Nc = Number of series conductors per phase Np =Number of pole pairs
Kw= Winding factor N = Number of slots per unit circumferentiallength

Fig.4.3-1 Physieal Dimension ofUnifonn Air Gap AC Electric Maehine

11
 ScaIing Laws ,)

air gap surface) as the characteristic dimensiono The relation between the rotor swface speed and the )

pole pitch is )
)

(m/s) (4.3-4) )

since the rotor moves two pole pitches for each cycle of the input frequency (slip neglected). Thus "t p is
,, )

simultaneously a principal core dimension and a direct measure of rotor surface speed and offers a clear
)
advantage over the radii ro or ri in this respect With" as the characteristic dimensiono the number of
pole pairs N p and the rotor radius can be regarded as secondary quantities having on1y relatively minor
effects compared to"rp .
,)

)
The range of "tp from small machines (fractional hp) to very large machines (200, 000 hp) is of the
"
order of 100: 1 (0.03m to 2m). This very large range contribute significantly to the value of" as the
J
main sca1e parameter since the "bandwidth" of design variations about the average does not obscure the :)
overall variation of the average designo lt must be recognized, however, that significant variations about .)
the average (100% or more) can be expected even if special designs (i.e. high slip machines, high :)
efficiency machines) are excluded from consideration. ;)

4.3-3 Requirements 00 Per Unit Parameters

,
.)

For satisfactory perfonnance certain of the per unit parameters of AC machines must satisfy quite
specific design requirements. Others are less' criticai and only need falI in certain relatively wide ranges
,
J

.)
or be made as large or small as possible. The most important constraints are described in the following
sections. Unfortunately, the per unit system commonly used with induction and synchronous machines
are not the same and we first outline the per unit systems to avoid confusion.
,)

)
lnduction Machines )
The most appropriate and common1y used per unit system is one based on the output power of the )
machine. The primary base quantities are )

V B = VR (rms phase voltage) (4.3-5) ,

)

)
from which the following secondary base quantities are derived :)
)
:)
(4.3-6)
;)
.",)
'h

Note thatin this system rated current will exceed 1.0 per unit because the base current does not
incorporate the effects of power factof or efficiency. AIso. rated torque i8 slightly greater than 1.0 per
unit since the base torque does not include the effect of rated slip.

12
 Sc:aIiDg,Laws
The most important requirement on the per unit parameters of induction machines is on the leakage
reactanee. The requirement arises from eonsideration of thepeak (pull out) torque. For our purposes it
is sufficiently aecurate to neglect rI and Xm and use the simplified circuit of Fig. 4.3-2b.

..
+

.. V

(b) (c)
(a)

Fig. 4.3-2 Equivalent Circuit or the Induction Macbine

~ r _ <. ~

From the simplified cireuit it follows immediately that peak torque occurs when

r2 -x (43-7)
s (J

and that the peaktorque is

[ V]2 V2
(43-8)
Tpk ='Xo+jxJ Xo = 2Xo

Thus to obtain a peak torque in the normally required range of 2-2.5 pu requires a value of Xo in the
range of 0.25-0.20 pu. For scaling law purposes we take

Xo =0.2 (43-9)

as a design requirement. This becomes a major design constraint which has an important influence on
the overall design of induction machines.
The other important constraint is on the rotor resistance r2' At rated speed ris is much larger than
Xa (in a 'good' design) and the circuit of Fig. 43-2c is applicable.From this approximate circuit it
follows that to obtain 1.0 pu torque requires the value of r2/s to be 1.0 and hence

(43-10)

13
 Scaling Laws )
Thus the value of r2 determines the rated slip (Eq 43-10) and the pull out slip (Eq 4.3-7). In general, )

one would like to have r2 small to have small rated slip and high efficiency. However, r2 also )

determines the starting torque as is easily seen from Fig. 43-2b.

,,
(4.3-11)
)
)
The desired r2 is therefore a compromise between running and starting requirements. This often requires )
some form of special rotor slot design to take advantage of ski.n effect in the rotor bars at low speed. For ;)
scaling law purposes we restrict consideration to the low slip value of r2, i.e. neglect deep bar effects. ,)
With this restriction, low values of r2 are preferred. J
)
Clearly rI is apure parasitic effect and should be as small as possible within economic limits. )
Similarly Xm should be as large as possible to reduce the magnetizing current requirements. )
J
j
Synchronous Machines
.)
The most commonly used per unit system for synchronous machines is based on the rated KV A of
)
the machine. The primary base quantities are
)
)
V B = VR (rms ph~e voltage)
,,
(4.3-12)
.)

from which the derived secondary base quantities are

)

,,
(KVA)B T _ (KVA)B
IB = qV B = B
roa
(4.3-13) )

In this system rated current is 1.0 pu but rated torque is significant1y less than 1.0 pu (because the base )
torque is larger than rated torque since efficiency and power factor are not incorporated in T B). )
:)
The most appropriate per unit system for synchronous motors would be one based on rated power "

(output) and rated voltage; the same system that is described in Equations 43-5 and 4.3-6 for induction :)
machines. However, the wide usage of synchronous machines as generators, for which the per unit "

system based on KVA rating as described in the preceding paragraph is quite appropriate, has led to the :)
adoption of the same KVA based system for motors also. This is inconsistent with the concept of basing ::>
the per unit system on rated output, but is none the less the most common1y used system. ;)

:,
,
"

The most important impedance parameter for steady state operation is the synchronous reactance
equaI to the sum of stator leakage and the magnetizing reactance. Depending on lhe application, the

value of Xs is in the range of 0.6 to 2.0 pu. Since the major part of the reactance is the magnetizing
14
"

,,
:)
)
:,
 ScalirigI..aws
reactance, the requirement on Xs primarily determines the air gap length g. Thesize of the leakage is
important only for short cireuit trnnsient conditions or motor starting and the leakage and damper
winding resistanee requirements are quite variable depending on the type of application.

4.4 ScaJing Laws for AC Machine Impedances

The requirements on the pa.rameters imposed by machine operating requiremen:ts as outlined in
the previous section preclude simple linear scaling. In particular, the need to control the growth of the
leakage reactance and to aceommodate the increased cooling problem as machine size increases require
significant departures fram linear scaling. Many years of design experience has led to soIutions to these
problems and allows the presentation of sca1ing laws which illustrate the resulting parameter variations
with physicaI size or with power leveI [1[, [2], [3].

4.4-1 Control ofLeakage Reacfance

The primary mechanism for controlling the growth. of leakage reactance in induction machinesis to
use more slots per pole pitch as the machine size increases. This is a very workable solution
, since larger' ,

pole pitches readily allow an increase in the number of slots and thus even very large inachines can be
handled in this way.
The basic reason using more slots per pole yields a reduction in leakagenductance is that there is
zero mutual flux and hence zero mutual inductance betWeen conductors in separate slots. The situation
is illustrated in Fig. 4.4-1 for the replacement of a single large slot by four smaller slots in which the slot

N/4Turns

(b)
(a)

Fig. 4.4-1 Reduction or Leakage by Using More Slots per Pole

depth d and slot width w are each one half of the values for the large slot. Clearly the total slot area is
the same and (except for insulation thickness, which is a second order effect) the same amount of copper
can be placed in the slots. The slot permeance given by

15
 ScaIing Laws

~oA J..lodL
p=-=- (H) (4.4-1)
I w

is the same for the large and small slots since the ratio of slot depth (d and d/2) to slot width (w and w/4)
is the same. The inductances for the two configurations are

(H) (4.4-2)

which clearly demonstrates the desired ability to reduce the slot leakage inductance.

4.4-2 Rating Issues

In addition to incorporating various special cooling features such as stator and rotor core cooling
ducts, speciaI fans, external and internal coolng fins, etc., it has been found necessary to reduce the
winding current density as machine size increases to help solve the cooling problem. The scaling law
for current density is of the form [1]

(A/m2) (4.4-3)

which results in about a 20 % repuction in cu.rrent density for a doubling of size.

Partly offsetting this effect is the ability to operate at slightly higher air gap flux density in larger
machines. This is largely a result of better slot fill factors in large machines (especially when
rectangular conductors are used) and the resulting ability to use larger teeth and smaller slots. The
scaling law is [1]

(T) (4.4-4)

The product JB thus scales as (,,)-116 instead of remaining constant as was assumed in the simple linear
case. This implies that the machine volt-amps grow at a slightly slower rate than the (;,)4 as linear
scaling would suggest. The result including the influence of pole number is

(V A) (4.4-5)

4.4-3 Sealing Laws for Impedances

A set of sca1ing laws based on the material in references 1 and 2 but adapted to 60 Hz, NEMA
Design B machines are deduced in reference 3. The results are (in pu):

fI =0.0033 (-.p)-1 (pu) (4.4-6)

16
 Scaling Laws

x-lO(
m-
.51.\112
N I (pu) (4.4-7)
P

Solving Eq 4.4-5 for the pole pitch and evaluating the constant K kva yields

[ P ]6/23 (P in hp) (m) (4.4-8)

'tp = 0.084 (NP>2

Figure 4.4-2 illustrates these results for [our pole machines. Figure 4.4-3 gives the "transient
parameters" based on th~e same scaling laws. The transient parameters are defined by

a= -
Xc (pu)
Xm
(4.4-9)

a= f2. (pu)
f}

where T'r is called the rotor short circuit time constant and Tm is the electromechanical timeconstant.
The scaling laws are

(4.4-10)

Tm-
- 15 Np-l
N (millisec) a= 1.25 (pu)
p

Itis important to notice that the electromechanical time constant Tm is independent of size. As shown in
Eq. 4.4-9, T m is dependent on the inertia and on the slope of the torque-speed curve and is the time
constaot which govems slow mechanical transients where the steady state torque-speed curve gives a.
good approximation to the transient torque. This approximation is valid when the rotor short cireuit
electrical time constaot T 'r is small compared to the electromechanical time constant Tm. Note that
since T m is independent of size and T 'r grows with size, the use of T m to model mechanica1 transients
tends to be valid onIy in small machines or machines with very large inertia loads.

17

 Figure 4.4-2 Scallng Laws for

Four Pole NEMA Design B Induction Machines

. I

Equivalent Circuit Parameters ,

1 I
1
. I 1
I , I I I
0.'-"- 4'- ----J1 ----- L-
I
- _J__ 12?~O.!!l~.eo.!.e!,~m.!>~s_ J___ -1- -1- ____ ~ ____ 1____
I multiply curve valUeB by I 1 1 1 1
1
I __ L
1
1
I
1
I
1
1
I
1
I "Cp
6-pole 8-pole
0.81 0.70
1
1
1
I
I
1
1
I
1
1
I
1
V' 1
I
,
1

1
1
I
I
1
1
1
1
I
1
fI
r2
1 24
"
1.24
144
. 1
1.44 1
1 1
I'
"
I 1 1
I
I
,
I

0.31- 3I
I
,
- T- - - - -
I
I
,
,Xm
t- - - - -t - - 'T -
073
.
T' -
059'
'"
- - - -I - - - -
I'
I
- 1- - - - - -1- - - - -
I
I
+
, ,
--.---1
1

L
- - - -

fI I 1 1 1 I I 1 I I I
I I I , I I I I 1

~
& , " I 1 1 I 1 ,
m r2 1 I 1 1 1 I 1 1 ,

.....
00
me:er.
X
pe,r
1 I
I
I
1
I
I 1
I
I
I'
I
I
1

,pole
1
I
1
I'
I'
,
i.
J&
umt I , I I' 1 pitch l " ~
O. 2
, -t-----r----1----r- ----~- ____ L ___ ~ __ ~
~
1
1
I
,
,
,
l'
1
I
I'
I I
1
1
1
1
I
1
I
I
I'
I
1
1
1
I
1
I 1 1 I I
1

I
,
1
1
I
I
,
I I
1
,
I
1
,
I
I
I
1
1
I

O. 1 1 I'
1 0.0' - - - - - T - - - - -1- - - --t'-~ - - --1- -r. -- f- - ---1-- -1
I I ~ 2 1 I I
1 , ---------I I 1
1
I
,
I
1

1
1
DL DL O' 1
1 2 4 7 10 20 40 70 100 200 400 700 1000

Power Rating - HP

"&..J'~~y ..... _ " " , . _ ' W ....... .. .... ~u~w~~~~_~~_~~~~_~~~w~~~~w~~~~ ____ _

 Figure 4.4-3 Scaling Laws for

Four Pole NEMA Design B Inductlon Machlnes
Translent Parameters
I I

I , I
I I I
I I
I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I I I I
0.41- 40- 0.08--- --t------t----I---I--- -t----~--- -t- --~--- -i -----{-- T--~-
I I I I I I I I I I I
I I I I (J I I I I.....J I I I
I I I I I I I I 1r I, I
I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I
I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I I I
0.31- T3 0.0 ----;;~;;~;~;e~;.:;,;,,-L-i-----t----1----i--i ----j------ ~
...
\() 't" P
I T
&
r
(J
.
mulply curve values by
6-pole 8-pole'
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
,I
'I
I
ci...
~
m 't" 8 I I I I I ~
per p O. 1 0.70 I I I I 't P I UI
meters I milli unit 1. 0.81 0.70 I I I I olel I
seconds r ' I I I p. . I I
0.21- 2 0.0 <1 1.36 1.69 --~ ____ ~____ _ ___:___P.!.t~'1- ___ ~--~--
1.33 1.50 I I I I 'I I
I I I I I I I
I I I I I I I
, I! I I I
I I I I I
I I I I
I I I I I I I I I.
I I 'I I I I I I I
O lL- 1Q- 0.02l-----1~1---- -1------I-----I----4--J. _____I_____ L ___ J __ J __
.'- I I I I I I I I I

I I I I I
I I I I I
Tm
I I I I I
.I I . I I I
I I I I I

OL OL 01
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I ,
I

1 2 4 7 10 20 40 70 100 200 400 700 1000

Power Rating - HP
."
 Scaling Laws
References

1) H.C.J. DeJong, "AC motor design with conventional and converter supplies," (book), Oxford
University Press, Walton Street, Oxford, England, 0X2 6DP, 1976.

2) H.C.J. DeJong, "AC motor design-rotating magnetic fields in a changing environment," (book) ,
Hemisphere Publishing Corp, New York, 1988.

2) D.W. Novotny, "Scaling laws for AC electric machines," WEMPEC Tutorial Report 82-7, EE
Dept., University of Wisconsin, 1982.

,
';,'
'.

20

'~

"

, I

, ,
, I
 Chapter 5

Inverter Operation & Modelling

5.0 Introdudion
Variable frequency, variable amplitude acexcitation for ac drive applications is eurrently produced by
de link inverters supplied by either diode rectifiers or fully eontrolled thyristor bridges. Theproperties of
the rectifiers are the same ~ when used as de drives and thus the onIy new part of the ac drive power
supply is the inverter itself. The first portion of the ehapter presentsan introduction 10 the basie power
circuits and operaling eharacteristics of six step voltage SOUTce inverters (VSI), six step current SOUTce
inverters (CSI) and pulse width modulated- VSI (PWM-VSI) inverters. The representation ofthese
characteristics by equivalent cireuits is developed and a physical interpretation of the eircuits is presented.
The second portion eonsists of sevemI application examples illustrating the wide applicability of the
inverter equivalent circuits. These examples inc1ude both inductionand synchronous machine drives and
both normal and self-excited operation. They serve to illustrate both strong and weak interactions between
the inverter and the driven machine.

5.1-0 Inverter Circuits and Switching Properties

The idealized switching eharacteristics of tbree phase VSI and CSI inverters are treated in this
section. There are many variations of these basie inverters in use whieh differ primarily in the means used
for commutation, commination energy recovery and suppression of transients. The effects of these
auxiliary circuits are neglected in order to focus on the primary de to ac transfer properties of the inverters.
As is typical in sueh analyses, the switching device voltage drop is neglected and the commutation interval
is assumed 10 be of negligible duralion compareci to the conduction intervalo Because of the duality
between VSI and CSI properties, the two inverter types will be tIeated at the same time ando in effect,
given equal time despite the fact that except in very large sizes the VSI is now the overwhelming choice for
most ac drives. For VSI and PWM inverters the most widely used switching device at present is the
insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) with some older inverters using bipolar junction transistors
(BIT's). The CSI is well suited to thyristors (SCR's) anel in some applications uses gate turn off
thyristors (GTO's). To keep the discussion general, the circuits will be presented using switch symbols
ralher than specific device symbols.

5.1-1 Power Circuit Configuration

Figure 5.1-1 illustIates the basic circuit configuration of VSI and CSI inverters. The feedback or
reactive diodes in the VSI provide reverse current paths such that, when a particular switch is tumed 00,
one output terminal and one input terminal are connected regardIess of the direction of currenl This
assures a unique relation between input and output voltages when 18(t gating signals are employed. An
inverter input (fllter) capacitor is shown as a reminder that the input eurrent ii must be capable of reversal
while the voltage Vi remains nearly constant for proper VSI opemtion. Typically, a relatively large
D. W. Novotny, T. A. Lipo 1997
 :,

I,)
Inverter OperatioD & Modelling
I~
electrolytic capacitar is used to 'stiffen' the link voltage and provi de the path for the rapidly changing
:,
currents drawn by the inverter. It is the nns value of this ripple current whieh determines the value of the

capacitar used. The capacitar is of appreciable size and cost, frequently 2,000 to 20,()(X) microfarads and
is a major cost item in VSI systems. In rectifier fed systems some induetive reactanee is sometimes
,,
)

inserted between the rectifier and the ac supply to limit faul t eUlTent and to reciuce the severity of the ,)

commutation dips produced by the rectifier. Tbis series mpedance is also helpful in attenuating voltage
J
spikes whieh may enter tbrough the rectifier bridge due to switching ar lightning strikes in the utility .)
system. :,
:)
......
Ib
~)
:)
:)
+ a a
v,.1 :t
......
la
,:,
~
le
)
,,
(a) VSI Power Cireuit
,,,
)
,,
v1
e a a
,
b ~ )
~------~--------~----~ la
)
T )
)

(b) CSI Power Circuit

,
)

Fig.5.1-1 Power CiTcuit Configuration of VSI and CSI Inverters ,

)

.)
The inverter acts somewhat as the equivalent of the commutator assembly in a dc motor and converts )
the de voltage to a variable frequency ac voltage. The inverter bridge is similar to the rectifier used in a de :)
motor drive except, because of the lagging power factor presented by the induction motor, the thyristors )
must be replaced with devices whieh are capable of being tumed off as well as on. The choice at present is:
,
j

2 ,)
,)

,,
)

\
 ID..erterOperatioD & Modelling

Thyristors plus External Commutation Network

Bipolar Junction Tmnsistors (BITs)
MOS Field Effect Transistors (MOSFETs)
Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs)
Gate Tum OffThyristors (GTOs)
MOS Controlled Thyristors (MCTs)
Since thyristors are not inherently capable of turn off, they require externaI commutation circuitry not
shown in Fig. 5.1-1. The types of commutation circuits are numerous but typically require one additional
commutation thyristor and one capacitor (or pair of capacitors) per phase. Since the capacitor needs to have
its polarity reversed in preparation for acommutation, a leChnique known as resonant reversal is used
which requires at least one and often two resonant reversal inductors per phase. In addition, extta
snubbing circuits are placed across and in series witheach thyristor in order to keep them within their
specified tolerances with respect to their tum on and turn off capabilities. The result is acomplex circuit
having numerous components and requiring a precisely timed firingsequence to preventaccidental short
circuits. Thyristors have one important advantage over transistors which is their ability to withstand a
substantial fault current for a brief time before protective devices (fuses or circuit breakers)' operare.
However, when used as an externally commutated switch they are present1y of more nterest for historical
than for practica1 reasons.
Transistors have nearly completely replaced thyristoIsin inverter circuits-below 500 kW. Theyare
available in ratings to 1800 V and seveml hundred amperes and increases in the voltagerating have been
occuning almost yearly. They have the great advantage of being able to be tumed off as well as to turn on
the current in the device. Hence, auxiliary components to accomplish tum off me not needed. Snubbing is .
still necessary if the transistors are to be used ncar their maximum ratings, which is generally an economic
necessity. Ofthe transistor family, the bipolm junction tIansistoror BJT is the lowest cost and thus most
widely used. The circuitry required to drive the transistor base is. however. relatively complex and is
usually fabricated in a Darlington configuration to reduce the demand on the base current driver. AsmalI
reverse voltage must typically be applied to the base of a transistor in lhe off state and at tum off it is
usually necessary to extract current fram tbe base. IGBTs (insulated gate bipolar transistors) and .
MOSFErs (metal oxide semiconductorfield effect transistors) are more recent additions to the transistor
family and are replacing BITs in many, if not most, applications. They do not suffer [rom second.
breakdown, a destructive loss mechanism in biPolar transistors that must be carefully controlled. Since
both devices are tumed ofr by field etTect techniques, thecurrent demand on the gatedrive is minimal and
they can even be tumed off with an integmted circuit chip. Overal1l~s. parts count, and driver cost are
markedly reduced with these devices resulting in an increasingly competitive product even though the
devices remain more expensi ve than a BIT.
Gate tum off thyristors (GTOs) and MOS Controlled Thyristors (Mcrs) are relative newcomers to
the scene and promise to have the benefits of both thyristorsand transistors. GTOs are both tumed on and
turned off by applying short gate current pulSes. However, they require complex gate circuitry similar to
3
 "

Inverter Operation & Modelling :t

:~
BITs. GrOs are presently available to 5000 volts and are becoming widely used in inverters opernting at
)
the utility medium voltage leveI (> 1000 V). Sueh voltages are a necessary operating condition when the
rating of the motor exeeeds a few hundred horsepower.
The feedback diodes must be provided to allow for an altemate path for the inductive motor current "
,
)

which continues to flow when the main power device is tumed off. When regeneration occurs the roles of :)
, main power device and diode reverse. The diodes now return the regenerated power to the de link whiIe ,)
the power devices carry the reactive current The return of power to the de link will raise the link voltage J
above its normal value and steps must be taken to absorb this regenerated power to prevent a dangerous :)
link voltage buildup. Typica1ly a resistor is switched in parallel with the de link capacitor to absorb this :)
energy or the input bridge is made bi-directional by adding a second inverse parallel bridge in mueh the ::1
,)
same manner as outlined in Cbapter 1.
In the CSI. the feedback diodes are absent and the input-output constraint is therefore on eurrent :)
instead of on voltage. An inverter input induetor is shown to emphasize that the input voltage Vi must be ~;)

capable of reversal while the current ~ remains nearly constant for proper CSI operation. Note the duality ,)

between the two schemes; voltage constraints in the VSI and current constraints in the CSI. an input shunt
capacitor in the VSI and an input series inductorin the CSl. A very attractive feature of a CSI is its ability
,
:)

:)
to ride through a commutation failure and to retum naturally to normal operation. This feature is in marked
J
contrast to most voltage fed inverters in whieh costly preventive measures are necessary. Another benefit

of the CSI is its ability to regenerate into the utility supply by simply reversing the polarity of the reclifier ,,
)

de output voltage. Again, this in contrast with the VSI where the current flow rather than de voltage must
be reversed. thereby requiring an additional inverse parallel connected six pulse bridge. ,,
ldeally, lhe current wavefonn is an exact replica of the voltage wavefOIUl of a six step VSI. In
practice, the motor eurrents cannot ehange instantaneous1y, and the tran8tions in the current waveform ,
have a finite slope. During these transitions the current transfers flOm one inverter thyristor to the next
with the aid of one of the six commutating capacitors shown in Fig 5.1-2. Thus, unlike the VSI where the ,
)

commutation of the switching devices is very fast, CSI commutation is intentionally slowed down to avoid )
large spi.kes of voltage. The initial analysis of the CSI will ignore this effect and assume instantaneous
commutation for both types of inverters.
,
)

The size and cost of the ac commutating capacitors and the de link induetor are the ~or
disadvantage of this inverter. The capacitors are large because they must absorb the total energy stored in
,,
)

the leakage field of the winding when the current is commutated While the CSI could potentially employ
)
switches with tum off capability, they would not enhance the perfonnance of the converter significantly
)
since the rate of ehange of motor eurrent and, thus, the voltage rise across the motor would stiU need to be
)
controlled by the capacitors.
)
)
5.1-2 Gating Sequence and Conduetion Modes )
The switching sequenee of the six switches in the basie inverter circuits differs for each inverter. }
The three systems included in this section (VSI, CSI and PWM) are treated individually as follows.
4 ,
)

)
)

)
t
~
 Inverter OperaOD & Modelling

Three

Phase --+---4

Supplv--+--t---1

Fig.5.1-2 CSI Power CircuitShowing Commutation Capacitors

.-' ;- .....

S.l-la The Six Step VSI

In the six step VSI #J.e gating signals resuIt in ISOO conduction for each switching devicewith three
devices 'on' at alI times. The gating signals and the resulting conduction modesare illustrated in Rg. 5.1
3. The full cycle can be divided into six separate modes as illustrated. Reference to Fig. 5.1-3 shows that
in each mode alI tbree tine voltages are uniquely related to the inverter input voltage whereas only one line
current is uniquely defmed. ~ote that there is also a1ways one tine to line short circuit and a possibleshort
circuit circulating current in the resulting closed loop. Since lhe inverter input variables are isolated from
this loop, the short circuit current is determined entirely bythe load connected to lhe inverter. Thls short
circuit circuIating current bas an important role in VSI operation and will be considered Ui greater detail
later in .lhe development
The constraint equations describing the coimections imposed by the switches witbin eacb conduction
mode are easily writtenby inspecting lhe mode diagrams in Fig. 5.1-3. For example in mode 1 the
constraints are

=
vab =- vca. vi (5.1-I)

vbc;=O (5.1-2)

(5.1-3)

Again, note the full set of voltage constraints but only a single constraint 011 current.

 In verter Operation & Modelling

Mode
Number 1 2 3 4 5 6

~ Sf (t\ :r ~ ~~
b
Mode
Diagram n
_.- b
I I I I I I
I I I I f f
I I
Ta+on I f f
I
I I f I
I I
Ta-on J I
Gating I I I I I I
I I
Signals I I I I
_I
Tb+on I
I I f
I I
Tb-on I
I I I I I f
I I
I I I I
I I I
Tc+on
I - I I I
I Te on J I f
I I ~
I I I

Fig. 5.1-3 . Gating Signals and Conduetion Modes for Six Step VSI

5.1-2b The Six Step CSI

In the idea1ized six step CSI the gating signals and commutation circuits produce 1200 conduction
with only two devices 'on' at alI times. Commutation delay often has a significant effect on CSI
performance but this effect wilI be deferred untillater in lhe Chapter. For idea1ized operation the full cycle
can again be sul:xiivided inta six conduction modes as shown in Fig. 5.1-4. The result is lhat all three line
eurrents are uniquely related to lhe inverter input current but only one line voltage is uniquely defined. The
duality of the two types of inverters is again apparent -- it can easily be shown that a VSI with a Y
connected load is the exact dual of a CSI with a -connected load. Note that in the CSI there is an open
circuit on one line of the load. This is the dual of the short circuit which occurs in the VSI and the open
cireuit voltage in the CSI is determined by the load just as for lhe short circuit current in the VSI.
The origin of the tenns VSI and CSI is now clear; in the VSI there is a unique relation between input
and output voltage and in the CSI between input and output current. In each case there is only a partia!
constraint on the remaining variable and hence the input-output current relation in the VSl and the input
output voltage relation in a CSI are not completely determined by the inverter alone, the l()ad has an
important role eonceming the "free" constraint

6
 IDverterOperatioD & ModeIliug

Mode
1 2 3 4 5 6

Number

Y Y~
-b "1
~b
Mode . / ~.
~cl
Diagram n

- c a -
I I I I I I

I I I I I I

+
I I I
+ .
Ta on I I I
Ta on I
I I J
I
Ta-on I I

I I I I I
I

Gating I

I I
Signals + I
I I
Tb On .L

I
I
I
I

I
I
I
I
I
II
Tb on
I I

I I I

+
I
,
-
I
I
I
Te on
. r
I
I

Te on
, I
I
I
I
I

I
I-

Fig.5.1-4 Gating Signals and Conduction Modes for SixStep CSI

As for the VSI, the constraint equations describing the connections imposed by the switches within
each conduction mode are easily written by inspecting the mode diagrams inFig. 5.1-4. For example in
mod.e 1 the constraints are
.
la =-le. =li. (5.1-4)

(5.1-5)

(5.1-6)

Note the duality with the VSI constraints in Eq. 5.1-1 to 5.1-3.

5.1-3c The PWM Inverter

The pulse width modulated VSI (usually simply referred to as a PWM inverter) is a variation of the
six step VSI which allows for control of the amplitude of the otput voltage in addition to its frequency.
This is accomplished by utilizing two additional conduction modes in wbich alI three output terminaIs are
connected together to yield a tbree phase line toline short circuit on the Ioad. An illustration of a gatiq
sequence and the resulting conduction modes is shown in Fig. 5.1-5. In this case there is one shortci'cuit
interval at the center of each conduction mode. It is clear that in both intervals the Ioad voltage is uniquely

 Inverter OperatioD & Modelling ,:,

)
reIated to the de voltage whereas there is at most a partial constraint on the load current. Many other
switching st:rntegies are possible for a PWM inverter, alI of which can be shown to result in more compIex
combinations of the six VSI modes and the two zero modes il1ustrated in Fig. 5.1-5. The constraint
"
,)

equations describing the connections imposed by the switches during either zero mode are "

(5.1-7) :)
')
and there is no constraint relation between the inverter current and the motor currents. )
)

Mode 1 l-Zero 2 2-Zero 3 3-Zero :.'

Number ,)
+ + +
+ + + -+ :i'

cc'b ::r ~
~ ~
:6fi6
Mode )

Diagram )
C c
n
a e "

- - - - - - - :)
:)
a) Conduction Modes for PWM )

:,
,
Mode
Nmnber
1 2 3

I
I
4

r
5 6
,
:,

I :)
I ,)
I _I I
I TI. 00 I T&.- on :)
I

Gating
Signals
1
+1
Tb on
1

: Tb+on I
1
,
)

Tb on
- I
,
)
)
)

: Te on
,--
,
)

I I

b) Gating Signals Producing One Notch Per Mode ,,

)

Fig. 5.1-5 An Illustration of Gating Signals and Conduction Modes for a PWM Inverter )

In practi.ce the determination of gating signals to achieve the desired fundamental voltage and )

frequency is accomplished by a variety of modulation techniques. In the early days of PWM all of these
were analog baseei and often sacrificed performance for simpIicity. Virtually alI modulation is now done
,,
)

8 )
)
)

,
)

)
 Inverter OperatioD & ModelliDg

digitallyand many of the problems that plagued earIy PWM systems have now been eliminated.
AdditionaI discussion of PWM techniques is presented in later sections.

5.1-4 Idealized Output Waveforms

Ir we now restrict our anaIysis to the steady state and treat vi and ii as constant dc quantities Vi and
li, the conduction mode constraints permit determining the output voltage waveforms in the VSI and the
output current waveforms in the CSI. These waveforms are illustrated in Figs. 5.1-6 and 5.1-7.
The line to line voltage waveform for vab can be verified by observing lhe constraint on vab in each
of the oonduction modes. Thus in mode 1 vab is equal to Vi, in mode 2 it is zero, in mode 3 it is -V i, etc.,
to the end of mode 6. The resulting 120 wide rectangular wave with amplitude Vi is shown in Fig. 5.1
6. The remaining two line to line voltages are identicaI except for phase shift with vbc lagging by 120 and 0

Vca lagging by 240. In the absence of neutral currents (zero sequence) and assuming a symmetricalload
such as an electricaI machine. the phase voltages (line to neutra! voltages) can be determinec::l as follows.
The expressions for the line to line voltages in terms of the phase voltages are

(5.1-8)

(5.1-9)

(5.1-10)

To find Yan, subtract Eq. 5.1-10 from Eq. 5.1-8 toyield

(5.1-11)

if there is no zero sequence current (no neutml connection)

(5.1-12)

and if the load is symmetric, this equation can be multiplied through by the effective impedance to yield

(5.1-13)

from which Eq. 5.1-11 becomes

(5.1-14)

and the phase yoltage is thus given by

(5.1-15)

9
 :)
Inverter Operation & Modelling )

Mode
Number
+
1
+
2
+
3
+
4 5 6
,)

,,
+ +

~ ~ ~ :r:! ]r

)
Mode
Diagram )
:)
- - - - - - :>
:i I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
)
J
Vab
V:1 .
I I I I
:)

:~

I I I

I
I
I
I I
I
:,

I I
Line I I I )
I I I I
to V I J
Line bc I I I I
I I I I :)
Voltages
I I I I
I I I :)
I I I I ')
. Vca I I

,
I I I I
)
,
I I
I
I
I
I

I
~
J
I I I I I I

I I I I I I :)

I I I I
,~/3Vi
I
" I I I :)
.2/3"\j I
V
an
I .l
I
I ::)
I
I

~:
I I i I I I :>

I I I I I

Line I I I I :)
to V bn I I I
I .J :)
NeurraJ. I
I
Voltages I I
I
I I I :)
I I I I I I :)
I I I I

Vcn
I I
I
I ,)

I
I
I I ....... :)
I I I I
:>
Fig.5.1-6 Output Waveforms for VSI Inverter with Constant input Voltage Vi ')
:)
')
with similar results for the other phases .:)
:)
Vbc - vab
vbn= 3 (5.1-16) ,)
:)

(5.1-17) :.'
:)
:)
"
10 ')
:)
)

J
)
')
 Inverter Operation & Modelling

Mode
Number
1 2 3 4 5 6
+ + + + +
-c
""\
Mode
Diagram
Y ~ Y 0\ Y :6
- - - - - -
:~
I I I I I
I I I I I
I I I
I1 I I I I
la

:~
I I I
I I I
I

I
I I
I
I
,
I I
I
I
I
Line ib
turrents I I
I
, I
I I I I
I I I I
I I I

le
I
I
.
I
J I
J J I

,
I I I I
I
I
I
I
I
I ,
I
~
I
I
I
I
I
I , I I
I I
I

I I I I
,~/3Ii
I
I I I I
.
lac .2/3 I i
i
I

I
I
, I

~:
I
I I i I I
Phase
Cmren~
I
I
I

I
,
I I
I
I
I
I I
in 100 I

--I I

Delta
I I ,
I
I I
I
I
I
I ,
I I I
~
I
I

ieb
I I
I
I
I
I ,
I I r-
I
I I

Fig.5.1-7 Output Waveforms for CSI Inverter with Constant input Voltage li

The line to neutra! voltages found from these expressionsare also illustrated in Fig. 5.1-6and clearly
exhibit a six step charncter which leads to the name six step VSI.
As can be seen by comparing Rgs. 5.1-6 and 5.1-7. the line voltage in the VSI and the line current
in the CSI have identical wavefonns. To complete the duality between the VSI and CSI, Fig. 5.1-7
illustrates the wavefonns of the phase currents in a A-connected Joad which are identical to the phase .
voltages in a Y -connected load on a VSI. Thus, for complete duality it is necessary to compare a VSI with
a Y -connected load to a CSI with a A-connected Joad. Since it is common practice to consider all motor

11

 :,

Inverter OperatioD & Modelling

,
loads as Y-connected, this is the practice which will be foIlowed in this text and as a result there are ;,:>
departures from exact duality (in terms of constants) in the representations of VSI and CSI inverters.
)
The waveforms produced by a PWM inverter are dependent on how tbe modulation strategy
switches from mode to made and in how the zero modes are utilzed. For tbe simpIe one notch per mode
gating signals illustrated in Fig. 5.1-5 the output waveforms are easily generated by inspection ofthe mode
,
)

)
diagrams as was done for the VSl in Fig. 5.1-6. The result is illustrated in Fig. 5.1-8. Clearly, even this , )
very simple single notch scheme results in waveformswith a reduced fundamental component and altered :)

"
harmonic content. PWM operation is utilized to obtain controI over the fundamental component, for

example, to achieve control of the voltslhz ratio. At the same time it is possible to control the harmonic :)

content to achieve a reducton in the harmonic losses of the motor. ar some other property of the drive. As :)
might be expected there have been many modulation techniques developed and used over the years. lt is :)
not the purpose of this section to explore these modulation techniques in detail and a single example of a )

very common strategy will serve to illustrate a widely used technique. Fig. 5.1-9 illustrates lhe ramp
.:)
.;)
comparison or sine-triangle modulation scheme in which lhe reference signaI (often a sinusoid) is
:)
)
Mode
NlUIlber
1 2 3 4 5 6 :)

Mode
+
a
+
., :)

n :)
Diagram
,)
')
:)
.)
~~b~~-L----~~-----r----~'- ____r-~-r----;--------+----~~----r-- ~)

to ;)
~
Voltages

vbc~------~----~~~----~~----~------~----~r-~-----r~----p--
,
)

)
)
)
Line
00 vm~~~____~____~L--+~~~~~~~__~____~r--+____~~____~ ,
,
Neutra!

Voltage )

)
Fig. 5.1-8 PWM Waveform with Doe Notch per Mode Using Gating Signals ofFig. 5.1-5 )
)
compared to a triangular wave of substantially higher frequencyand somewhat higher magnitude. At each
crossing point the inverter switching device is switched as shown in Fig. 5.1-9. It is clear that the result is ,
)

12 )
)
)

,
)

')
 Inverter OperatioD, & M;ooelng

a series of pulses whose widths are somewhat proportionaI to the magnitude of the reference wave. In the
case of a sinusoidal reference, the pulse widths are sinusoidally varying resulting in quite smalllow order
hannonic content Also, the fundamental oUlput voItage can be shown to be linearly related to the
reference voltage until the reference becames dose to the triangle amplitude. TIs scheme is generally
representative of modulation schemes employing a carrier and producing a nearly fixed switching
frequency in the inverter. The other dass is the hysteresis modulators in which the switching frequency is
not under direct contral. For the purposes af this section the exact nature of the modulator is not
important; it is sufficient to simply recognize the ability of the PWM invel1ier to provide contraI af the
fundamental component of the three phase ac output valtages.

Reference
Wave

-
"I
V- i""""'" , r- a+on

~ -
Gating
\ Signal
I
~ ~ Reference
1\ Wave
- -- :::::: ~ - _a-on

Fig. 5.1-9 Generation of Sine-Triangle PWM Gating SignaJ.

5.2 Fundamental Component Equivalent Cireuits

For certain purposes it is sufficient to consider only the fundamental component of nonsinusoidal
wavefollIlS. In electric machine analysis this is a common approximation since it is easily shown that the
harmanics result in very littIe average torque. Thus when the drive torque characteristics are desired,
neglecting alI hannonics and representing only the fundamental component bebavior is quite acceptable.
Incarporating the hannonics (or Ca.rying out time domain solutions) is justified only in cases where
wavefanns, tarque pulsations, efficiencies, ar other internaI details af aperation are the desired results.
The simplification resulting from neglecting hannonics is very significant and is the basis for the inverter
equivalent circuits presented in a this section.

5.2 Fourier Series for VSI and CSI Steady State Waveforms
The Fourierseries representing the steady state wavefonns for the VSI as shown in Fig. 5.1-6 are:

13
 Inverter OperatioD"& ModelliDg

(5.2-1)

(502-2)

where 8 x = oot +6 xO is determined by the inverter switching rateand the time zero reference (the time
reference has been chosen differently for the two series to keep the expressions as simple as possible)o
Figo 502-1 illustrates the fundamental component and the acrual waveforms for the VSI.

a) VSI Line Voltage

;Vj= O.636Vi

---+---------
b) VSI Phase Voltage

Figo 5.2-1 Fundamental Component Relationships for a VSI

The corresponding results for the CSI are obtained by replacing v and V with i and I

o
lL= n2Y3 Ii [smo 6L-51 0n58L-71 smo 76L+rr1 smo 118L+ .00 ]
8l (5.2-3)

14
 IDverterOperatioD & ModelliDg

(5.2-4)

The output voltage wavefonns for a PWM- vsr inverter can be described by the Fourier series

(5.2-5)

(5.2-6)

where the "PWM coefficients" ~ are dependent on the specific type of PWM mociulation employed For
the case iIlustrated in Fig. 5.1-4and 5.1-9, the value of aj can be written as afunctionof a, tbe length of
the short circuit submode. Note that as defined, aI is always equal to or less than one.

5.2-2. Fundamental Component Approximation

Retainingonly the fundamental termyields the fQl10wing relations between therms line voltage V L
and phase voltage V. andtbeinverterdc voltageVi in a VSI.

(5.2-7)

Note that. as expected, the line to line and phase voltages have the ratio.J3 .Similar relations for the CSI
relating the rms line and phase currents IL and I. (~-connection) to the inverter de eurrent li can also be
written

(5.2-8)

For the PWM-VSI, the relations are similar to those for the VSl in Eq. 5.2-7 except that the "PWM ratio
aI is present as a multiplier as shown in Eq. 5.1-9.

(5.2-9)

These equations express the basic constraint relations of the three inverter types; input-output voltage
constraints for the VSI and PWM and input-output currentconstraints forthe CSl. They describe thedc to
BC fundamental component transfer relation for the directly controlled quantity for each type of inverter.

15

 Innrter OperatioD & Modelling

5.2-3 Power Balance and the Auxiliary Inverter Constraints

There remains the question of the transfer relation for the other (auxiliary) variable; eurrent in the
VSI and voltage in the CSI. This auxiliary relation is not detennined by the inverter alone since it is clear
that the switching constraints do not completely specify the auxiliaI)' variable. Because of the degree of
freedom in the auxiliary variable SWtching constraints, the nature of the load has an important impact on
the transfer relation. A detailed analysis of the auxiliaI)' variable transfer relation is presented in reference
4. For our purposes it is much simpler to consider the overall input-output power balance and to
determine the auxiliary variable transfer relation on this basis. The procedure is illustrated for the six step
VSI; tbe other cases are handled in exa.ctly the same way and only the results are presented.
For the VSI, the input-output voltage relation is known (Eq. 5.2-7) but lhere remains the problem of
determining the input-output current relation. If we assume that the inverter behaves as an ideal de 10 sine
wave converter (i.e., assume the total de input power is converted to fundamental frequency power in the
)
output) we can write for a Y -connected load

(5.2-10)
"

,
)

where 9 =power factor angle of the load. Introducing the value of the phase voltage V. fromEq. 5.2-7,
)
,
and solving for the inverter input current li yields the following input-output CUITent relation
,,
~

(5.2-11)
,
The interpretation of this result is that only the in phase or power component of the output current is "

')
reflected to the input of the inverter and hence, by implication, that the quadrature OI reactive component
circulates inside the inverter in the form of lhe short circuit current sbown in the conduetion made diagram
of Fig. 5.1-3. A more complete analysis which yields the same result is contained in reference 4. The ',)
,
)

effect of harmonics and an explicit method of handling the inverter short circuit current are presented in ,)
this reference. )
The corresponding result for the CSI, obtained. with the same type of power balance relation, is

3-./6
,, )

Vi = """jt"'V. cose =2.34 V. cose (5.2-12)

')
,
In this relation, and for the remainder of the chapter. we assume Y -connected loads on both VSI and CSI.
The difference in the constaot in Eq. 5.2-12 compared to Eq. 5.2-11 is a result of the adoption of a Y
.,
.)
connected load rather than the exact dual of a ~ -connected for the CSI. The latio of the two constants is ...j3 ,)
as would be expected. )
)
16
,, )

)
)
)
 Inverter OperatioD & Modelling

For the PWM-VSI, the result corresponding to Eq. 5.2-11 becomes

(5.2-13)

where the only change from Eg. 5.2-11 is the addition ofthe PWM ratioal asa multiplyingfactornthe
equation.

5.2-4 Per Phase Equivalent Circuits

The input-output transfer relations given by Eqs. 5.2-7 and 5.2-11 for the VSI, Eqs. 5.2-8 and 5.2
12 for the CSI, and Eqs. 5.2-9 and 5.2-13 for the PWM-VSI can be convcniently expressed in equivalent
circuit form if ali quantities of interest are referred to the ac side of each inverter. Again using the VSI to
illustrate lhe method, observe tbat
1) the ac side equivalent of the inverter input voltage is given, oD a per phase basis, by Eg. 5.2-7

(5.2-14)

2) the current constraint relation, Eq. 5.2-11, can be written as

(5.2-15)

which expresses the ac side equivalent of the inverter input eunent li in terms of the inphase
component of the load current
A simple equivalent cireuit whch is described by Egs. 5.2-14 and 5.2-15 is shown in Fig. 5.2-2.

lnductive
Load

Fig. 5.2-2 Partial Per Phase Fundamental Component Equivalent Circuit of Three Phase Six Step VSI

At lhe right hand end of the cireuit are the inverter equivalent line to neutral output terminaIs
connected to the load. The rms phasor voltage and current at the load are V. dO' =(...J2;1t)Vj dO and
ILei fl . Connected in parallei is a variable reactiveelement (a capacitor for an inductive load) which cancels

17

 ':)
Inverter OperatiOR & ModeUing :)
)
the reactive part of the load current This element represents the effect of lhe inverter short cireuit currents
and is inherently continuously adjusted to be in parallel resonance with. the load impedance. To the left of
:>
:,)
this element the current is the inverter input current referred to lhe ac side cf lhe inverter give by the
::)
expression (1t/3{2)Ii (Eq. 5.2-15). The input and output voltage is the same and equal to the phase
:>
voltage Vcp given by (Vil1t)Vi (Eq.5.2-14). The inverter functions as a source ofthe reactive power
required by the load; continuously adjusting its supply of reactive power (adjusting the value of the shunt
':,
:)
reactive element) to be exactly equal to the reactive demand of the load. .,")
A more complete equivalent circuit including the resistance R; in the.dc link supplying lhe inverter :)
input teIminals can be constructed as shown in Fig. 5.2-3. The actual voltage drop is Rci:Ii. but this must :)
:)
:)

:),
:)'
3t
d'~... I . = IL cos
3 V2
e ,:)'
+ 1

V2u
-.vdc~
'0
lnductive
Load ):
:11:
:S
:)
:):
:,
Fig. 5.2-3 Per Phase Fundamental Component Equivalent Circuit of Three Phase Six Step VSI :)'
:S
be referred to the ac side by multiplying the voltage transfer ratio V2ht to yield (-/iJ'!t)Rac li' Since the ac :J
side inverter input current is (rrJ3-/i)Ii , the referred value of Rct: becomes :,
:,
(5.2-16)
:j
:S
The input voltage to lhe dc link Vct:, can also be referred to the ac side by multiplying by ~2flr to complete
lhe diagramo The power balance equation for Fig. 5.2-3
,
j

:)

,
:~

which reduces to
,
:)

:)
:)
:,
)
:t
,,
verifies that the circuit correctly represents the per phase power relations of the inverter.
:
18

:
:)

,
:)
 IDverterOperatioD>& Modelliag

Fig. 5.2-4 presents the corresponding equivalent circuit for the CSI. In this ~ the reactive element
is in series with the load eurrent to represent the reactive voltage developedas a result ofthe open cireuit
inherent in the CSI switching modes. As for the VSI, the reflected effect of de link resistance isincluded
in the cireuit for those cases where the source f eeding the CSI is a voltage source. If tbe input to the CSI
can be represented as a current source, the resistance and equivalent ac side voltage source can be omitted
and replaced by the current source.

'Jt2
-Rdc
18
V. sin 8/2!t
- +

+ r I nducti.ve
Load

Fig. 5.2-4 Per Phase Fundamental Component Equivalent Cireuit ofThree Phase SixStep CSI

For the PWM-VSI inverter, comparison of Eq. 5.2-7 with 5.2-~ and Eg. 5.2-11 with 5.2-13 reveals
that the influence of the PWMcontrol is to introduee the PWM ratio ai in lexactly the fonn of the turn Itio
of a transformer. This suggests the modification of tbe VSI equivalent cireuit of Fig. 5.2-3 to produce the
PWM-VSI equi valent circuit shown in Fig. 5.2-5. The variable ratio l:al transformer is a very cotripact
and convenient means of representing the effect of PWM-control.

+
Inductive
Load

Fig. 5.2-5 Per Phase Fundamental Component Equivalent Circuit of the Three Phase PWM-VSI Inverter

19

 Inverter Operation& Modelling

The circuits of Figs. 5.2-3, 5.2-4 and 5.2-5 can be used to analyze the steady state fundamental
frequency behavior of VSI and CSI inverters feeding any type of balanced linear load. Examples of their
use in induction and synchronous motor drive systems are presented in later sectionS. The variable
reactive elements in the circuits are the fundamental frequency representations of the inherent ability of lhe
inverters to supply the reactive power required by the load. This capability is unique to polyphase
inverters since in polyphase systems the electromagnetica11y stored energy associated with inductive or
capacitive loads (reactive power) can be circulated between the phases and need not circulate back through :>
the source. Since in this chapter the loads are assumed to be balanced three phase loads, all that is really I')
"
required is a means of transferring the stored energy fram phase to phase. For inductive loads this transfer
mechanism is provided by the short circuit paths in the VSI and by the commutation of current from pbase
to phase in the CSI. For capacitive loads the transfer occurs at commutation in the VSI and in the open
circuited phase in the CSI. Thus, the accuracy of the representation depicted in tb.e circuits is better for the
"natural" cases of inductive loads on the VSI or capacitive loads on the CSI. but can be applied to the olher
cases if care is used in interpreting the results and the likely occurrence of commutation "spikes" associated
-,
'""
)
with the reactive energy transfer is recognized.
:,
:)
5.3-0 Applieation of Inverter Equivaleut Cireuits
The inverter equivalent circuits presented in the previous sections can be applied to detennine the ,,~

fundamental frequency behavior of a great variety of inverter drive system configurations. As noted
earlier, the torque characteristics detemlined by this approach wiIl be excellent approximations to the actual ,)

torque characteristics because tb.e harmonics produce very little average torque. The fundamental
frequency voltages and currents will also be good approximations to the corresponding quantities for the ,)

actual systems; however, lhe harmonic voltages and currents will result in wavefonns which are usually
not well approximated by the fundamental component alone. Illustrations of some of the actual wavefonns ,,
t

to be expected in specific systems are presented to illustrate this point.

The applications presented here inc1ude only a small sample of the range of systems that can be )
studied using the inverter equivalent circuits. The examples have been chosen to include many systems in
common use and to illustrate some of the many types of inverter-machine interactions tha.t occur. Drive .,
)

configurations differ in ooe or more of the following ways:

,)

1) type of inverter - VSI. CSI. PWM-VSI )

2) type of ioput power source - contralled voltage, controlled current, controlled impedance )
3) type of machine - induction, synchronous )
4) type of externai feedback contral. )
)
Each of these variations can produce a significant change in the overall equivalent circuit and the resulting )
steady state fundamental frequency behavior. Some of the possible variations are described and discussed
in lhe following sections. ,j

)
20
,,
)

,,
)
 Inverter OperatioD & Modelling

5.3-1 VSI Fed Indudion Machines

A VSI driven bya dc voltage source provides a variable frequencyac voltage source which is well
suited to driving a conventional induction motor. The overall equivalent cireuit for such a system is shown
in Fig. 53-1. The drive is usually programmed to operare at constant voltslhertz ar with a somewhat

6
--zRdc rI j Xl j X2
Jt

+
"'"
.... "'"
12
...
11

-
" jXm ~rm -S
r2

Fig. 5.3-1 Fundamental Component Equivalent Circuit for an lnduction Machine

Fed by a de Voltage Driven VSI

increased volts/hertz ratio at lower frequencies. This configuration represen18 a situation in which the
inverter-macrune interacti.on is relatively small. In fact, theonly aspectofthe system which differsfrom
an ideal variable frequency source feed.ing an induction motor is that the re.active power required by the
motor is supplied by the inverter (byth variable capacitor in Fig. 5.3-1). This results inthe source
impedance voltage drop (in ~ being proportional to only the power component of the. motor .currentand
not to the total current The effeet of ~ is therefore somewhat different than thestator resistance Rl' If
it were desired to treat ~ as having the effect of increasing RI , it would be necessary to incorporate the
motor power factor into the correction to yield

(5.3-1)

(where cos e : : motor power factor) as the new value of equivalent RI' For a given input dc voltage, this
then requires an iterative solution since cos e is not known UIltil the slip is detennined.
Ina well designed VSI system the voltage drop in Rck will be small and can usually benegleeted .
except <:1t low speeds. If it is d~ to include Rei: in calculations, the simplest method is to assume a
motor voltage, calculate motor currents, add in tbe Rct: drop and then ratio alI voltages and currents to
obtain the desired leveI of the de excitation for the value of slip under study. Fig. 53-2 is a typical speed
torque curve obtained by this procedure illustrating the influence of Rct: on the overall perfonnance. Note

21

 Innrter Operation & Modelling

that the effectis similar to increasing RI except at very low power factor operation (i.e., near s =O and s =
1).

including Rdc
neglecting R dc

Torque ..

Fig.5.3-2 Speed-Torque Characteristic of VSI Driven Induction Motor

If the VSI were replaced by a PWM-VSI, very much the same remarks can be made. The only
change in the equivalent circuit would be the addition of the variable l:al ratio transfonner. One important
result of this inclusion is that the referred value of the source impedance Rtt: is now multiplied by a1 2 and
hence the source impedance effect is diminished with PWM operation especially at low frequencies.
Fig. 5.3-3 shows the predicted current waveforms for a VSI driven inductionmachine. The
fundamental components of the currents are also shown. For the machine illustrated, which is typical of a
standard NEMA B machine, the harmonics have an important effect on peak current but the fundamental
current is easily visualized as being the most significant current component As can be seen in the figure,
the effect of the harmonics is more significant in the no load case. This is a result of a smaller fundamental
under no load conditions.

5.3-2 Self Excitation in a VSI Fed Indudion Machine

An interesting and important case where the inverter-machine interaction is very significant occurs in
induction generator operator of a VSI fed induction machine. This can occur in a drive system subject to
10ss of the primary dc supply (special case of dynamic braking) or in an application as a self excited
generntor. In these situations the variable capacitor in the VSI equivalent circuit serves as the source of
reactive power and supplies the magnetizing current required to sustain the self excited condition.

22
 Inverter OperatiOD & ModelliDg

VSI Phase Voltage

No Load Current

FuIl Load Current

Fig. 53-3 Phase Currents for VSI Fed lnduction l'v1achine

The equivalent circuit for this mode of operation is obtained by simply replacing the dcsource
equivalent in Fig. 5.2-3 by a short circuit. Fig. 53-4 illustrates the physiQl1 system and theresuIting
equivalent circuito The value of Rir is the referred value of the actual inverter load resistance RI and is
given by

(5.3-2)

R 'I couId also represent the per phase value of one of the resistors in an ac side bank of load resistors.
For steady state equilibrium the equivalent circuit of Fig. 5.3-4 yields the constraint relation

1 (5.3-3)
R'r + GIN=O

23
 IDverter Operation & Modelling

+
RI V.I

a) Physical System

j X2

RI.
1 JXm J.lm r2
S
,)
,)
:)
b) Equivalent Cireuit :)
")
.)
Fig. 53-4 Self Excited VSI Driven Induction Generator
)
:)
where GIN is the real part of the input admittance of the induction machine. For a fIxed value of rotor
"

speed and a specific value of slip, the constraint relation in Eq. 5.3-3 can not be satisfIed with a set of :,
constant machine parameters. Considering the magnetizing inductance Lm to be a variable, dependent on
:)
the magnetization characteristic relating Lm and air gap voltage. yields the additional degree of freedom :,
required to satisfy Eq. 5.3-3. With this approach, the constraint of Eq. 5.3-3 is solved for Lm. as a :,
function of slip for a specific set of machine pammeters, load resistance and speed. Any specific slip tb.en )
determines the required Lm which, in tum, determines the flux levei and induced voltage fram the :,
magnetization characteristic relating Lm and air gap voltage. The situation is illustrated in Fig. 5.3-5.
A complete analysis of VSI inverter self excitation is contained in reference 1. To illustrate the
J
,,
method and the type of results obtainable, consider the case of no load operation (RI I -> 00). The result of
applying Eg. 5.3-3 to this case is sufficiently simple to allow expressing the solution in the form of an :)
equation relation L.m and S. The result is
,, )

( RILnS2 )2 _ RI R22 + (SwLa)2

(5.3-4) )
SR2 + S2R} o:J2 SR2 + S2R1
)
24
,, )

,
;)
:,
 Inverter Operation & Modelling

Constraint Magnetization
Relation Characteristic

s-.

~
S

Fig.53-5 Determination of Air Gap Voltage Under VSI Inverter SelfExcitation

Several properties of the system are immediately appa.rent from inspection of Eq. 53-4:
1) there is at most one real valued positive solution for Lm at a ~'ven slip and frequency.
2) there is a limited range of slip over which solutions exist, bounded by the solutiODS of

whichare

(53-5)

and
3) the value of Lm approaches infinity atthese two values of slip and hence a minimum exists
somewhere between these boundmy values.

These properties are sufficient to provide an understanding of the inreractions involved in the self
excitation processo The equilibrium constraint relation (Eq. 53-3) determines the curve relating Lm and S

25

 ~,

')
Inverter Operation& Modelling
)
shown at the left in Fig. 5.3-5. For a particular value of s, the corresponding L.n detennines the air gap )
fiux on the magnetization curve as illustrated in the upper right of Fig. 5.3-5. The entire air gap voltage :)
vs. slip characteristic can thus be detem1ined and would appear as shown in the lower right on this figure. :)
For smaII values of slip a very simple relation between Lm and S is obtained from Eq. 5.3-4 by ~)
neglecting terms in S2 :')
:)
(5.3-6)
,:,
~,

This result clearly demonstrates the importance of the machine resistances in establishing the Lm vs. )
S characteristic. It is useful to consider the result of Eq. 5.3-6 from the point of view of the equivalent ~)

circuit of Fig. 5.3-4. The reduced circuit for small slip and no load is shown in Fig. 53-6 along with the
applicable phasor diagramo Since S is small. 12 is small compared to Im ando therefore,
,
)

)
)
)
)

11 Tm~ +412 ,,
)

f2 )
\7ao
,,
0
S )

,
)

,,
)

)
)
)

,
)

,)

,,
)

Fig.5.3-6 Self Excited VSI Fed Induction Machine at No Load and Small Slip

,,
)

26

,"'
.)

)
.
 Inverter OperatiOD & Modelliag
(5.3-7)

The equilibrium relation for small S (Eq. 5.3-6) is obtained by equating the (negative) power in R2/S to the
stator loss

(5.3-8)

With this interpretation equilibrium is attained when the stator losses, whieh increase as saturation
increases, are just suffieient to balance tbe power converted from mechanical formo Thus, an increase in
slip results in more converted power and an increase in satUIation. From lhis point of view it is clear that
additional stator cireuit losses (inverter losses) can be eonsidered to increase RI whereas core and eddy
eurrent losses can be added in paraIlel to R2/S and effectively increase thevalue of R2 (since S is
negative). Thus the additionallosses in a practica1 system can be ineorporated by increasing the values of
RI and R2 although the non-obmie nature of the inverter and ore losses can cause anomalous behavior.
The addition of lhe load -r-esistanee RI' to the inverter input terminaIs causes a mueh more
complicated analysis problem. The general effect of adding load is to shift the Lm vs. S curve in Fig..
5.3-5 upward and to the left This results in larger values of Lm for any specific value of Sand hence
tends to lower the excitation leveI. For.a sufficiently large load, the value of Lm will exceed the maximum
attainable Lm and self exatation wiIl cease. Reducing the speed has an effect very similar to inereasing the
load.
This example clearly demonstrates the value of the inverter equivalent circuit in providing a basis for
analyzing a situation where the inverter-machine interaction is adominant effect Note how it is easily
possibIe to incorporate other phenomena associated with the conventional equivalent circuit (saturation of
Lm) into the overall analysis. This is a major advantage of equivalentcirc:uit methods.

5.3-3 CSI Fed Non-Salient Pole Synchronous Machine

As a second example of a strong inverter machine interaction a CSI driving a synchronous machine
will be examined. This is also an important practical drive system currenlly widely used at very large
power leveIs (::= 1000 hp or more). The basie system is illustrated in Fig. 53-7. lt consists of a
synehronous machine, a CSI,a controllable de source and means to controI the field excitation, the firing
of the CSI thyristors and the levei of the de source. The nature of the control means and the origins of the
controI signals are irrelevant in the sensethat the mcxieIs to be developed apply only to steady state and
wiIl describe any system with the basic CSI-synchronous machine configuration ofFig.53-7.
The complete equivalent circuit describing tbe ftmdamental component steady state behavior ofthe
system of Fig. 5.3-7 is obtained by connecting the CSI equivalent circuit of Section 5.2 to the
conventional equivalent circuit of a non-salient pole synchronous machine. Theresulting overall
equivalent eircuit is illustrated in Fig. 5.3-8.

27
 InverterOperatioD & ModelJing

Three
Phase --+--..of
Supplv--+--+---1

Field
Winding

+
Voltage
ControI Gating
Field
Control
Si gnaI s Signals Signals

F~g. 5.3-7 CSI Driven Synehronous Machine

+ r
Fig. 53-8 Complete Equivalent Cireuit for CSI Driven Synchronouc; Machine

In this circuit the CSI is represented by an ac source proportional to the de input voltage, a series
resistance proportional to the de link resistance and a variable series connected reactive element (illustrated
in Fig. 53-8 by a variable capacitor). Recall that, as explained in section 5.2-4, this series reactive
element represents the reactive power characteristie of the CSI. It is eontinuously self-adjusted to
be in series resonance with the equivalent reactance of the load to medel the reactive power supply
properties of the inverter.

28

 Inverter OperatioD & ModeIHng

All of the voltages and currents in the circuit of Fig. 5.3-8 are rms tine to neutral values. The
current I L is the rms line current anel is related tothe inverter input CWTent li by lhe scale factor{6/x as
shown in the figure. The power in the circuit is one third ofthe total power into the system as can be
verified by calculating the power input as

(5.3-9)

The voltage at the machine tenninals is V1> eiS where 6 is the power factor angle ofthe machine. Since the
series reactive element absorbs the component of voltage in quadmture with the current, on1y the voltage
component in phase with the current remains on the input side of this element. This voltage is shown
labeled as v. cose ei0 in Fig. 5.3-8.
Fig. 53-9 presents phasor diagrams for the system for a fixed value of input voltage Vd: and a fIXed
internal power factor angle y (not the tenninal power factor 6). This is a widely used made of operation
and requires some type of feedback control to maintain the current at a fixed phase angle with respect to the
internal emf E. In more physical tenns, the mmf of the three pbase currents must be controlled to maintain
a fIXed spatial angle with respect to the field mmf (the same task accomplished by' the omrilutator ma de .
machine). The CSI provides a convenient means foraccomplishing this task since controUing the gate
signals controlsthe stator current phase angles.

lu 11.2 11.3 ~CQSe ~cose

: Vcp3
I
Vf3

Rs Neglected

Fig. 53-9 Phasor Diagrams for CS1 Driven Synchronous Machine

Vd:: and y Held Constant and Rtt: = O

29

 :)
')
Inverter OperadOR & Modelling "

The diagrams are drawn with the current as reference since the current is the same everywhere in the
equivalent circuit For simplicity the dc link resistance is neglected in drawing the diagrams; clearly the
effect of Roc is to simpIy increase the apparent value of the stator resistance. In Fig. 53-9a the behavior of
the system for three different loaci currents is illustrated neglecting the stator resistance as well as Ra:
+
With V: constant and neglecting dc link resistance the in phase voltage V cose is constant. As the load
current varies, the tip of the Vep-vector moves vertically in the jILXs direction as shown in the figure. The
quadrature component of voltage Vq> sinS is absorbed by the variable reactive element; in the case
illustrated this element would be a variable inductance since the machine is assumed to be operated with
Ieading power factor to allow for load commutation of the CSI. The diagram clearly illustrates the
reduction in voltage and increase in power factor required as the load current increases. For the
resistanceless case of Fig. 53-9a, E remains constant as the loaci varies and hence for fixed field excitation
the machine speed would remain constant Since alllosses are neglected. the torque is proportional to IL
and the speed-torque characteristic for this case is a constant speed straight line like a resistanceless de
shunt motor.
The influence of the stator resistance is illustrated in Fig. 53-9b. Wi th R; still taken as zero,
Vcp cose is still constant and the effect ofRg isto simply add in a horizontal IL Rs drop.. Thisbas-the effect
of reducing the amplirude of E as the current increases. For fixed field excitation this implies tbat the
speed of the machine is reduced (which requires a reduced inverter frequency). The speed-torque curve
now shows a decrease in speed.as the Ioad increases similar to a de shunt motor.
Since the reactive voltage drop is always exactly compensated by the variable reactive element in the
inverter model, only the in phase components of the various voltages need be represented to model the
overall system. This leads to the reduced equivalent circuit of Fig. 5.3-10 where only the in phase
component of each voltage has been retained. Note that since the jILXs voltage is entirely a quadrature
component it disappears entireIy. The voltage E cosy is the com.ponent of E which is in phase with the
current IL . Although the circuit of Fig.53-1O is still an ac circuit, alI the voltages are in phase and
ordinary algebra can be used to relate the various quantities. Clearly the circuit is similar to that
representing a de machine when 'Y is constant :)
.1)
.,
Calculation of the torque is a simple matter of calculating the power in the circuit and accounting for
the 12R losses. The result is

(5.3-10)

where 3 is the number of phases and the relation

E=kcpro (5.3-11)

30

 JDverter OperatioD & Modelliag

is used to define the direct axis open eireui! flux cp. ~Thistype of definition completes theanalogy to the de
rnachine. I t is important to emphasize that whiIe the phasor diagrams of Fig. 5.3-9 are drawn for fixed
values of Voc andy, the eireuit of Fig. 5.3-10 is eompIetely general and applies regardless of the variation
of the various quantities.

+ +

. Fig. 5.3-10 Reduced Equivalent Circuit for CSI Dri venSyn:chrenousMachine :

WhiIe the reduced circuit of Fig. 5.3-10 is sufficient to evaluate overall system peIfonnance, the stator
circuit pbasor diagram is needed to evaluate some of the internai system quantities. Thus, for example,
wi th fixed values of V: nd 'Y, the circuitpennits caleulating the system CUITent and torque vs speed
characteristics. To evaluate the terminal voltage of the synchronous machilIle or the stator power factor
requires use of the conventional phasor diagram as asecond step in the analysis. A~ a second example,
for operation with fixed V d:: and frequency (and hence E), the circuit permits evaluation of the relation .
between cu.rrent and'Y and between torque and y. A subsequent calculation using the, phasor diagram will ,
yield the terminal voltage and power factor.

5.3-4 CSI Fed Salient Pole Maehine

The analysis of a CSI fed salient pole machine is somewhat moreinvolved because of the more
complex relationsbips describing the synchronous machine. In fact, no counterpart to the complete circuit
of Fig. 5.3-8 exists because there is no stator referred equivalent circuit for the salient pole machine.
However, as is demonstrated below, there is a reduced equivalent circuit which deserihes a CSI-salient
pole synchronous machine system.
Fig. 5.3-11 is a phasor diagram for a salient pole machine operating at an internal power factor angle
y. As a result of the existence of the two reactive voltages jlcYCd and jIqXq> the total non-resistive voltage
drop caused by the current is no longer in quadrature with the current Therefore, unlik.e the situation
illustrated in Fig. 5.3-9, operation with fixed Vck and fixed y does not result in a fixed value of E. Hence,
even neglecting alI resistance. the speecl of a salient pole machine will vary as the load changes unlike the

31

 Inverter Operaon & Modelling

)
case of the non-salient pole machine. This suggests that there must be an equiYalent resistance resulting
J
from the saliency that appears in a reduced equivalent circuit similar to Fig. 53-10. "

:)
':,
J
~cos8
~--------~~-r~~ :)
"
')"
I
I
Vcp I
I
I
I
I

'jI~Xq
-------1:

Fig. 5.3-11 Phasor Diagram of Salient Pole Synchronous Machine

The equivalent circuit for the CSI driven salient pole machine can be deriYed by developing an
expression for the in pbase (with the current) voltage from the geometry of Fig. 53-11. From the figure,
the voltages in phase with the current are

V. cos 8 = E cos y - IcYCd cos Y+ IqXq sin y (53-12)

Using the definitions of Id and Iq

(5.3-13)

allows Eq. 5.3-12 to be rewritten as

v. cos 8 =E cos y+ ILsin ycos Y(Xq- Xdl (5.3-14)

32
 Inverter OperadOD & ModeJling

oras

(5.3-15)

These last two equations illustrate the additional in phase voltage componcmt caused by the saliency and
lead to the reduced equivalent eireuit shown in Fig. 5.3-12.

Req.

+ +

Rcq=sin2y~g; ~
. Fig. 5.3-12 Redced Equivalent Circuit for CSI Driven Salient Pole Synehronous Machine

Although the saliency term is shown as a resistor in Fig. 5.3-12, the power in ~ is not dissipated
as heat but is concerted to mechanical power via the reluctanee torque of the machine. The torque can
again be obtained from the power in the equivalent circuit and is

T =3[ EI L eos y + IL2 (Xg - XJ sin 2y ] (5.3-16)

00 200.

The CSI salient poIe machine is another example of a strong inverter machine interaction. In this case the
reduced equivalent cireuit results in a cireuit model for the inverter-machine system despite the fact that the
machine itself is not described by a simple equivalent eireuit

5.4 Duality or VSI and CSI Systems

The development of the equivalent cireuit models showed that VSI .and CSI systems are dual systems
in t.Da:ny respects. In terms of the basie power cireuit inputloutput constraints, the two systems are exact
duals if we compare a VSI with a wye eonnected Joaci with a CSI with a delta connected load. As a result
of this basie duality and certain other aspects of the types of controIs employed, many of the properties of
VSI and CSI systems exhibit duality as summarized in TabIe 5.4-1.

33
 Inverter OperatioD & Modelling

Table5.4-1

Duality of VSI and CSI Systems

VSI
Output is Constrained Voltage
DC Bus Dominated by Shunt Capacitor
DC Bus Current Proportional to Motor Power
Factor
Output Contains Voltage Harmonics Varying
Inversely with Harmonic Order
Prefers motors with Larger Leakage Reactance
Can Handle Motors Smaller than Rating
DC Bus Current Reverses in Regeneration
Immune to Open Circuits
Relatively Low Load Current Losses &
Relatively High Switching Losses
Relatively Little Fificiency Reduction Caused
by Load Change
CSI
Output is Constrained Current
DC Bus Dominated by Series lnductor
DC Bus Voltage Proportional to Motor Power
Factor
Output Contains Current Harmonics Varying
Inversely with Hannonic Order
Prefers Motors with Smaller Leakage Reactance
Can Handle Motors Larger than Rating
DC Bus Voltage Reverses in Regeneration
Immune to Short Circuits
Relatively High Load Current LoSses &
Relatively Low Switching Losses
Relatively Little Efficiency Reduction Caused
by Speed Change

References
1) D. W. Novotny, D. J. Gritter and G. H. Studtmann, "Self Excitation in Inverter Driven lnduction
Machines". IEEElPAS Transactions, VoI. PAS-96, pp 1117-1125, Ju1y/Aug. 1m.
2) M. Abbas and D. W. Novotny, HStator Referred Equivalent Circuits for Inverter Driven Electric
Machines". IEEFJIAS Annua! Meeting Conference Record, pp 828-835, 1978.

34

 ECE 411

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES

Section 8

INDUCTION MACHINE DYNAMIC RESPONSE

58Pages

1997, D.W.Novotny,T.A.Lipo
 INDUCTION MACHINE OYNAMIC RESPONSE

12.0 Introduction
The study of induction machine dynamic response is relatively complicated
because of the large number of parameters involved nd the fact that a fifth
order dynamic model is required to adequately describe the machine for many
operating conditions. The approach adopted here involves presenting a reduced
set of "transientparameters ll which are adequate to determine the eigenvalues
of the machine for all operating conditions. These parametersare t,hen used
to descr;be the eigenvalue dependence and thus define the character of the
dynamic response. This approach is on1y possible if the limited range of many
of the transient parameters is utilized to al10w presentation of a limited
number of graphical. results which cover most typical machines. The concept of
.an "average machine," the parameters of which depend on the maehine rating, is
then employed to permit a general description of the nature of induction
maehine dynamies for typical, general purpose machines. Modifications of this
typical response resulting from various design alternatives are then treated
to complete the presentation.

12.1 De Machine Dynamics

Because of the complexity of the dynamic behavior of' induction maehines,
it ;s very useful to introduee some of the basic coneepts in terms of the much
simpler situation which exists in the de maehine. S;nce the dynamic behavior
of induction machines operated at suffieiently high frequencies is well
approximated by the simpler results for de machines, it is also useful to
begin with the de machine and introduee the additional complications of
induction maehines as departures from the relatively simple initial case.

12-1

12.1-1 810ck Diagram and Characteristic Eguation

Fig. 12.1-1 illustrates the conventional block diagram representation of
a de shunt motor (fixed field flux) where the mechanieal damping tenm often
included in the diagram is omitted for simplicity. The eigenvalues or closed
100p poles of the system are determined by the closed 100p characteristic
equation

K2 (12.1-1)
1 + (R+pL)(Jp) = O

where p is the differential operator (d/dt) or alternatively the laPlace

operator (s is not used because of its subsequent use as the symbol for ,

slip.). As expres5ed in !q.,12.1~1, tbe-dc machine is clearly a secondorder .-.)

)
system, the eigenvalues of which depend on the four parameters R, L, J and K.
,
,

)
)
TI. .
)

V + I< + - 1

-Jp "'r
)
)

- ~
R+Lp .)

,,
)

K :.
"

,,
v = ARMATURE VOLTAGE (V) R = ARMATURE RESJSTANCE(!l) .)
T = LOAO TORQlJE (nm) L = ARMATURE INOUCTANCE(H) :)
cair = ROrOR SPEEO (rd/s) J := ROTOR INERT1A (k; m2) :)
:)
K = EMF or TORQUE CONSTANT (Vs/rd or n mIa.) :,
~)
''')
Fig. 12.1-1 Block Diagram of DC Shunt Motor ~)

J
"

12-2 ,)
,,
)
 12.1-2 Machine Time Constants

If Eq. 12.1-1 is rewritten in the form

K2 /JR (12.1-2)
1 + = O
p(l + i p)
it is immediately clear that the eigenvalues can be expressed in tenms of only
two parameters; l/R and K2/JR. 80th of these have the dimension of time and
are time constants of the machine. The armature electrical time constant is

(12.1-3 )

and the electromechanical time constant Tm is defined as

(12.1-4)

Asimpl e. i nterpretation of the electromechanieal time eonstant isobtatned by

observing that if the anmature time constant is very short (l+O)>> Eq. 12.1-2

reduees to

1 + K2/JR
)"
= O (with L=O) (12.1-5 )
p

which is a first order sytem eharacterized by the time constant 1m. lhus, Tm
). is the system time constant if eleetrieal trans:ients are very short compared
to the electromechanical transients.
Beeause Tm is assoei ated with the behavi or of the mach i ne when the
el eetri cal transients a're negl i gi bl e, it can be caleulated from the steady
state speed-torque characteristie, i.e. it is time eonstant of the mechanical
system if the steady state speed-torque curve appl ies to transient behavi ore
Quantitatively, the speed torque equation is
V-KI&l 2
r KV K
=---(aJ
T = Ki = K R R R r (12.1-6)

12-3
 )
:)

l
from which the slope of the curve is
,
,)

)
(12.1-7)
:)

and hence Tm can be expressed as ,,

J

Tm = J/(6T/w) = J/slope of torque-speed curve (12.1-8 ) ,

The same interpretation can be made for an induction machine and Eq.
12.1-8 also applies in this case.
,
)

.)
)
12.1-3 Non Dimensional Root Locus '.)
~)
Introducing Ta and Tm in Eq. 12.1-2 yields
~ J
)
l/Tm . :)
1 + p(l+T p) = O (12.1-9)
a l)
,)
which can be written in standard root locus form by factoring out Ta to yield )
)
(12.1-10)
,, )

-. ,
The locus associated with this equation ;s il1ustrated in Fig. 12.1-2a; Note
that the locus requir.es only two parameters compared to the four required to
completely characterize the machine. , )

A further reduction in the number of parameters needed to present the

.,,
! - J
root locus can be achieved by using Ta as a time base to express time in per
unit. With this approach, the non-dimensinal operator ~: is introduced with ,,
the definition :,
= TaP (12.1-11)
\. :,
:)
'-)
and Eq. 12.1-10 reduces to )
.:'
(12.1-12). :)
:J

12-4
,
:)

.)
)

,
)

 GAIN =-L.
TmTa
t~
.... .. ...=!g
GAIN Tm
fi
J

1
GAIN=-2 GAIN s f/4 "\.
4Ta

-In;a ----
Re p -f
......
Re

Ca} (b)

Fig. 12.1-2 Root Locus and Non Dimensional Root lccus .

of De Machine

which results in the non-dimensional root locus of Fig. 12.1-2b. This root
loeus is characterized by the single parameter Ta/Tm and applies to .!ll de
machines. It is easily shown that the double root (breakaway point)
corresponds to Ta/Tm = 0.25; hence any machine having Ta/Tm larger than this
value is characterized by complex eigenvalues.The non-dimensional roots are
given by

12-5
 )
'l
)

l_.~ }
2" +J I '4 - r;; (12.1-13)
= -
,:,

)
(12.1-14)

from which the actual roots for a specific machine are obtained by dividing by
, )

,)
the value of Ta for the machine. )
j
The significance of the non-dimensional root locus is that it describes "

the dynamic response of all dc machines in terms of one root locus and the )
)
single parameter Ta/Tm The number of parameters has been reduced frem the
)
original four (R, L, K, J) to one; the armature time constant is of course ,)

needed to return
analysis.
~~ real time but this is easily done as a last step in the
This same approach will be utilized for the indu:.tion machine,
,
)

)
however, because of the higher order and larger number of parameters it is not
possible to obtaina single root locus for al1 machines and a family of loci
,,
"

are needed. )

12.2 rransi ent Parameters for Inducti on Machi nes , )

)
A complete description of an induction machine requires the five )
equivalent circuit parameters (r"r2,xl,x2,xm)
four operating point variables (V,w,s,Tt ).
plus the inertia J and the
Because of the non-linearity of
,
)

the machine equations, al1 ten of these quantities appear in the linearized ,,

small signal equations. One additional parameter is needed if transient

,

saturation is to be included. However, in the same way as for the dc machine,

the number of quantities needed to describe the eigenvalues can be greatly
,

,
reduced by appropri ate choi ces of the characterizi ng quantiti es. )
The parameters which best characterize the dynamic response of an induction :J
:)
machine are the rotor and stator short circuit time constants T~ and T~, the
:)
el ectromechani cal time constant Tm, the mgnetic parameter a and the operating :)
)
:)

12-6 :)
::)
')
J
 point frequency W o and slip SO.[1,2,3] To represent the dynamic effect of
saturation a transient saturation parameter y is required.[3,4,5] The
operating point voltage implicitly affects performance by influencing Tm, a and
T but does not appear explicitly in the expressions fOI" the eigenvalues.
The definitions of the time constants and other parameters are given in
Table 12.2-1 along with a set of more useful, approximate, expressions relating
the transient parameters to the conventional equivalent circuit parameters.
The approximate expressions depend on the inequalities xl xm' x2 xm
which are normally satisfied by at least a factor of la in conventiona1
machines and the approximate expressions are quite acceptable in most cases.
rt is convenient to i ntroduce the resistance parameter al though it is c1 ear
that it is redundant unless T~ is discarded as a baste parameter. Note that
either ohmic or per unit equivaleni circuit parameters can be used to find the
transient parameters since in all cases ratios are involved.
The el ectri ca 1 time constants and (1 are reasonably wel1-lmown parameters
but Tm and y are somewhat unique to small signa1 dynamic analysis. As for the
de machine, Tm is associated with the inertia and the slope of a line drawn
from zero torque to the operating point torque on the ste'ady state speed-torque
curve. For smal1 slip this line coincides with the speed-torque curve and Tm
can be correctly interpreted as the time constant that would apply if the
dynamic torque was equal to the steady state torque. (i .e., if the electrical
transients are very fast compared to mechanical transients). The transient
saturati on parameter measures the di fference between the 1 i near approxi"mati on
for Xm used in the equivalent circuit and the small signal Xm which is needed
to describe small changes about the operating point. The correct implementation
of y in the machine model is described in references 4 and 5 and the influence
of T is explained in some detail in reference 5.

12-7
 Table 12.2-1
Definit10ns and Approximate Expressions for Trans1ent Parameters

Expression Us1ng
Equivalent
Definition ICircuit Paramcters
aX r X
TI CoI ... _o_
Rotor Short Circuit Time Constant r'~ = ~Rr2 r - wRr 2 Xa ~ Xl + X2

OX s Xa
Stator Short Circuit Time Constant T~ .. wRr 1 T'I ~ wRr l Wo operating pOint stator frequency
s
Jswo JsRwR
Electromechan1cal Time Constant Tm == Vo Tm~W TO - operat1ng point torque

1 xm2 Xa
Magnet1c Parameter [Total
Leakage a=l-rr- a e1 r TR - rated torque
Coefficient s r mO
XmO Xso Np - number of pole pa1rs
--'
N
Transient Saturat10n Parameter Y= r Y !:!! x-:- Xs - stator reactance
I
(Xl
mt st
TI
Xs :: Xl + Xm
r r
Resistance Parameter a = T! a ~_l Xr - referred rotor reactance
s r2
Xr = X2 + Xm '
J = total reitor inertia
ri Xl X2 Xl X2 SLOPE = Xmt
I
+
r2
vx;: ~x:] tV
g
v S XI _X2

<:= O"X r

CONVENTIONAL EQUIVALENT ,..,

Xv =O'X r
~
-CT
X, I--...
CIRCUIT OHMIC OR PER UNIT
OEFINITIONS OF:dx e ANO O")(r DEFINITIONS OF X "\

ANO X ,
'J V W V ~ \or' ~ v' - 'W
~ V u/~u V \;IV,I\,;'V V'jv)~/- _ ""...,jV"",,/...,v'~/v_jv)v)vv )\..r,'V'v 'v I~ v ;..... V
u ....,.~
 12.3 5ma11 Signa1 Dynamic Model
The approach employed to study maehine dynamies is small signal
1i neari zati on of the non-1 inar differenti al equati ons descri bi ng the machi ne.
The load is eonsidered to contribute zero damping (worst case). Sma11
var; ati ons in vol tage !::.v, frequency !::.tJJ and load torque A Tl are eonsi dered as
the input variables and the speed variation !::.tJJr as the output. The resulting
linear model can be expressed in block diagram form as shown in Fig. 12.3-1.
The feedback blocle Gr represents the effectof the speed voltages in the
machine; the entire b10ck diagram is similar to the block diagram representing
a de machine given in Fig. 12.1-1 except that the block transfer functions,
with the exception of GJ , are of higher arder and are more complicated .
funct i ons of the machi ne parameters.
For an eigenvalue analysisonly the closedloop involving GJ and Grneed
be consi dered; Gv and G(al only influence the transfer furlcti on zeros. The
characteristic equation is

(12.3-1)

which, with the expressions given in Fig. 12.3-1, becomes

NpT~To N T~ N
1 + Js (alo 10 = 1 + .Im lO =O (12.3-2)

where l:;: pT~ is the normalized eigenvalue variable expressed in per unit with

base time taken as therotor short circuit time eonstant T~. The form of Eq.
12.3-2 is the standard one for root locus analysis; the gain of the machine
being T~/Tm' the ratio of the rotor electrical time eonstant to the
electromechanieal time constant, the high gain roots ar zeros being the roots
of the cubic polynomia1 N and the low gain roots or open loop poles being the
pole at the origin eaused by the inertia and the four roots of the polynomial O.

12-9

, "

;)
,
)
:)
)

"'
,)
)
llV - ..
"

)
)
,)
J
)

Gr- To N .. 1 )
--- GJ = (J/Np)P
SCllo O )
)
N = A,3 + N2 "\.2 + NIA\. + NO
o = CC* -C = A+
2 C1r + Cor + JCCIJ + COj )
,,
)

N2 = 1 + a + c:ru + (Solllo1;)2 )

N1 = Qa(2+a) + (cuo T~ }2 - 2.a(scPJo T~ )2 )

)
No = a 2 a,2 + ("'o T; )2._ (sJ-IoT;)2(.a 2 + ("'oT~)2)2 )
)
C1r = 1 + a . Cor = Q"a - SJ.woT;)2 )

CiJ = (1 + So)"'o T; COJ =(1 + QSo)ClloT; ,

)

Fig. 12.3-1 Small Signal 810ck D;agram

,
)

of the Induct;on Machine

,
)

~,

The roots of O are often called the electr;cal poles or the constant speed .)
:)
poles since they represent the electrical eigenvalues for constant speed
:,
electrical transient phenomena. .;)
Thus, while the root locus analys;s of induct;on machines has much in ::)
:)
common w;th the previous d~scription of the dc machine, the situation is far .J
:,
12-10
,
>
)
)
 more complicated. There are five root loeus branches compared to on1y two for
the de maehine, but much more significantly, six parameters (five if transient
saturation is negleeted) are required to eharaeterize the loeus as compared to
the single parameter needed in a de machine. Examinat,ion of the expressions in
Fig. 12.3-1 indieates that the s;x parameters requir~d are

the resistanee ratio (1 = TI/T 1

r s

the magnetie parameter Cj = 1

the normalized frequeney (&) TI (12.3-3)

o r

the normalized slip frequency 50 (&)0 T~

the maehine loeus gain T'/T

r m

the transient saturation parameter y = xmt/xmo

To study the general dynamic responseof induetion machines requires obtain;ng

a large group of root 10ti for a range of these six parameters. Fortunately,
the performance requi rements for induct; on machi nes resu"lt in reasonably smal1
ranges for all of the parameters except for T~ and (&)0 and it ;s thus passible
to present a limited set of results whieh cover most machines.

12.4 Scaling Laws for Transient Parameters

The performance specifications of general purpose induetion machines,
primari1y the requirement to have at least 200% breakdown torque, coupled with
the fundamenta 1 i nfl uenee of si ze on the pa ramet ers of any ac magnet i c fi e1 d
device jointly determine the way in which the machine parclmeters are related to
machine size. The interaction of design requirements and t,he natural laws of
size are explored in detail in references 6 and 7 and a set of sealing laws
relating the parameters to physical size are derived. The physical parameter
found rnost appropriate to charaeterize size is the pole piteh ,.p(meters)

12-11

 ,,
)

measured along the air gap surface.[6] Table 12.4-1 and Fig. 12.4-1 summarize ,,
)

the resul.ts contained in these references in terms of scaling laws for the
,
transient parameters of ge.neral purpose (Design 8) induction machines
The results in lable 12.4-1 have two important uses: 1) indicating the
J

)
,
range of the parameters for general purpose machines and 2) al10wing
).
representation of an 'average' or 'typical ' machine as a function of the )
)
machine size. The first item is important in establishing the parameter values
)
to be used in presenting root loci which wil1 cover the behavior af most )
)i
machines. The second allows describing the qynamic behavior af typical
)
machines aver a range of sizes and thus presenting a general description af ).

induction machine dynamics. )

)
For the raot 1acus parameter5 listed in Eq. 12.3-3, it is clear from Table
12.4-1 that the large5t variations occur in the frequency parameter woT~ and ,
)

)
the machine lacus gain 1r' ITm lhe frequency parameter has by far the 1argest )

range; from perhaps 50 in a very large machine operated at 120 Hz to 0.2 in a )

smal1 machine operated at 6 Hz, a range af over 250:1. lhe lacus gain T~I/Tm

ranges frem abaut 10 - 20 in a large machine with a low inertia load to values ,
)

)
af the arder of 0.1 ar le5s in small machines with 1arge inertia loads; a range
)
af about 100:1. The remaining parameters have much smaller ranges and are .)
therefore considered as secondary variables, i.e., the primary raot locus :.
~,
parameters are W o T~ and T~ ITm with (1, y, a( =T~/T;) and the 51 ip parameter :)
sawoT~ treated as fixed values for each separate raat lacus. The range of the ,)
:)
slip parameter can be established by noting that rated slip is approximately
'J

equal to r2 in pu and hence .:')

:)

x(1 = 0.2 (12.4-1 ) )

:,
.)
:)
)
12-12 )
)

"

)
 Table 12.4-1
Scaling Laws for Transient Parameters

General Purpose !nduction Machines (N p;> 2 )

Parameter Unit Sca1ing Law RangE! (1-10,000 HP)

N =: 2 N =3
p P
TI ms 133 Lp 8-90 6-70
r

N' -1

Tm .ms 1S+ P
7.5 10

cr n.d. 0.02/ Nph: p 0.12-0.035 0.16-0.05

T;;T~=a n.d. 1.25 1.25

y n.d. 1-4

Lp m 0.084 (HP/N 2)6/23 0.06-01.6 0.05-0.5

P

Notes: 1) Tm values for machine inertia only - lo.adinertia

. wi11
increase the tab1e values by,the r.atio (Jm+JL)/J m

2) HP is the machine rating in horsepower

12-13
 Scallng LaW8 - Oesign B Machlnes

r Tr
I
11 133 Tp (T;;; 0.02(N p/ Tp)
1/2
0.5 50
.....
O.lT
."

.
co T. " ;; 15 &.!
m Np a = 1.25
--'
N

oI:a Tp 1l0.084(HP/N~)8/23
I
--'

0.4 0.081- 40
ti)
o
....
~

::I
lO
-I.

CURVES DRAWN FOR

/
r
~ 0.3 0.06 30
"-POLE MACHINES /

......
ti)

-+. .,
CI)
'-
CI)
-a
FOR OTH~R POlE NUMBER8
MULTIPLV CURVE VALUE8 BY
/
N
I
......
o
""1
....
Q)
C
O e-POlE 8;"POlE
()
~
-i :E
.- Q) Tp 0.81 " 0.70 ,/
""1
AI
+ CI)
T r
0.81 0.70
/
.::1
....
ti)

fD
::::s
r+
g 0.2
I C
~.04
'-
Q)
=20
~
u
Tm
1.36
1.33
" 1.88
1.60 ~POI8 Pltch
I
-o a. a. / Tp
I-E
"",~
~
""1 W I

~
r+
-1
O b cO ~ ."
fD O- 0.1 0.02 -~'- la ."".,.~
""1
ti)
~ .
Tm
---
"O
;z --"..-
W
-N

OL OL o

I 2 4 7 10 20
40 70 100 200 400 700 1000
.
POWER RATING - HP

__ ~ _ ...., ..... u v v 'i W V "" ..., ............. ~ __ u ~ v v U \,;' \.." ...... ..., v \,w" v V V V W v v V - - '- ~ \,,; .;..J. v...., ,

 Thus the slip parameter at rated slip and frequency is of the order of 0.2
independent of machine size. Since the slip frequency so~o to produce rated
torque is approximately independent of frequency, the slip parameter at rated
torque is also constant at approximately 0.2 independe~nt of the frequency.

12.5 Induction Machine Root Loci

The non-dimensional root locus of an induction malchine has the fonn shown
i n Fi g. 12.5-1 where the locus gai n is T~/Tm' The loci are drawn for fi xed
values of a.(=T~/T~), a, 'Y, slip and ~o T~. lhe on1y parameter whieh has a
major effect on the form of the locus is ~oT~ and the effect 1S illustrated
in Fig. 12.5-1.

12.5-1 High ~locus

lhe similarity of the locus for large values of (&)~) T~ to the 10cus for a
dc machine is quite apparent. When (&)0 T~ is large, thE! statorand rotor open
loop poles are widely separated and have little interact:ion except for very
large values of the gain T~/Tm. The two rotor poles alre al50 elose together
and near one of the root 10cus zeros {root of N in Fig. 12.3-1). As a result,
one of the rator poles is (approximately)caneelledand for normal values of
the gain T~/Tm the machine is well approximated as a second order system.
For this range of TIIT,
r m the dynamic response is identical to that of the dc
machine (compare Fig. 12.5-1a and Fig. 12.1-2b).
For very large values of T~/Tm' the stator poles begin to have an effect
and the locus shifts toward the ri ght eventually enterin~1 the ri ght hal f pl ane.
For large values of woT~, this instability is not usually of concern since the
values of gain T~/Tm necessary to reach the unstable portion of the locus are much
larger than those which exist in typical machines. As w10 Trl is reduced,

12-15

 ,
)

')

,
)

,)
)

,
)

)
)
,)
)
~
e .-<
....E , )

)
t )
)
GAIN=T; ITm )
)

GAIN=T;/Tm ,,
)

STATOR
POLE ' "
,
,
)

ROTO R ROTOR..--. )
POLES" POLE )
)
~Re ---Re )

(a) HIGH (&lo T; (b) LOW "'oT~ ,,

)

,,
Fig. 12.5-1 General Form of Non-Oimensiona1 Root Lael )
of Induction Machines (Small Slip) )
)
:,
however, the instability region moves to lower values of gain and does beeome a )
:)
problem for real machines.
)
.)
"

12-16 ,)
,:,
:)
J
 12.5-2 Low w TI Locus
- or~=

As the nonnalized frequency woT~ is reduced, tne stater poles move

downward and the rotor poles move upward reducing the spacing between the two

sets of poles. At lowvalues of CJloT~ (oooT~ < 3), tn4~ locus configuration is
as shown in Fig. 12.5-1b. In this situation the rotor and stator poles are
clese tegether and interact strengly. The locus typically has a branch which
is roughly a semicircle extending toward the right haa plane. Depending on
the values of the seeondary parameters (especially a and y) the locus may enter
the right half plane ereating a region of unstability which is of practica1
ccncern.

12.5-3 Typical Root Loei

Figure 12.5-2 presents a set of non-dimensional roc,t loe; for no 10ad
operation (sol.llo TR '= O) arranged to. illustrate the transition frem high
CJlo T~ to lewl.lloT~ operation. Three different va1ues cf a(=T~/T~) are shown
to demonstrate the infl uenee cf different resistance rati os.
To il1ustrate the use cf these 10e;, and as a first example cf the nature
cf induction machine dynamics, consider a machine in the 100 HP range which has
TI TI
r
Tm =
2 "'fir = a = 1 (1 = 0.05 y =1 sO =O
s
such that the loc; of Fig. 12.5-2b apply. Assume that at 60 Hz,

000 T~ = 12 (T~'" 32 ms). For 60 Hz operation, the loci for oT~ = 12 yields
l.Il

dominant eigenva1ues at = -0.5 j1.4 or in real units -15.6 j43.8 sec- 1

The response of the machine to a small disturbanee would therefore be a seeond
orderunderdamped response with a damping ratio cf about 0.33 and a natural
frequency of 1.5 pu or 46.4 sec- l

12-17

 :,

,)
6
):
,)
5
)
l
.)
'.~
,,).
)

,
.1 ~ A ~ .t !
-f!
1:1
O.........I~~
-I O -2 ... O -2 -t O
-2 -1 . :)

wo=16 iiio= 6 wo4 ~=2 Wo 1

)
a=2
-~
l
6
~
M
50 :)
-) .
5

-)

.,
)

-J)

")

. ,J

-I -f O o -2 -f o -2
,
z
(

WO :: t
!

-1
tt o':,
GJo =16 ii O=8
cz=1 "'0-
- -4
)
()
)
[ )

-I O
wO=6
a=O.5 .:)
di!
. 1

W o = wOT~ Gain = .T'JT

r. m
Fig.12 .. 5-2 Non Dimensional Root Laei af Induetian Machines ,~
, ,
(J = 0.05 y=loO .s=O(noload)

I I"
 If the operating frequency were incresed to 80 Hz wh.ile maintaining

constant volts/Hz, W
o TIr would increase to 16 and the far left hand locus in

Fig. 12.5-2b would app1y. Operation at constant volts/Hz maintains the shape
of the speed-torque curve and hence Tm i 5 not changed. For the operati ng
point at r;/Tm = 2, the domi nant root is unchanged. and the dynami c response
to a small disturbance would be identical to that for 60 Hz. The same result
hol ds for a decrease in operati ng frequency to 40 Hz and even down to 30 Hz

(l&Io T~= 6). A further reduction in frequency, say to 20 Hz ((40 T~ = 4),

however, begins to cause rnovement of the dominant roots. The locus for
woT~ =4 indicates the roots move to approximately -0.4 jl.4 resulting in a
more underdamped, longer lasting transient response. An additional reduction
to 10 Hz (ClJo T~ = 2) greatly alters the dominant roots to approximately
-0.1 j1.2, producing a very lightly damped and 10n9 la!;ting response to a
sma 11 di sturbance. At 5 Hz (1&10 T~ = 1) the domi nant roots are approximately
-0.1 t jO.7 which resu1ts in a somewhat better damping ratio but the response
is sti11 rather poorly damped and 10ng lasting.
Note that the essential character of the response over a-wide range of
frequencies has been determined by simply reading results off the 10ci in
Fig. 12.5-2. A wide range of other conditions (or differl:mt machines) can also be
examined--in fact, nearly any parameter variation or operating condition can
be explored using 10ci of this type. A number of additiona1 locifor other
va1ues of the primary and secondary parameters are gi ven in the Appendi x.
lhe 10ci in Fig. 12.5-2 and those in the Appendix cle~ar'ly emphasize the
overridi ng importance of the primary vari ables Wo T~ and T~/Tm in
deterrnining the character of the dynamic response. Note that both of these
quantities are indicators of relative response speed; T~ITm compares the
electrical and electromechanical response times and w~T~ is a measure of
electrical response time compared to the period of the ele<:tr;cal excitation.
 )
)
:,
')
12.6 The Dynamic Response Plane (w TI vs. T'IT
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ ~ ,)

The character of the dynamic response and a good deal ofquantitative :)

)
information can be very conveniently illustrated in a plat of /JJoT~ vs. T~/Tm'
)
For specific values of the secondary variables (a, a and So/JJoT~) each point )
)
in this plane has a specific set of eigenvalues and hence a specific form of
)
dynamic response. A particular machine (values of
T'r and T')
m cperating at a )

specified frequency (value of wo) is also repesented by a single point in the )

)
plane. ay means of a small set of p10ts for different va1ues of the secondary ,J
variab1es the dynamic response of most machines can be represented very )
)
conveniently. )
l
12.6-1 The Locus of the 'Average Machine ' )

By means of the scaling laws in Table 12.4-1 the laverage machine ' can be
lacated in the dynamic response plane. If we p10t al1 sizes of the laverage
,)
)

machine ' for operation at rated conditions (/JJo = R, Vo= VR),

IJl the locus af 1
)
the points wil1 be a straight line through the origin with a slope af "RTm )
because on1y TIr varies with machine size. Figure 12.6-1 shows the result )

using a 109-109 plat to facilitate representing the full range of ~

)
The equation for the locus of the average machine is )
:)
(12.6-1) :)
:~
which represents a straight 1ine with 45 slope. The 'machine line ' can be :,
,)
calibrated in HP by using Table 12.4-1; the result shown in Fig. 12.6-1 i5 for
:)

,)

four pole machines at 60 Hz (N p = 2, ~ = 377). Since a varies with Lp and

,:)

hence with HP (Table 12.4-1) the a values associated with the various size
:~
machines are alsa labeled along the machine line. :)
:)
Figure 12.6-1 also i11ustrates the magnitude and direction of the metion
:~
cf a point on the machine line caused by a change in var;ous mach;ne . ,)
')
12-20 )

,
)

')
, '
 100
60 Hz
Arrow:s Indicate the Ef1ect of Changes in LINE
Vario~s M achine Varia bles. Un less noted,
50 a and C1". ore not offected by the change.
"

20
J-~
0.5XClJo (with V/flJ o = Constant)
O 10
3 (CT halved l ,

(Smaller rr ) 1":1r =

Ooubled)

2 T.m

a .=

0.1 0.2 0.5 2 5 10 20 50 100

T~/Tm

Fig.12.5-1 Average Machine lacation in the Oynamic Respanse Plane

parameters ar operati ng conditi ons. Thus, for exampl e, reduci ng the operati n9

frequency while maintaining constant volts/Hz causes a simple downward shift

of the point (or the entire 1ine if one cansiders a11 machines at ane time)

without changi ng any of the ather parameters. In contrast, decreasi ng r2 by

1/2 increases T; by 2 and decreases Tm by 2 causing the paint to

 translate to the right by a factor of 4 and upward by a factor of 2. The

change in r2 would also double a. Thus:t the average machine, a variation from
the average machine, OI' any specific machine is easily located in the dynamic
response plane and changes in parameters or operating conditions are simply
translations in the plane (with possible new values of a and a).

12.7 General Properties of Machine Dynamic Response

The scaling laws indicate that a range of a from 0.02 - 0.2 and an a

between 1 and 2 wil1 include most machines. The slip is initially selected as
zero since this is generally accepted as giving the worst case response (least
wel1 damped). There is an exception to this result which will be discussed
1ater.

Stability Boundaries for a = O

A very useful starting point for describing the general properties of
machine dynamics is the case of a + O. Physical1y this corresponds to
having xm large compared to x a which tends to occur as machine size is
increased. With a = O it is possible to solve Eq. 12.3-2 analytical1y for two
boundary curves which define two separate regions of instability in the
dynami c response plane. The expressi ons for the two boundari es are [3,5]
TI
{IJJOT~)2 = (l+a) [j"""r_ (1+a)] with (12.7-1)
m

and
2 TI (1+a)2 + r',2T
( 00 TrI) = r r Ti
r m with (12.7-2)
0
m 2+-1:
Tm

where ~d is the oscillation frequency of the (undamped) response on the

boundaries. lhe boundary curves are plotted in Fig. 12.7-1 for a(=T"T ' ) = 1
r s
12-22
 and 2. The shaded area represents the two unstabl regions for ex = 1;the
othertwo lines represent ex = 2. The crossing point of the two lines for a
fi xed va 1 ue of <1 i sat
T'
(J)oT~ = l+ex, T: = 2(1+<1) with (J) TI = If+(i
d r
(12.7-3)

These limiti.ng case results are useful in establishing the ex.istance of

two separate instability regions and provide a eonvenient means for dividing
the dynamic response planeinto two regions in which the response has very
different dependence on the dynamic response variables. The two regions are
ea 11 ed the hi gh woT~ (high dynami c frequency) and low (1)0 T~ (low dynami ~
frequeney) regions and the expression woT~ ='l+exiseonvenient as the
theoretical border between them. The regions and the border are illustrated
in Fig. 12.7-1. For a > O the two instability regions dlo not touch eaeh other
and there is a transition
. region roughly eentered on Q).,.u T'r = (l+a) in whieh no
instability exists. The 60 Hz machine line is ineluded in Fig. 12.7-1 and it
is elear that at 60 Hz all maehines are well above the instability regions.
It would appear, however, thatreducing the frequeney by a faetor of roughly
5 to 8 (to 12-7 Hz) would place the whole range of maehin,es in one or the
other of the instabil ity regions. The inf1uenee of C1 mod'ifies this conel usi on
quite dramatically.
An interesting aspect of the results for a = O' eoncer'ns the behavior when
the stator resistance is zero (<1 = O). Contrary to many s:tatements in the
literature, the instability regions do not disappear for this limiting case as
ean be easily seen by letting ex + O in 12.7-1 and 12.7-2. A complete analysis
of this situation is contained in reference 9.

12-23

 )i
'~

,,,

:).

o )
c:
,g O .J
: r
- ...0::
~of
3~

c:
o
o ,
li

.c
-= I a::o +e &O )
=-..Q
%.E I ~o y
- ...
,J
-3-'- )
.5 I 3 "'t:. o
.9 3 ~"J
I

'" ')
)
-o j
.. )

-
o
o
a:
- ;)
)
-o )

~
)
)
:ii
:s
o
C ,,)

)
)
)

, ;)

)
:)
:)
:,
:)
:)
J
:)
)
)
')
Fig. 12.7-1. High and . Low CI)
o r
r' Instability Regions for a = O.
)
)

12-24
:,
)
)
:,
, , ,
 12.7-2. Dynamie Response in the High woT~ Region
Dynamie behavior in the high WoT~ region (wo T~ > 1+0.) is relatively easy
to deseribe because in this region thestator and rator' poles are widely

separated and do not have strong interactian. The high w TI root locus
o r

introdueed in Section 12.5 describes the response and provides a canvenient

means of explaining the behavior. Fig. 12.7-2 illustrates the form of the

1aeus and i ntroduees a number of coneepts useful in understandi ng the

eharaeter of the response.

As illustrated in Fig. 12.7-2, the stator poles are approximately loeated

at the points[3,9]

'" -(1 + J" W TI (12.7-4 )

- o r

and the rotor poles at

'" -1 + J" 5
- oC&lo rir (12.7-5)

The loeus end points (zeros of polynomial N) are at

'" -1, (12.7-6)

Because the statar and rotor pales are far apart, the loclJs can be divided
lnto regions where the behavior is dominated by one or the other. Thus, for

small values of T~/Tm (T~/Tm < .1) the behavior is dominalted the pole
migrating leftward fromthe or.igin and the response is fir'st order with the
pole located at T~/Tm as for the de maehine. As T~/Tm increases beyond 0.1,
two real axis poles are moving toward each other and the pole locations are
gi ven approximately by
TI

-
= -
1
"2 /
~
4" -r; (pu)
- 1
P =- 2T' -rr < .25
r m
(12.7-7)

12-25

 ...
)
,
t~(t+cr}a/2
/ )

/
/
)
(
.J
\
' __..x
STATOR POL.E --
. ...... '"
)
)

~
,
MINIMUM CAMPING
UNSTABL.E REGION )

REGION OF REDUCED L.OWER CRITICAl

OAMPING GAlN )
")
)
)
- - - cz a 2 )
I SECONO ORDER RESPONSE
)
1
)
F1RST ORDER RESPONSE
)
ROTOR )
POlES

,
/INERTIA POLE
)
-2 -l~ o.~ tO -
R e

,,

Fig. 12.7-2 Hi gh CIlO T~ Root Locus

,)
A )
J e
:,

/ t GAIN - T~/Tm ;)
/ _ _ aal
:)
/ :,

/
/ - - - a-2 )
/ .)
/ ::)
../ MINIMUM OAMP'NG
:)
':)
:J

2 -i '\
INERTIA
-
Re :J
:)

Fig.12.7-3 LowlAloT'rRoot Locus

POL.E
:)
,,
12-26

,,
:)
,)
'~
 At TI/T = .25 there; s a double rea 1 root and as 'TI /T increases further
r m r m
the roots "break away" and beeome a eomplex pair with loeations given
approximately by

-1 T~

-
= -
1 _.
'2 + J
lf-1

r 1
-T - -4 (pu)
m
p
1
rrr
rm
1 (
.. ~
4T~
sec ) r > .25
m
(12.7-8)
Note that 12.7-7 and 12.7-8 are identical to the corre:sponding results for the
de machine.
lhis situation persists for a considerble range (clepending on 1110 r~) until
finally the stator poles and the eomplex zeros begin to have an effect. lhe
locus then bends rightward yielding reduced darnping and enters the right half
plane creating the high frequency instability region. At some va 1ue of rir Jrm
the locus reaches its largest rightward penetration (miminum damping
eondition) and then returns to the left hal f plane ending on the zero. All of
these sepa-rate regions are labeled on Fig. 12.7-2. lhe influence of a. is also
illustrated in the figure; the effect of a is toa smal1 to show on the sketch
but in general it causes a leftward shift of the complex zeros and hence moves
the upper part of the locusleftward reducing the size of the instability
region and improving the minimum damping. Because a primari1y affects the
compl ex zeros, it has 1ittle effect on the 1ow T~/Tm portions of the locus.

12.7-3 Oynamic Response in the low "h T~ Region

As woT~ is reduced the stator poles move downward and the rotor poles
upward compressing the entire locus in the jw direction as explained in
Section 12.5. In this region (O) TI
o r
l+a) the locus has all poles and zeros
in the same range of jw and there ;s strong interaction between stator, rotor
and mechanieal. effeets. lhe situation is illustrated in Fig. 12.7-3 for a = 1
and 2 ( Wo T~ ... 1 in the figure). Beeause of the strong interaction effects

12-27

,
~

)
there are few good approximations for eigenva1ue locations and the eigenva1ues
depend strongly on a, a &y; for a > .06 the unstability disappears complete1y ,
:)

)
for normal values of a. 8ecause of the location of the machine line (Fig.
)
12.7-1) the low frequency instability is relatively unimportant for average )

machines. Oo1y very small machines are like1y to enter the region (for )

,,)
reduced frequency operation) and the large a associated with these small )
machines completely removes the possibility of low frequency instability. )
)
Because of the greater importance of the high frequency region for the average )'
machine this paper will focus on high woTI.
r A more complete discussion of the
j

low frequency region, where saturation also has a major effect, is given in
references 4 and 5.
, )

)
J
)'
12.7-4 lhe Transition Region )

lhe transition between high and low ~oT~ is not abrupt and there is a )
)
transition region roughly centered on .woT~ = l+a. In this region there is no
instability for normal values of a. lhe root locus is between the extremes of ",
)

Figs. 12.7-2 and 12.7-3 and many of the approximations valid in the
)
high woT~ region can still be applied but with reduced accuracy. One common :
;)
feature of all three regions is the existance of a minimum damping condition
:)
and the locus of minimum damping in the dynamic response plane is a very :)
useful concept for describing dynamic response. .)
"

.)
12.7-5 Damping Contours :,
:,
lhe magnitude of the real part of the dominant eigenvalue (which will be :)

called the Idamping ' and symbolized by d) determines the total time required :)

:)

for a disturbance to die away and is clearly an important measure of dynamic

:)
response. In combination with thedamped oscillation frequency it determines :)
"

12-28 ,)

')
,)
:)
 the relative damping (or damping ratio) which indicates the attenuation per
cycIe of the response. A very usefu1 presentation is ()bta;ned by thinking of
the damping as eIevation over the dyanmic response plane (a kirid of
topographic map) and p10tting contours of constant damping. This provides a
graphic display of the regions of poor damping and permits easy identification
af conditions ar machine parameters which result in poolr dynamic response.
A set of typical damping contours (<< = 1, fI = .04) are illustrated in

Fig. 12.7-4. lhinking in terms of elevation over the plane, the worst damping
is represented by a ridge of high elevation running from the lowerleft to the
upper right of the plane. Theintersection'point ofthe a =0 stability
boundaries (USo T~ = 1+ = 2, T~/Tm = 2(1+) = 4) is thelowest point or this

ridge and therefore is th bestdamped of a11 of the colilection of worst

dampingpoin1:s making up the ridge. It isa saddlepoint for the damping
contour which passes through it and will be referred toas thesaddle point in
the remainder of the dlscussion.
It is clear frem Fig. 12.7~4 that the on1y way typicial machines can move
downward in the dynamic response plane and enter the mlnimum damping region is
to operate at reduced frequency. It is, therefore, useful to locate a "worst
dampingline U by searching in the 1IJ0T~ direction (vertical) for fixed values
of T~/Trn. lhe locus of such points is shown in Fig. 12.7-4 and the contours
of zero damping (instability) centered on the wdrstdamping line are also
il1ustrated. To show the significance of a, the a = O damping lines are also
given in the figure as dashed lines. Note that increasing a frem zero to 0.04
greatly diminishes the instability regions and disconnects them such that
there is a range of T~/Tm for which there is no instability whatsoever.
To the right of the saddle point the ridge rises steeply into the high
woT~ instability region. In this region instability existsfor even large

12-29

 )
)

)
)
)
.)
.)

100 ~l.!
I
10
N
'0
.
dTr ' =-O.5

-.:
o
3
I)
Hr~~~~~~~~~~~~--~--~---'
-0.25'
HIGH f.IJoT~ INSTABILITY ,
1
-0.10;3
I:)
~~r-~~~~~~~--~~~~~----~--~'
---t--.--.-t:0~.~O 5"
).,'"

'I"""-;~~~~~..I..I:---I.~~::-4..L.J.~~-1-~~~~...u...L.'::)
IC~
:)
Tr I
-Tm ')
,)
:)
,
Fig. 12.7-4 Damping Contours (dT~) in the Oynamic Response
Plane (<1 = 1, a = 0.4). .
,
)

,)
;)
J
12-30 :,
,j

I I j I
 values of ~ and the change in damping is quite rapid along the sides of the

ridge. In contrast, to the left of the saddle the ridge rises only slowly and

is not steep sided. As a resu1t, the low ~oT~ instabi1ity is weak and

increased values of a suppress it entirely; for a = 1 it disappears at about

a = O 05. There is a local maximum along the ridge as indicated by the fact

that the damping contours are closed curves in the low ~oT~ region.

In the high (&,)0 T~ region we11 above worst damping, the e1evation drops off

fai rly uni form1y to a large f1 at area of damping equal to -0.5 as descri bed by

12.7-7. This is the region where most typical machines are located for 60 Hz

operation. At the left side (smal1 T'/T) the dominant roots are real and are

r m
-descri bedby 12.7-4. There i s a sma11 local i zed' 'dent I 'of 'maxi num dampi ng .' '1

equal to -0.6 which is of no practical importance. Be10w the minimum damping

line in the low "h T~ region the change in elevation is lJ'ery gradual except for
.
very high values of T'/T. The local maximum which creates the
r m
low ~oT~ instabilitymakes the variation in damping quite comp1icated to
describe. Sma11 machines or larger machine with high load inertia can enter
this region at reduced frequency so it has some practicalimportance. The
likel i hood of actua1 low 1110 T~ instabil ity is, however, very small because of
the values .of a typically encountered in machines. By contrast, the
high ~oT~ instabi1ity is a serious prob1em when operating at reduced frequency
with large machines.
The location of the saddle point, the worst damping liine and the
i nstabil i ty reg; ons are dependent on e si nce the saddl e i S, located at
(j)oT~ =1 + a and T~/Tm = 2(1+a). Higher values of a therefore move these
critical regions upward toward the location of typical machines. larger
values of a a150 tend to raise the local maximum in the lol~ (a)oT~ region and
lower the elevation of the ridge line in the high woT~ region. Thus higher

12-31

 )
:,
')
va 1ues of a make the low i nstabi 1i ty stronger and weaken the hi gh (&) TI
w TI ::>
r O o r
instability. For normal designs, however, a seldom exceeds 2.0 and the low
(&)oT~' region is still usually of little real concern as regards insta
bility. With abnormal values af a (10 or more) 10w woT~ instability can be
created and this provides a convenient mean5 for experimental confirmation of
the theory. A series of such experiments are presented in [5].

12.7-6 Osci11ation Frequency Contours

The o5cillation frequency
oTIr can also be represented as elevation over
00

the dynamic response plane. The contours are much simpler in shape, more
un; forro and essenti a lly i ndependent ofa. Fi g. 12.7-5 i 11 ustrates the pattern
for a = 1. A number of good approximations exist for regions far removed
from worst damping and these are labeled in the figure. The a = O boundaries
provide two lines ~long which the value of wdT~ i5 known (Eqs. 12.7-1 and
12.7-2) and it is therefore possible to sketch the oodT~ contours for any a
with reasonable accuracy except near the region of real roots.

12.7-7 Parameter Dependence of Dynamic Response

Fig. 12.7-5 illustrates very graphical1y the great difference between the
high and low woT~ regions in terms of the way the dynamic response depends
on the transient parameters. Clearly for high woT~, the oscillation frequency
depends primari1y on T~/Tm and is independent of W o T~ ; the situation is
completely reversed in the low (&)oT~ region. Although less obvious, a similar
switch exi sts for dampi ng; for hi gh (&)0 T~ the damping i s independent of T~/Tm

and strongly dependent

. on TI/T
r m for low woTr'. A reversal in dependence also
exists for damping with respect to a. These changes have been the cause of a
great deal af confusion regarding how parameters influence dynamic response
since the influence can be totally reversed for different operating points.

12-32
 10o t;-
.~
I.. I
~ , i~ C&Jd Tr' =~. _1
I- .~ Tm 4
50
-
.

... '/
/'
:ReaJ!5
Roots
'
20
I~ 10 It)
r-
(t)
"- 1/
. ..,
-
~ 10
10 I-
./ O

O

O - IO
. I~ I V <D
>...""
-.- /
./ ~A'I( .... ~
~

5 "J l ' '

I
\ :6... L7" .y~,
~ ... ~ "'"
-~V 7
" .. ~c.~
I (

I~
' ,~'( .
I-Real' / ( \ l~ .,- 3
-Roots, /l
./ ~-~
\. 1.5
- l"
2 ..
~ -==
~'.' ,

/~~
~
/~

~t ~ 1. ~t\\
.A.e::
,, I

0.5
(').75

,d ~dTrJ=tlo Tr'
0.5 ... :- ~-
;.
- 0.25 ./I+a '
0.3 .. ~
.
0.2 I I , , , , I 1 I I I I , , , I J , , r , ,

0.1 0.. 20.. 3 0.5 2 3 5 10 20 30 50 '100

-
Tr l
Tm

Fig. 12.7-5 Oamped Angular Frequency Centour's (a = 1)

The on1y parameter which has a completely consistent influence throughout
the dynamic response planeis a (and the saturati on parameter 'Y which, roughly
speaking, plays the same role as a). An increase in a or 'Y always improves

12-33

 ,,
')
the damping although even here the influence is strong in the low w TI
o r and
)
:)
transitian regians and weak in the high woT~ regian. For al1 other
)
parameters the influence ;5 very different in the three regions; in most cases J
)
(~, T~/Tm' slip) actually reversing between the high and low woT~ regions. ,)
)
12.7-8 Behavi or Alon9 the Worst Dampi ng Li ne
l
A very convenient means of illustrating the parameter dependence of the .J
,)
damping is to plot damping vs. T~/Tm along the worst damping line. Since
)
the line exists throughout the plane and spans both highand low W oT~, it )
)
i11 ustrates the di fference between the high and low WoT~ parameter
::,
dependence very well. It is also an important worst case condition for .J'
reduced frequency operation of machines. )
)
The plotof damping vs. T~JTm

representedby the damping contoursof Fig. 12.7-4.

represents a slice through the surface
This is illustrated again ,,
)

in Fig. 12.7-6a which shows the worst damping lines and unstability regions
)
for
of a.
Cl

lhis figure gives the elevation of the worst damping ridge over the
"'
= 1 and 2. Fig.' 12.7'::'6b shows the damping"for a = 1 and several values
,,
)

minimum damping line for a = 1. The very strong stabilizing effect of :)

:)
increasing a is very clear. lhe dashed curves of Fig. 12.7-6b represent
:)
increased levels of dynamic saturation (increasing y) as labeled. Clearly,
"

higher saturation greatly improves the damping; the effect is strongest for :)
"
the low Wo T~ and low T~/Tm.
:)
Fig. 12.7-6c i5 the same type of plot for a = 2. The three important .;,)
"')
,,'
effects of a are clearly shown in this figure: I} an increase in ~ tends to
make the damping worse for low woT~ (and low T~/Tm) and to improve damping :,)
:)
for high woT~ (and high T~/Tm)' 2) an increase in a 'amplif;es ' the
"

influence of a, and 3) an increase in ~ moves the saddle point to higher woT~ :,

and Tr/Tm and ;mproves the damping at the saddle point.
"

,
;)
12-34
)
')
'~

."
".~
 I TT l
50
10,()OQ JI~6
20
vV
1000,
1.1
a-=O.04 V ~
~

10
"

100:/ 1. l...,.; ~

~~..."
"' ~ (J-\ ~
....
~

...,-....... ,... '

-.....r.
-/ / ~ I" Ioii""

5 ta." / ~
.,. ~

/ ~ ~ " -"'" ~

3 "

,. / c...oloo' ~ 7 .... ~
."
""

tt~
...,\
./
"" ~
2
~ - ~ <.< ~ ''""
HrOleT; INSTABILITY
'TREGION
~;r.~
/ ' ~ 'r
I' MINIMUMOA"MPfNG LJNES
I
'"

I......
-'
,
...
~
,\
"I ...
I
I
j,/
~.
/ "~
~
-'
t....... '7 til' ~p

0.5 ~I [ / ioo'" ,.. t:OW w.-r;. INSTABILITY

REGJON
~~~ I I I

I I I

QI 0.2 0.5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100

Fig. 12.7-6a Minimum Damping Li nes and lnstabi lity Regions

in the Dynamic Response Plane (so:=O)

12-35

 )
)
")
)
"

,)
)

:.')

,
)

-....
-a
. 0.08
fI ,)
,

I fI

b
O
0.06 .;)
)

a:: . '1
Q 'I
"

LU
a..
0.04 I""
l.
a= l' jJJ
2

O 0.02

I-
1,
~ r.L1 ,
j

:E
:::l
~rtt:/
)
'tI
Icr=O.O~1'= 11,.000'" ~ . ..)
-~ -0.0 !"'"oo. rL

- i-,.. "
I- 1- t"- Vir
~~ li ~ ufl fL
a-=d04y=2.......

i -L ,.. ).
:E
~
....
-0.02
a-=O.OSI1'= 1
Jl,..--
~=~O1~4
,- ....
~
~
"
r--''" 1- ," l-
~ 1/ II rJIJ
~

~ IJ~
:)
)
i08~= 1-'- t-- ......
a: tr- ~ .......
K 11'
v~
~ -0.04 D"=~.I~ 1'=1
~

- ".... I ",.
)
...J
~ -0.06
a:: 0.1
a-:rC .o~ 1'::4\

0.2
:J.- -
0.5
1-- ~ 1-1- b ,

1
'"'" ~~
"~
2
~ V'
5 10 20 50 100
.,
,
,,
)

)
,
Fig. 12.7-6b Minimum Damping Values for a(=T~/T~) = 1, 5 =0
)
,
o
:,
:)

:)
.)
:)
:~
12-36

:)
::)
:)
:)
j I t ~ ,
, I
 ,

os :
,r/~1
o.06 ..

i
'.
o.04 1---1- CZ =2 , ..

. j''L ..
o. 02
'

,... fJ ,~
I-- ' J."oo -... j
cr=~Of~ """'" J1n'1
",
--z 0.00
cr=O.04y~'
1 ..1 /
l,.oo 1- "'"'l- r-- . . . "'" ~
'" ~,\ lJ~/lrj ~~
:E , .1 ,
~ -0.0 2
I

cr=O.08 7'=1 ~ ~
'
I""" ~ =---....
~ t', fllfj
J
,
~F" ""- ~, '\ ['. I- 1"'"
~ V~ll
t
a::: ~O.O474
c-=O.oa y=~ ... 10- .... I- - .......
", \ 1\
r """
'1 1
1
f -0.04 I
cr=O.12~ ........ I"""""

r--- .... ~ IIIL'
li 1.4

~ ~
, I',
..J
4:(
I

L
"'\ , -- .. I
IIJ -0.0 6
'- ~ ~ ~
a::: 0.1 0.2 .
0.5 1 5 10 20 50 100

Fig.12.7-6c Minimum Oamping for a(=T'/Ts' ) = 2, s =0

r o

12-37

 )
:.
:)
.>
The important i nfl uence of satu rat ion on dynami c response i11 ustrated in
::)
Figs. 12.7-6b and c is a relatively new resu1t[4]. Reference 5 treats this ,)

effect in some detail and shows that it is probabTy the primary cause of the ",
:)
discrepency always found when comparing linear small signal predictions with )

laboratory t~sts[10,11,12]. A series of stability experiments[5] has shown :.'

that very good correlation between theory and experiment is found when ,
,)

)
saturation is included. The same result has been reported in terms of
frequency response tests[4]. ,)

Fig. 12. 7-6dshows the infl uence of the s1 ip on dampi ng. For pos iti ve
slip the damping is improved everywhere; the influence is very similar to
,,)

)
increasing o. However, for negative slip there is a reversal of dependence
between thehigh and low w ri regions with much worse ~amping in the low
o r
, )

Galo T~ regi on. This reversal in dependence has not been reported previ ously; )

it has always been stated that zero slip results in worstdamping. Clearly J
,
this is always true for high oT'r but is not valid
(z)
. 'for negative
slip and. low
,,
J

)
12.8 Dynamic Response
The scaling laws and the general properties of the dynamic response can
be employed to determine the typical dynamic response to be expected from
induction machines. It is important to emphasize that the scaling- laws
represent an average and that particular machines can deviate considerably
from this -average. The following material employs the scaling laws only to
give an approximate location on the dynamic response plane for typical
machines; the results are stated in a general form which allows evaluating
specific machines, the numbers given should be viewed only as indicating
trends.

12-38
 0.08 ....
r
0.06

, 1I .

0.04
',' 1</1
- a=f
.tr=-0.04 - ...
0~02

--z
0.0
Wso ll Q~O -ya !..
I
TlIl
.~

" " ~
. --.c.
~~-
,"' 2\.
. li.
1I-0~ ~
'\ ~ ~v
::E -0.02
LI.
o
W
50
. 1>"-.2/,
/ ",'

'. " - l'

' ...
J

.
..

~V

l I
a: -0.04 1'-' J'

~
...J
.50 -0.2
,,-2
I I

-. f-o--: 1--
- V
-0.06
LIJ
a: 0.1 Q2 os 1 2 5 10 20 .50 toa

Fig. 12.7-6d Effect of Sli"p on Minilllm Damping Values

12-39

 )
,
)
,.)

12.8-1 Rated Freguency Operation (High w~

"

Fig. 12.7-4 indicates that four pole machines at rated frequency are well :)

into the high wor~ region. Small machines are near the boundary; the :1

largest variations from the scaling laws also occur for small machines and it
:)
,
)
is certain that some small machines are already into the transition region at
"

rated frequency. In general, however, the dynamic behavior of typical .)

machines at rated frequency is well described by the approximations given in :.')

Eqs. (12.7-4) and (12.7-5). Thus, the damping, oscil1ation frequency and ,)

undamped oscillation frequency are given by .)

,
dr'r = -0.5 ~dT~ = I~~m - 25
ri
...!:...
r ". 25
m
.)
,,
If these per unit quantities areconverted "to real units (s-l) by dividing by
(12.8-1)
,
)
TIr the results are
:)
1-.25Tm/r~ ri )
~N T'~
0.5
d = -r
r
T'r
r m
= /
r m
-1:r > . 25
m
(12.8-2)
,
)

The damping ratio (-d)/~ is an important quantity for a second order system , :)

)
and is given by the simple expression
.5 )

d. r. = (12.8-3 ) )

These equations yield a very simple description of machine dynamics for ,

)

rated frequency operation. It is a simp1e matter to evaluate the effects of )

parameter changes (care must be used to be sure the change does not move the ,)

machine out of the high oTIr region). In general, it is clear that larger
~

machines which have larger values of l'r have longer response time (since the
,,
)

time constant is l/d), smaller natural frequencies and lower damping ratios. ,,
Utilizing the scaling law for machine rating and for ri
r
(Table 12.4-1) the ,,
dependence on HP would be roughly
,
12-40
,~.

:)
:)
, ;
 T' ..... Hpl/4 d .... HP- 1/ 4 , d.r. ,... HP-l/8
r '
(12.8-4 )

Thus a 10 fold increase in machine rating might be expected to decrease d by

about 50% and wN by 25%.

The influence of changes in machine parameters on dynamie response ean be

evaluated by determining the change in T~ and Tm- For example, increasing

.
the inertia affeets on1y Tm (linearly) and hence the dependence of the dynamic

response is

T~ .... const, Tm '" J d ;" constant, d. r. ,." IJ

(12.8-5 )

If J is made large enough the machine will move leftward in the dynamic

response plane fa'r enough to create real roots and Eq. 12.7-4 must be used to

evaluate d. In this.regian (T~/Tm < .25) the dependence af d finally

becomes d -- 1/J as woul d be expected for a si ng1 e time constant system.

A decrease in rator resistance affects both 1~ and Tm and the

dependence is

~ .... eonst, d.r ..... r 2

(12.8-6)

Thus decreasing r2 leads to longer response time and lower' damping ratios but
does not change the natural frequency. For leak.agereactance the dependence i s

TI .... x
r a'
Tm .... const, d ,." l/x ,
a
d.r..... li fi:
(12.8-7)

and an inerease in resu1ts in shorter respons.e time, ~ower natural

x
a
frequency and lower damping ratio. Changes in xm do not significantly affect

dynamic response sinee in the high w T' regi on a has al most no effect on
o r
performance.

12-41

 )
:)
:)

12.8-2 Reduced Freguency Operation (Reduced Damping) J

Examination of Fig. 12.6-1 reveals that of all parameter or operating ,

"

j
point changes on1y reducing the frequency causes vertically downward motion in
:,)

the dynamic response plane. Reducing xa or increasing r2 cause motion with

a downward component but do not carry the point toward the instability
,
,,)

regions. Thus, a frequency reduction is the most important change from the ,.,

.)

point of view of entering the worse damping and/or instability regions.

For a typical point in the high ~oT~ region, a reduction in frequency " )

initially has no effect on dynamics at all. This is true because the motion ,, )

of the point is vertical and both damping and oscillation frequency are
constant along a vertical line in the high l.IloT~ region . Eventually, , )

however, the point will come to the -0.45 damping boundary and further
, )

reduction in frequency wil1 begin to cause reduced damping without much change
in oscil1ation frequency (low values of T~/Tm result in greater change in

, )

I.IldT~). The frequency at which this transition occurs depends on a, a and ,,

T;/Tm; typical1y larger machines require a greater frequency reduction than
small machines since they have 1arger values of l.IloT~ and are hence further
,
)
up into the high l.Ilorir regian. The frequency to reach a .particular damping :,
can be estimated from Fig. 12.7-4 if a is near one. Fig. 12.7-6a shows that :
,)
i ncreasing a wi 11 shi ft the damping contours upward and cause the same :)
damping reduction to occurat higher frequencies. Larger values of a tend ::)
:~,
to move the contours downward but the effect is small except near worst :)

damping. ':)

:)

12.8-3 Worst Damped Operation :)

"
Continued reduction of the frequency will ultimately bring any machine )
"
down to the worst damping line. Since mast machines are in the constant
damping region at rated frequency, the change in damping is from -0.5 to the ,
)

,:,
"
12-42

:3
J
I I ~ I
 value of damping on the worst damping line for each specific machine. ihe
value of the worst damping in each case is strongly dependent on T~/Tm' a,

Cf and y and can be estimated for most machines from the curves given in Figs.
12.7 -6b and c. The approach is simply to locate the value of T'/T
r m for the
machine on the horizontal ax;s of the figures andthen estimate the value of
the damping by interpolating between the two sets of curves . For example, for
a machine with at 60 Hz, TI/T = 4, a = 1, Cf = 0.06, y = 1, Fig.
w T' = 10
O r r m

12.7-6b yields a value cf about -0.03 for the worstdamping and from Fig.

12.7-6a this will occur at about CIl TI = 2; hence at a frequency of 12 Hz.

o r
Above the saddl e poi nt thedampi ng curves of Fi 9s. 12.7 -6b and c are
simple monotonically increasing functions representing the continuous rise in
elevation of the worst damping ridge in the high (I)
oTIr region. In general
thi s regi on app li es to la rge machi nes wi thl ow i nert i a 1ods. lhe trends in
this region are clear because the curves are monotinic and because an increase
in machine size tends to increase T~/Tm and reduce G. Thus larger machines
tend to move to the right on the horizontalscale (larger . T~/Tm) and upward
because of the smaller Cf valuej both motions tending "to cause the damping to
become worse. There is an unmistakable trend toward high TI instability
W
o r
as machine size increases. The influence of y and a are also clear; lower
satu rat i on tendi ng to enhance the trend toward i nstabil i ty verymuch li Ice
lower values of G, while lower values of a tend to move the curves to the
left, also increasing the trend toward instability, but in a manner similar to
increasing the value of TI/T. Smaller values af a.also reduce the Igain ' of
r m
the Cf and y variations which also tends to be a destablizin.g effect. ihe
dependence on the secondary variables is thus very simple and consistent;

12-43

 decreasing any of the three, a, l' or a tends to cause poorer damping and
theinherently small a and large T~/Tm of large machines tends to create an
increasing liklihood of instability as machine size increases.
Unfortunately, below the saddle point in the low woT~ region the trends
are not so clear and simple. The problem is the lQcal maximum of damping
which always exists below the saddle point. Moving downward along the worst
damping line corresponds to decreasing machine size with itsattendant
increase in the value of a. There are, therefore, two opposite effects; the
growing value of a tending to improve the damping and the upward slope of the
worst damping curves tending to make the damping worse. If the change in a

w;th machine size is relatively slow, the worst damping vs. machine size
characteri sti C wi 11 ri se bel ow the saddl e pcint and reach a peak before
beginning its final decline after the inf1uence of the local maximum of the
constant a damping curves is passed. 1f the change in a with s;ze is more
rapid, the peak will not exist and the worst damping vs. machine size curve
wil1 show a manotonic decline as machine size is reduced. Any factor which
slows the rate of increase of a with decreasing machine size (such as
considering machines with high inertia loads or a modificationof the airgap
scaling law) or enhances the upward slope of the constant a damping curves
will tend to favor a localpeak in the damping vs machine size curve. lhe
scaling laws of Table 12.4-1 with a =1 and zero load inertia produce a
monotonical1y declining curve. With a = 2 ar anadded load inertia equal to
machine inertia, curves with a local peak are produced. Hence it is not
possible to indicate any clear trend except to state that the change in
damping below the saddle w;11 be more gradual than above the saddle and may
actual1y increase to a local "worst damping ll peak for some intermediate

12-44

 machine size. At the far left the curves will show a clear decline since the
two effects are additive beyond the local peak of the damping ridge.
To give some perspective on values of worst damping, the scaling laws of
Table 12.4-1, yield values of about -0.03 to -0.02 in the 10-100 HP range for
a = 1 and about -0.035 to -03 for the same HP range _fOlr a = Z, both for zero

10ad i nert i a. Instabi 1ity i s i ndi cated in the 3000 - 4000 HP range for = 1
and in the 8000 - 9000 HP range for = 2. Including saturation and iocreased
10ad i nerti a would greatly i ncrease the HP values in these estimates and
i ndi vi dual design variations coul d cause large variations. The corresponding
frequency ranges for worst damping are 18-12 Hz (<< = 1) and 20-17 Hz (<< = 2)
for the 10-100 HP range with zero load i nerti a. These ranges' wouldbe lowered
for increased inertia and again will vary greatly for specific machines.

12.9 The Influence of Oesign Modifications

Changes in performance specifications, such as jncreased effieiency,
lower speed or modifications in the method of coo1ing wil1 generally require
basie ehanges in the design of the machine. In this section the influence of
such changes on dynamic performance, as compared to general purpose design B
machines, are evaluated in, terms of specific trends that ean be identified.

12.9-1 Influence of Pole Number Np

The scaling laws presented earlier allow easy evaluation of the influence
of the number of poles on the transient parameters. Tabl,e 12.4-1 indicates
that for a given HP rating, the pole pitch Tp varies approximately as
N-p1/ 2 Combining this with the scaling laws for TI,
r Tm and a results in the
following dependence on Np (for Np ~ 2)

12-45

 )
')
.,
j
W TI ,.. N -1/2 TI / T .... N 1/2/N -1 a - N (12.9-1)
o r p r m p p P ")
:)

Thus, comparing two machines with 4 poles and 8 poles (same HP) for example,

l
the change in location in the dynamic response plane is downward by IZ and )

)1

leftward by 3/12. At the same time a is doubled. Higher pole number machines

::'i
/-)
are therefore generally located slightly down and to the left of the 4 pole
)
machine line shown in Figs. 12.7-4 and 12.7-6a; the shift is however
relatively small. ".',
)
At rated frequency, all higher pole number machines can stil1 be expected
)
to be in the high woT~ region and their behavior will be similar to 4 pole -1
. " somewhat
machines except for having - . - lower values
. of woTIr and TI/T.
r m From Eqs
12.8-2 and 12.8-3, these changes result in somewhat better damping, a slightly
.)
,
)
lower natural frequency and a better damping ratio when comparing machines
with the same HP rating. The much larger values of a associated with higher
,
j
)

pole numbers results in much improved worst case damping over the whole range )

of machine sizes. Because of the high values of a and lower value of , )

T~/Tm' high woT~ instability is much less likely to occur in higher pole
number machines operated at reduced frequency.
,
)

)
The opposite trends would appear to hold for 2-pole machines based on the
scaling laws of Table 12.4-1. However, there are a number of special design
,,
)

problems in 2-pole machines which modify this conclusion. The most important
:)
of these are insufficient rotor core space, poor winding factor resulting from :)

the need for shorter pitch coi1s, slot shape problems associated with the
:.
;)
relatively high curvature of the rotor and stator air gap surfaces and the :,
:)
need to use somewhat larger air gaps to avoid axial flux and unbalanced forces
.li)
,.
on the air gap surfaces. The net result is that 2-pole machines require
significant design compromises and usual1y end up operating at reduced flux
density and lower current loading than multi-pole machines. These compromises :)
,
12-46 :)
:)
,)
)
, I
 reduce the size of the upward and rightward shift from the 4-pole machine line
in the dynamie response plane (Fig. 12.7-4). lhe reduction in a predicted by
Eq. 12.9-1 is also considerably altered and although a is lilcely to be smaller
in 2-pole machines it is probably on1y moderately SOe In general these
modifieations have theeffect of Iceeping 2-pole maehi.nes fairly elose to 4
pole machines in terms of loeation in the dynamic response plane. Rated
frequency operation is therefore similar to that for 4-p'ole machineswith
somewhat poorer dampingand damptng ratio like1y because of-the slightly
1a rge r va1ues of Wo T~ and T~/Tm. lhe reduced va 1ues of a can make worst
damped operation signi fieantly peorerbut this is very dependent on the, ehoi ce
of air gap length and is hence quite variable for diffe-rent maehines.

12.9-2 Low Slip Maehines (Design A)

The design A machine has smal1er rated slip and a higher breakdown torque
than the general purpose, design B machine. It;s usually used where low
winding r2 r 10ss is required for cooling OI' efficiency reasons. To Iceep the
same frame size it is necessa~ to increase the flux density level to offset
lower current loading and the machine losses are therefore shifted frem the
windings to the core. lhis shift of the losses i s well suited to totally
enclosed motors since with only external air flow it is clearly IIIJch easier to
remove heat from the core than frem the windings.
The effect of shifting the lesses from the windings to the core is to
reduce t-he per unit_ resi stances and reactances (fewer turns) [6,7J. To main
tain the total leakage reactance at a reasonable, though usua11y somewhat
reduced, level the rotor slots are typically somewhat deeper and narrower than
in general purpose designs. Thenet effect of these changes on the transient
parameters is to increase T~ since r2 is reduced more than Xl + x2 (total

1eaKage) and to decrease 1m as a resu 1t of the redueti on i ri 1'2. The va1ue of

12-47
 a is generally larger beause ~ is reduced more than xl + x2. As a result of
::,

these changes, the machine line in the dynamic response plane (Fig. 12.7-4) :)

moves upward because of the increase in TI and to the ri ght by about twi ce J

the factor of upward movement since Tm decreases as

r
T'
r
increases, All ,
J

points on the machine line therefore shift toward the high CJloT~, high Tlr/Tm
.,
;)

region (upper right).

For rated frequency operation, these changes will tend to make the
,
.l

damping and damping factorworse and leavethe natural frequency unchanged ,,

)

(Eqs. 12.8-2 and 12.8-3) for machines of the same HP rating. The frequency
:l
reduction requiredto reach worst damping wil1 be about the same since the
.}
shift in the maehine line is roughly paral1el to the worst damping line. The )

change in the worst damping eondition is unclear since above the saddle point
the higher value of T;/Tm tends to make the damping worse butthe inereased
,,
)

)
value of a tends to improve the damping. However, the elose spacing of the
minimum damping values above the saddle point in Figs. 12.7-6b and 12.7-6e
)
,,
suggests that a large increase in a is required to offset an increase in
T~/Tm in this region. It is therefore likely that above the saddle point,
,,
the worst case damping wil1 be poorer for design A maehines. Below the saddle :)
;)
point, higher values of a are much more effective and it is likely that the
:)
worst case damping will be better in this region. :)

Because of the higher flux densities employed in design A machines, the

saturation parameter y is likely to be larger than in conventional machines.
This will tend to improve the worst case damping (Figs. 12.7-6b, 12.7-6e) in
all regions and, if the saturation level is high enough, could offset the
effect of the ;ncrease in T~/Tm above the saddle point.

12-48

I "I I
 12.9-3 High Efficiency Machines
lhe recent trend to develop new lines ofmachines with higherefficiency
creates an interesting situation in which all ofthe obvious design
modi fi cati ons 1i kelyto be made tendto make the dynamic response less well
damped. The most obvious modifications are a decrease incurrent loading to
reduce the wi ndi ng losses and reduced f1 ux density to decrease the core and
magnetizing current lasses. lhe simultaneous reduction of both current
loading and f1 ux densi.ty reduces the power perunit areaafai r gap surrace
and thus requi res. a physically larger machi ne to achieve the samelf' rating.
In addition to the reductian incurrent laading and flux density, I

numerous ather design modifications can beutilized' to 'improve efficiency. It

appears 1ikely that an increase i.n slot area relativeto tooth areawould be
utilizedto achieve reduced winding losses.To offsetthe highercore 10sses
resulting frem the reduced core area, bettergrades of low 10ss core material
may be employed~ Adjustments in airgap length may bemade <balancing the
change in magneti zing current against the change in high frequency pu1 sation
lossesassociated with the slot ripple flux.lhere arec1early tradeorfs to
be ma de , but it woul d appear that the net resul t wi11 begreatly reduced per
unit resistances, roughly the same total lealcage reactance, probably somewhat
larger values of Xm and a reduced value of Tm lhe redu,ction of Tm results
from the large reduction in r2 more than offsetting tbe increased inertia
associated with the larger frame size.
The largest change in the transient parameters is in T~ which increases
significantly as a result af the reduction in r2- The,decrease in Tm is
likely to be moderate and a wil1 prabably on1y decrease slightly depending
primari1y on how the air gap length is modified. The saturation parameter y
wi11 also be reduced as a result af the reduced saturation level while the

12-49

 ,.I
")

,
)

}
parameter a(=T~/T~) will pr~bably not change significantly. The net effect )
of these changes is to cause the location in the dynamic response plane of a ::)
)
high efficiency machine to more upward and to the right, roughly along the
,)
machine line of Fig. 12.7-4, making a high efficiency machine similar in :)
)
location to a conventional machine of higher HP rating. This translation is,
')
however, accompanied by only a moderate reduction in a and a probably large
reduction in y. A high efficiency machine is, therefore, similar but not
:)
,,
identical in dynamic response to a conventional machine of higher HP rating.
At rated frequency these changes will place a high efficiency machine
)
,,
further into the high ~oT~ region than a conventional machine of the same HP )
rating. Hence the damping, damping ratio and natural frequency all wil1 be
reduced (by roughly the change in r2 since a, y, and ~ have little effect in
,
,)

':)
this region). To attain worst case damping will require a greater reduction "

in operating frequency since the machine point at rated frequency has ':)
,
translated upward relative to the worst damping line (unless a is
signfficant1y reduced). Above the saddle point the worst case damping will be
,,
)

much poorer since there is nothing offsetting the translation to the right
caused by the larger value of TI/T.
r m If the saturation parameter .y is small ,
)

as a result of low saturation the worst damping can become very poor (see ,
)

Figs. 12.7-6b,c). Thus instability or very poor worst case damping are likely
for much lower HP machines than is the case for conventional designs. If the
,,
.)

rotor resistance r2 isreduced by 50~, the translation to the right is )

somewhat more than a factor of two and this will bring relatively srnall .)
)
machines into the high woT~ instability region. Below the saddle point, )
machines with much smaller values of a are translated to the right bringing )
)
them into the region where the low ~o T~ crest of minimum damping exists.
This produces poorer dampingover much af the low woT'r retion below the ,
)

12-50
,
)

.>
)
)
)
 saddle. Note that some machines will be translated nearer to the saddle point

(from the left) and will have better worst case damping.

In general, the modifications needed to improve efficiency ~ lead to

poorer dynamic response. The most significant change ;s the ;ncrease in
but the reduction in Tm, a and i alI contribute to making the dynamic

response less stable. The beneficial effect af saturation acting as a

stabil i zi ng i nfl uence may be greatly reduced in high efficiency machi nes and

this can lead to actual instability in machines af relatively small size when

combined with the increase in rr

t

12.9-4 High Slip Machines (Design O)

lhe design O high slip machine is a high starting torquemachine intended

far vari able vol tage speed control arfar app 1i cation to impact loads where

speed droop is necessary to allow inertial energy storage to be utilized. The

high slip, high starting torque requirement leads to high rotor resistance and
relatively low leakage reactance; a rotor resistance of 0.2 p is typical.

With such large values af rotor resistance, thevs.lue af T~ becomes quite

small and Tm becomes large. Typical values might be 3 ms for rr
t and more'

than 75 ms for Tm This results in Wo T~ - 1 and r~ITm"" .04 such that tne
machine is well off to the left side af the dynamic response plane. These
machines are therefore almost always in the region where the dynamic response
;s first arder and they are well approximated by neglecting theelectriacl

transient effects entirely. The response is simply that of a first arder

system with a time constant equal to Tm

12.10 Respanse to Small Oisturbances

The response for 5mall disturbances depends upon the zera locations of

the transfer functian as well as on the pele locations. Altheugh the pele

12-51

 ,:,
,,
locations are the same for any type of input disturbance, the variation of the
zero locations causes the coupling into each of the response modes to be quite
:,
;)
,,)
different for different types of disturbances. The zero locations and a
)
typical step response for each of the three types of input disturbance are ')

presented below. )

12.10-1 Torque Step Response "'

'.)
'"}
The zeros for torque disturbances are the electrical constant speed )
)
poles. Since these constant speed poles are also the starting points of the
:)

root loci of Section 12.5, the tarque zeros tend to be close to the poles when

the gain T~/Tm is small. This results in IIcompensation" of the poles and .,
::)

relatively low levels of coupling into all but the lowest frequency ar real ,
)

axis poles.
with pa rameters
Figure 12.10-1 i.nustrates this phenomenon for an 800 hp machine
,,
)

)
T'
r
= 40 ms T'}T
r m = 5.73 a = 1.4 (J = 0.039 l.LlT'
O r
= 15 )

Note that for each of the cases illustrated only the lowest order medes are ,,
)

readily apparent in the response. lhe curve for T'}T = 0.573 in

r m
Fig. 12.10-1 is included to show nearly first order respons~ with the )
,
effective time constant still essentially 80 ms.
,,
)

12.10-2 Voltage Step Response

:,
The locations of the zeros for a change in applied voltage are given by ;)
the soluticns to the cubic equation Nv = O where Nv is given in Table 12.10 :)
:)
1 Figure 12.10-2 presents the zero locations as a function of w T'
o r for two .)
different values of slip frequency S (j) T'. Note the occurrence of right <)
oo r
half plane zeros for low frequencies for motor operation and for all
:,
:,
frequencies for generator operation. For the present discussion the important :,
:)
)
12-52 )

,,
)
 04

OJ r

-:2

(rad/s)
-:3 TI
TI Tr= 0.537
.f ~ 5.37 m
m

Fig. 12.10-1 Incremental Shaft Speed Response for a

51 Step Increase in Load Torque

point is that the zeros are no longer in 'posit10ns to compensate a the

poles. In particular, the high frequency poles are now far remved from the
zeros and are therefore much more closely coupled to the input than in the.
case of a torque disturbance. This is illustrated in Fig. 12.10-3 where the .
high frequency mede 1S clearly evidente However, .the adominant- 10wer order
roots still govem the settling time and are the maj"or contributors to the
response after the initial period.

12.10-3 Freguency Step Response

For frequency di sturbance there are on1y two zeros gi ven by the sol utions
to the quadratic equation N.CI) = O where NCI) is given in Table 12.10-1. For
higher frequencies one zero moves toward the point -1 whilethe second is in

12-53

 ,
)
,)

,
:)

)
Table 12.10-1 )

Gain Factors and Polynomial Expressions for Zeros ,)

J.
)
Ny To 1 1 l
GV = KV O Ky = - B =W
5 W 0 o BT~V so o T~ (l+aJ ,,)
)
N To )
w 1
G =K D K -- 1 A =
W f.I) til So(l)o A 2 I2
aa so"'o Tr
,
,J

)
)

,
}

.)
)
)
)
)
N
v3
= 2s W TI
o o r B
[1 + --]
A2 ,,
,,
,
:)
~,

+ a2a 2]
:,
,)
~)
fi)
"

,;)
:)
:,
,:,
J

')
2-54 _J
"

:~
)
 ~ motor
1.5j
generator \. 32 16
" , ~-"'---

"\
\
\
'32
32 '\
16. \ ,
s w T':: 25 8
4 \ ,,
",
o o r
.......... O.s W TI = 50
\
,
"' o o r
\
\
I ',
"

-.ator ~ti. I ..
generator ~3rd zero
________JI_+~2_~t4__~t~8_.__,~
_8J6~1~___~~l~4~T_0
6462660 l 62 64 8

-5
I ,
S
O

Fig. 12.10-2. Locus of Voltage Zeros as (1)0 r:- is varied.

1.0 CAIr ( rad/s)

o.s
:: l5
0.6 -(.L)o T'r
S (.L) T' :: 0.05
o o r

o~~--~~~~~~~--~~------~
.20 .24 .28 .32
t ... (s)

Fig. 12.10-3. Incremental Shaft Speed Response for a 5%

Increase in Voltage.

12-55

 )
,)
1
'')
the right half plane close to the point Soe The presence of this right half
:"
plane zero creates the possibility that the initial response of the motor J
speed can be opposite to the ultimate steady state response. This is
i,l'
illustrated in Fig. 12.10-4 where an initial dip in speed occurs for a O.2~ .)

"

step ;ncrease in frequency. The dip is small and short in this case but could
,i)
be larger in other situations. J
,
)
.J
)
Ol, (rad/s)
)
S J TI
oor = O25 }

cuoT'r = .15 O
OI, =0.726
,
)

,----....______<-8S-)
I
~_ ,
.)

)
0.1 I
)
)
,,
.16 .20 .24 .28 .32 .36 .40

,,
)

)
:,
')
:,
Fig. 12.10~4 Incremental Shaft Speed Response for an ,:)
increase in stator frequency
':)
:)
:)
:)
:)
)

,
)

:>
12-56 ,)
;)
:)
:~
I I I i I
 References

1) D. W. Novotny, J. H. Wouterse, Ulnduction Machine Transfer Functions

and Dynamic Response by Means of Complex Time Variables,'1 IEEE Trans.

PAS-95, No. 4, pp. 1325-1335, July/Aug. 1976.

2) R. Stern, D. W. Novotny, liA Simpl ified Approach to the Deterrnination of

I nduction Machine Dynami c Response," IEEE Trans .. PAS-97, No. 4,

pp. 1430-1439, JulyjAug. 1978.

3) J. A. A. Melkebeek, "Stabi1iteitsonderjoek van de Spanningsgeoode

Induktiemotor," Doctorate Thesis, State University of Gent, May 1980.

4) J. A. A. Mel kebeek , "Influence of Saturation on the Stability Limits of

a Voltage Fed Inductlon Motor," Conference Proceedings of the-15th

Universities Power Engineering Conference (U.P.E.C.), Leicester,

England, pp. 282-1 - 282-8, 1980.

5) J. A. A. Melkebeek, D. W. Novotny, "The Influence~ of Saturationon

Induction Machine Drive Dynamics,'1 IEEE-IAS Annual Meeting Conference

Record, 1982.

6) H. C. J. DeJong, IIAC Motor Design with Conventional and Converter

Supply," (Book), Oxford University Press, Oxford, England, 1976.

7) H. C. J. DeJong, D. W. Novotny, "Sca ling Laws for Induction Machine

Parameters,U to be published.

8) N. Gunaratnum, D. W. Novotny, "The Effects of Negl ecti ng Stator

Transients in Induction Machine Modeling," IEEE Trans. PAS-99, No. 6,

pp. 2050-2059, Nov/Dec. "1980.

9) J. A. A. Melkebeek, 'IInduction Motor Instability for Small and Zero

Stator Resistance," Conference Praccedings af the 14th Universities

Power Engineering Conference (U.P.E.C.), Loughborough, England,

pp. 2A3-1 - 2A3-6, 1979.

12-57
 "'.
:)
,)
J
lO} T. A. tipo, P. C. Krasue, "Stability Analysis of a Rectifier-Inverter
Induction Motor Drive,a IEEE Trans. PAS-88, No. 1, p. 55-62, Jan. 1969.
)
,
:J
'.).
ll} A. Meyer, "Influence de l'effet Pelliculaire sur le Regime Stationaire
:j
et sur 1es Osci 11 ati ons Porcees des Machi nes Asynchrones, 11 Rev. Brown ~)

Soveri, 8, pp. 500-507, 1976. :)

)
12) A. Cupsoi, W. Geysen, H. Jordan, K. V. Soos, A. Vandenput, H.

Walcarins, IIStability Analysis of Oscil1ating Induction Machines," Acta

,

,)

Technica Csar, 5, pp. 521-548, 1978. ,

.,

,
)i

,
)

J
)
)
)
)
)
)
" )
)
:)
:)

'"':,

')
d~.
"1-'
:)
:>

.)
,)

:)
"

)
)
12-58
:)
')
)
:~
 SECTION9

dq Modelling and Electric Machine Transient Analysis .

9.0 lntroduction

The purpose of this secti.on is to outline the formulation and development of the mathernatical

model employed in transient ana1ysis of electric machines. The material is introductory in nature

and emphasizes the concept and application ofthe model at the exp:nse of the detailed derivation of

some of the mathematical aspects. Qnly the uniform air gapma.hlne is treated and linear magnetic

materials are assumed throughout.

A basic formulation of the coi! variable equations of a tbree phase, unifonn airgap machine is

used as the staning point. The concept of transforming the three phase winding toorthogonal axis

dq windings on bom stator and rotor is men developed. The resulting two phase machine model is

considered in some detail concerning its nature relative to the typical kinds of problems of interest

in -machlne- dynamies~ This examination of the model illustrates the existance of rime varying

coefficients in the differential equations as well as the basic nonlinearity when rotor speed is a

dependent variable. The final step in the development is the transformation of all windings to a

single set of dq axes which yields the basic dq rotating axis models widely used in the transient

ana1ysis of electric machines.

9.1 The ldealized Three Phase Unifonn Air Gap Machine

Fig. 9.1-1 illustrates the winding configuration, reference polarities and symbols used to

describe a three phase idealized machine. The angle ar (measured in electrical degree~ or radians)
is used to define the angular position of the rotar and is selected asthe angle between the axes of

the phase 'a' windings on the stator and rotor. Note that the reference polarities are those of a

passive device with the current entering at the positive reference temrinal.

Using the conventions established in Fig. 9.1..;1, the voltage equation for stator phase 'a' is

d.
. as '\
Vas =1ass
r +-=1 r +pll.as 9.1-1
dt ass

where the operator "p" is used to denote the operation ofrime differenlciation. Similar equations can

1
 )

,,
}

bs-axis
,
)

)
J
br-axis )
)
)
)
)
ar-axis
,
)

)
)
)
)
~i=~-:-------~a;;s.-axis )
ias
,,
)

,
)

)
)
)
)
)
cs-axis )
)
cr-axis
)

Fig. 9.1-1 Winding Axes and Reference Polarities of a Three Phase Machi
ne
,
)

)
)
)
)
:>
:)
2 .)
)
:)
)
)
,)
,}
 be written for each of the other windings. With the assumption of a linear magnetic circuit, the flux

linkages of each winding can be expressed in terms of the winding currents and the winding induc

tances. For example, the 'a' phase stator flux linkage is

9.1-2

The winding inductances are either constants or depend on the rotor angle ar' The mutuaI
inductances between stator and rotor are periodic functions of ar and are assumed to be adequately

represented by the fundamental component of the Fourier series representing each function.

Assuming the three stator windings are identical except for spatial position (and the same for the

rotor) results in tive basic inductance coefficients:

Stator Self Inductance = LsC\> Rotor Self Inductance = ~

Stator to Stator MutuaI = -Msc!> Rotor to Rotor Mutaul =-~ 9.1-3

Peak Stator to Rotor Mutaul =~

The space variable stator torotor mutuaIs are all cosine functions of the angle between the

respective winding axes:

Lasbr =Mil> cos (er + 21C/3) 9.1-4

Laser = Mq, cos (ar - 21t/3)

etc.
Combinmg the inductnce demitions, the flux linkage equations and the voltage equations

results in a set of six electrical equations relating the phase voltages, phase currents and the rotor

angle ar These equations are summarized in Fig.9.1-2. Note that each winding is coupled

magnetically to every other winding resulting in a very complicated set of six differential equations

with periodically time varying coefficients.

To complete the model a mechanical equation relating the mechanical output and the rotor

angle is required. This equation has the form

3
 )
)
[v] =[r][i] +P(L][i) )
where )
)
vas 1
as rs O O O O O
)
)
V bs ~s O rs O O O O
)
vcs i cs O O rs O O O )

[v]= [i] = [r] =

var
vbr
iar O O O rT O

rr
O
,,
)

~r O O O O O

V
cr
ler O O O O O rr
,, :)

,,
L -M -M M cose MI!>cosJ3r Mcpcos"{,r
~ sI!> scp I!> r ')
-M L -M Mcp cosy,r Mcpcose r Mcp cosJ3r :)
scp ~ scp
)
-M -M L
scp Mcos~ Mcpcosy,r Mcp cose r
scb scp 11 r )
[L] = Mcpcose r Mcpcosy,r Mcpcos~r L -M -M :)
rcp ~ r$

. M~cosfl
cp r
M.cos6 r
cp
~Mcosr.~
cp r -M
rcp
L
rcp
-M
r9 ,
:)

Mcp cos"{,r Mcpcosl3r M cose r -Mrcp -M L :)

cp ~ Te;>
)
)
)
PMl. (i i +i i
Te -- _ 2 as ar -bSDr
+ics i'c:r'. i +ios icr~.+icsi ar'sin~r +(ias icr+ibsiar+iCS-br'
'sinar~+(i~or i lsin"{,]'
r
,)
,)
)
J3r = er + 2rc/3 1.r .=er - 2rc!3 )
,)
)

Fig. 9.1-2 Coil Variable Equations of Idealized Three Phase Machine

"
)
)

)
)
j
4 J
:>
)
}
,
)
)
 de
J~+T(e )=T 9.1-5
dt L Im e

where

J =total rotor inerria

TL =load torque

Te = electrical torque
eIm =(2/p) ar =rotor mechanical angle
The mechanical angle is usually eliminated to correspond with the electrical equations resulting in

9.1-6

The electrical torque can be evaluated from the basic equation

T=- [ awoo ] 9.1-7

e erm i=constant

where Wco is the magnetic coenergy.In a linear magnetic system the coenergy s equal to the

. stored.1Jlagl1etic~ energy_ ~~~_~~

W co = (l/2)as2Laas + (l!2)ibs 2~bs + .........

+ Labsagbs + Lacsias\:s + ......... .. 9.1-8

-- -"----_._---------,~_._-,--------
_._--------,-------~-- -------------- - _.

In the mbdel under consideration only the stator to rotor mutual inductances depend on em and
contribute to the torque. Using the inductance definitions in Eq. 9.1-4 results in the electrical

torque equation illustrated in Fig. 9.1-2. Again, the expression is a complicated one involving nine

product terms of stator and rotor cmrents, each multiplied by a periodic function of er

9.2 Transformation from Three Phase to Two Phase Variables

The complicated magnetic coupling between the six windings of a three phase machine has

prompted a great deal of effort seeking methods of simplifying the analysis of such systems. A

significant simplification is attainable by replacing the three phase stru,cture by an equivalent two

phase system in which the coil axes on the stator and rotor are separted by 90 electrical degrees.The

mathematics connecting the two systems can be viewed as a geometric relationship relating quan

 )
tities on the three phase abc axes to quantities on a two phase, onhogonal set ofaxes. The two ')

)
phase axes are usually labeled as dq axes (representing a girect and a g,uadrature axis). Fig. 9.2-1

illustrates these geometric relations where the q-axis is shown at an arbitary angle e measured fTOm ,
j

)
the a-axis and the direct axis is 90 behind (lagging) the q-axis.
)
Since the three phase system contains three variables, a third variable must be defined for the )
two phase system to allow complete equivalence. This third.variable is the zero (or null) sequence )

variable defined as the sum of the three phase variables (mulplied by a constant). With this ,
)

addition, the three equations derming the d, q and o variables ean be eonsidered as a transfonnation )

of variables from the three phase abc set to the two phase dqo set This transformation as well as

the inverse transformation giving the abc variables in terms of dqo variables are given in Fig.
,
)

)
9.2-1. As described in this figure the transformation is usually referred to as the "dq Transform ~)

ation". The multiplier of2/3 in the forward transformation is selected to yield a unity multiplier in :,J
the inverse transformation; other ehoiees are possible but this seleetion is convenient and widel y )
)
used. Note that the angle 9 defining the q-axis location is arbitrary and ean even be time variable to
)
produce a rotating set of dq axes. .)

The first applieation of the transformation is to employ it to convert the three phase stator )
)
e =o to fix
winding to an equivalent two phase winding. For this pttrpose it is convenient to take

the q-axis to be eoincident with the stator a-axis. The resultant "phase transformation" is illustrated , )

)
in Fig. 9.2-2. It allows replaeement of the abc stator variables by a new set of dqo stator
)
variables. The procedure is lenghty and tedious, but straight forward. In effect, ali that is required )
~)
is to use the equations in Fig. 9.2-2 whieh define the abc quantities in terms of dqo quantities
:)
(inverse transformation) to replace all of the stator abc quantities in the three phase machine equa )
tions. Thus, instead of v as ' vbs and v cs' the stator voltages become v qs' vds and vos' .)
)
Similarly, the three phase currents ias, i bs and ics will be replaced by iqs' ids and ios' The algebra
,)
is involved but the concept is simple. .)

The same procedure is applied to the rotor winding to yield the tw~ phase equivalem rotor

,
"

:)
equations. The transformation for rotor quantities is identical to that for the stator and the q-axis of

the rotor is aligned with the a-axis of the rotor. )

)
:.
6
,
)

:)

,
)

~
 b-axis

q-axis

p::;._ _ _ +--_.i-_. a-axis

d-axis

f
q
=:.[ cosa + fbcos(21t/3 - 9) +
3
f
a
f cos(21t/3 + 9)]
e .

Geometric Relation Between abc and dq Quantities

fq cos9 cos(9-2x/3) cos(a+2x3) fa

fd
='32 sina sin(9-21t/3) sin(9+21t/3) ~
l/fi 1/.fi 1/.fi
Forward dq Transformation

fa cosa sina 1/.[2 fq

t;, = cos(9-21t/3) sin(9-2x!3) 1/fi fd

fe cos(9+21t/3) sin (a+21t/3) 1/fi fo

Inverse dq Transformation

Fig. 9.2-1 dq Transformation Equations

7
 ,
)
b-axis )

,
)

q-axis
,
)

)
) - - - - - - . . . . -.... a-axis
)
)

"

)
)
"

d-axis .)
c-axis
)
Geometric Relationship . Phase Transformation
,.
1
1
-
2 2
1 , )

f 3.
.,
:)
)

)
t -1 -T ---fc
)
.fi fi .fi "

Forward Phase Transformation )

:)

1
.,
fa
1 o
;fi ,,
)

)
fo )
1
1
-- fi 1
2 2 fi )
Inverse Phase Transformation :,
~,

Fig. 9.2-2 Phase Transformation (dq Transformation with e = O) ','

8
',)'
)
 Since the transformed equations no longer correspond to physically existing quantities

(unless a real two phase maclne is to be studied), it is useful to inn"oduce an expanded notation to

indicate the frame of reference of the transformed variables. Although not essential at this poim,

since ali stator quantities are referred to a stator frame of reference and all rotor quantities to a rotor

reference, this notation is necessary when other frames of reference are empIoyed. It is helpful to

introduce the extra information at this poiot to keep in mind the natlllre of the transformation being

used.

Fig. 9.2-3 illustrates the notation to be employed. The flI'St sllbscript indicates the winding

postion in the abc or dqo systems. The second subscript is used to denote whether the variable is a

stator or rotor quantity. Finaliy the superscript shows the reference .fra.me in which the variable is

expressed. Thus, ySqs is the q-axis stator voltage referred to a stator frame of reference. As noted,

in the three phase to two phase transformation under consideration here, alI of the stator

transformed variabIes are referred to a stator reference system and the rotor quantities alI to a rotor

reference system. Allstatoryariables thus have a superscript 's' and ali rotor quantities a super

script 'r'.

The result of applying the phase transformation to the stator .and rotor equations of the three

phasemodel ofFig:-9.1-2is the-two-phase-equivalent modethavingLhe-winding orientation and

reference polarities illustrated in Fig. 9.2-4. The differential equations describing this two phase

model of the three phase machine are given in Fig. 9.2-5 and the relations between the three phase

machine winding inducrances and those of the two phase equivalent are summarized in Fig 9.2-6.

Note thar the zero sequence quantities are totally decoupled from the dq quantities. Physically, this

can be interpreted as a result of the fact that zero sequence currents in the three phase model

produce a net air gap flux of zero amplitude; the only flux is leakage fluxo

As a result of the total decoupling of the zero sequence variables, it follows that the absence

of zero sequence current implies that zero sequence voltage is also absent. Thus, in wye connected

three phase machines without a fourth wire (no neutral connection), there can be no zero sequence

current and hence no zero sequence voItage. For such cases (and they are by far the majority) the

twO phase dq model alone is a full representation of the three phase machine. In delta connected

9
 }

quantity represented; frame of reference:

,'i
),
voltage, current, flux stator, rotor, etc.
),
lnkage, etc. "'" ~
:)1

~y
)

~
)
,)
wm. ding 1'dentifjler, / e SI e 1 entifier
mac hin'd'd ,)
a,b,c, or d,q. S or r.
)1

For Example:
.s
,
:),

1 dr - rotor phase d current in stator frame }

v ~s - stator phase q voltage in stator frame :)

)
)
Fig. 9.2-3 Notation for Transformed Quantities }
i)
:,
)
)

,
)

.)
)
qs-axis j
:,
s
v ds
,
)

.)
+ ~)
,
)
.,
,)

ds-axis dr-axis
,:, )

"

Fig. 9.2-4 Winding Axes and Reference Polarities for Two Phase Equivalent .l
of 1bree Phase Machine
"

10
,,
)

,
,",
}

 [ v] =[ r][ i] + p( L][ i]

where

s .S
V
~
1
qs rS O O O

vds
S .S
lds
O rs O O
[v] = [i] = [r] = rr
r or O O O
V 1
qr qr
O O O rr
r or

vdr ldr

Ls O Mcos8 r Msin8 r

O Ls -Msin8 r Mcos8 r
[L]=
. Mcos8 r -Msin8 r Lr O

Msin8 r Mcos8 r O Lr

-----_ ...~---

S _
vos- [r + LosP] ios
S
S
Vr
or = [ r+L
r orP
] 1.r
or

3 -P M [(OS or oS or~ o 8 (Os lor .S or~ 8]

- --
Te- 1 1 +lds 1 sm + lds -1 1 COS
22 ~qr r qrqs r

Figo 902-5 Coil Variable Equations ofEquivalent Two Phase Machine

11

bs-axis
,

br,,\
,,

ar-axis
~__.. . . ___j6~iS

~~r
qs-axis
)
)
as-axis }

I \
ds-axis dr-axis .,
"

)
)
stator self inductaIlce =LsCil stator self inductance =Ls ~)
"
rotor self inductaIlce = Ln~ rotor self inductance = L r
)
stator to stator murual =-Mscjl stator to stator mutual =O )

rotor to rotor mutual =- Mrep rotor to rotor mutual = O )

. J
peak: stator to rotor mutual =M41 peak: stator to rotor mutual = M
)
:)

.)
R.elations Between Winding lnduetances
.}
Ls =Lscjl + M s0 :)
:)
L =L + M )
r r<P r<P
)
3
M=-M
2 cjl "

:)
)
Zero Sequence Inductances )

L =L-2M L =L-2M '")'

os s<P scjl or r<P r<P :>

Fig. 9.2-6 Relations Between Three Phase, Two Phase and Zero Sequence Inductances
.,
)

,)
.)
)
)
12

,
)

 rnaehines a triple linnonie eurrent of zero sequenee ean flow around the delta, but there ean be no

fundamental ar odd harmonic zero sequence current. Thus, in most cases, the zero sequence phase

variables are absent in electric machine problems.

With no zero sequenee quantities, the relations between the abc and the dq variables of the

transfonnation reduee to

fqr =far
and 1 9.2-1
t. =~f
fi cr-fbr)
The equality of q-axis and a-axis quantities is the primary reason for the original choice of the factor

2/3 in the defming equations of the dq transformation in Fig. 9.2-1. For balanced three phase

sinusoidal quantities

V as =Vm cos rot

vbs = Vm cos (rot - 21[/3) 9.2-2

v cs = V m~-rtrot~21t/3)
the eorresponding two phase quantities are

s .
vqs =V m cos rot

9.2-3
s =-VSIDO)[
vds '
m

which is clearly balanced two phase excitation for the machine ofFig. 9.2-4.

9.3 The Two Phase Coil Variable Machine Model

While the two phase madel illustrated in Figs 9.2-4 and 9.2-5 has been developed as a

tIansformed version of the original three phase machine, it ean also be viewed as a model of a real

two phase machine. In either case, examiniation of this model yields imponant insight into the

nature of electric machine ttansient problems. Conceptually the thought process is much simpler

for the two phase madel since, for example, the stator to stator mutualcoupling is zero in this case.

13
 The ser of equations in Fig. 9.2-5 is a complete .J.j.d rigorous description of rhe idealized ,
)

)
three phase or two phase maehine. These equations deseribe the behavior of the model for any
)
operational mode whatsoever, including electromechanical transients of any rype. Unfonunarely,

rhe equations are in general nonlinear because of the various products of variables which occur.
,
)

)
This renders any general solution quite impossible and it is only in certain restricted cases rhat any )
form of literal solution is possible at all. However, with numerical values for the various )
,)
parameters, a computer solution of any panicular situation isalways possible. It is imponant to
)
remember, however, that while the equations represent a rigorous description of the modeL the )
)
model is only an approximation to any practical machine. Thus, although we can always obtain an
)
accurate solution for any particular constraints placed on the model, this may or may not be an

accurate solution for the practical machine we are attempting to analyze. The relationship between
,
;)

the model and the actual device must always be recognized. ,

)

Before attempting to solve problems or to funher simplify the equations through the )
,}
introduction of new variables, it is worthwhile to pause and consider the nature of the nonlinear

ities mentioned in the preceding paragraph. ,

)

It is imponant to recognize that, in the voltage equations, many of the derivatives involve )

products and must be evaluated accordingly. Thus thefirst voltage equation, when expanded. ,, )

becomes
,,
VS t sin6r p6 r + Lmsin6r pidrr + Lmw
=(rs + L p) i qsS + Lmcoser pifqr - Lmqr i~_cos6 r p6 r 9.3-1
qs 5

in which the speed. dependent voltages are clearly shown. Examination of Eq. 9.3-1 and Fig. 9.2-5
, )

)
reveals that the non-linear terms involve:
)
1) trigonometric functions of rotor angle er> and )
2) product non-linearities, such as )
)
i~coser per and i~i~siner :)

The imponance of these non-linearities in terms of rendering literal solutions difficult (or
:,
)
impossible) depends entirely on the nature ofthe problem under consideration. )
')
:,
14 ,)

,,
"

)
)
)
 To illustrate tllls point, observe that if the problem to be solved involves finding the winding

voltages and developed torque from knowledgeofwinding currents androtorposition, thesolution

is straightforward and almost trivial. Simple substirution and evalution of indicated products and

derivatives is ali that is required. However,if the roles of dependent and independent variables are

interchanged, such that we desire to find winding currents and rotor angle from know ledge of

voltages and load torque, the problem becomes the exttemely difficuIt one of soIving five

simultaneous non-linear differential equations. This second -example is one of considerable

practical importance.

In the general case, then, the equations in Fig. 9.2-5 are non-linear differentialequations.

The following restrictions reducethe complexity of the system of equations. The reader should

verify each ofthe following cases by exarn;njng Fig. 9.2-5

Case I Voltages and load torque specified - non-linear differential equations.

Case II Voltages and speed specified - linear differential equationswith time variable

- '.: .
-Ceffien~~~~~'~'''~'-- ~
'

~.- .----.. .--- -_.. ;- ,~' , .

Case m Zero speed - (transformer) linear differential equationswith constant

coefficients.
Case N Currents and speed specified - direct solution without differential equations.

lt would be very comforting to be able to say that a suitable choice of variables reduces the most

general problem (Case 1) to a set of linear differential equations. Unfonunately, such a set of

variables is as yet inknown (perhaps non-existent), but considerable simplification is possible

through certain well known transformations.

9.4 Stator Frame dg Variables

A funher simplification of the machine model can be achieved by transfonning all quantities

to a single set of dq axes. As an introduction to this concept, the dq rotor variables of the two

phase model will be transformed to the stator dq-axes to produce what is' called a "stator frame"

mode!. The concept is very similar to the three phase to two phase transformation except that the

15
 ,
rransformation angle is now time dependent since the rotor axes rotate with respect to the stator. "
)

The coneept is illusrrated in geometrie fonn in Fig. 9.4-1. The rransformation equations in )

this figure deseribe a eoordinate transfonnation between the rotating dq rotor axes and the ,
)

j
stationary dq stator axes and are easily wrinen by inspection of the dq axis diagramo As before, an

inverse transformation is also given and can be found by solving for the rotor frame quantities in

tenns of the newly defmed stator referred variables.

, )

As in the case of the phase transformation, the transformed machine model is obtained by
., )

using the inverse transformation to eliminate the original rotor frame quantities in favor of the new )
stator frame quantities. Again the algebra is tedious but simple in coneept. The resulting equations )

in the new stator frame rotor variables can be simplified by carrying out alI the derivatives of
:,
:)
product terms recognizing that er is a time dependent quantity. The resulting equations are given in J
Fig. 9.4-2 where the derivative operator "p" now explicitly operates on the current vector and the )
:)
rotor angle and the matrices [L] artd [G] are constant matrices. Note that all of the trigonometric ,)
functions expressing the spatial dependence of the inductances have been eliminated. The speed )
_ ... ---- .
"
voltages (terms proportional to per) are still present but have been greatly simplified in that the only
j
remaining speed voltages are cross axis coupling terms in the rotor equations. ,)
)
A physical interpretation of these resultscanbeachieved by noting that the transfonnation of
)

",
the moving rotor coils to equivalent "stationary" coils is exactly the function of the commutator on a
dc machine. As in a de machine, a speed voltage is produced in the commutated winding by a
)
magnetic field oriented petpendicular to the commutated winding axis. This is represented by the
)
cross coupling speed voltages between the transformed d and q rotor windings. The torque ~J

equation also exhibits this cross coupling propeny; the torque components being equal to the stator ....
.)
current in one axis times the referred rotor current in the other axis. Again, this can be physically

interpreted as the equivalent of the torque produced in a dc machine by the interaction of the field
,
"

.)
flux and armature current. The stator frame equations are, in fact, a model of a machine with
J
stationary onhogonal stator windings and a pair of commutated rotor windings with their brush .)
')
axes (magnetic axes) pexpendieular, eachaligned with one ofthe stator windings. Only the
:)
.,,
16
)

,
j

J
)
)
)
 rotor q-axis

F-------.l..---~ stator q-axis

rotor

d-axis

stator
d-axis

Geometric Relation Between Stator and Rotor Axes

Rotor to Stator Transformation

[tr"'l =1 coser
sme
-MSr]
cose r
[fqrl
tdr
dr r

Inverse Rotor to Stator Transformation

Fig. 9.4-1 Rotor to Stator Transformation Equations

17
 ,
}

,,
)

[V] =[ r][i] + [L]P[i] + [a][i] per

,
)
)
"

,,
)

V
5

~
.5
1
~
r5 O O O
,,
[V] =
5
Vds
[i] =
.5
lds

.5
[r] =
O

O
r5

O rr
O O

O
,
V
5
qr
1
qr :.
O O O rr )
Vdr
5 .5
ldr :,
:)
)
:,
:)
,)
L5 O M O O O O O :)
L5' O M O O O O :)
O -
[L]= [a]= -Lr
)
M

O
O

M
Lr

O
O
Lr
O

M
-M
O
O
Lr O
")
,
,)

,
)

,,
)

, ;)
)
Fig.9.4-2 Stator Reference Frame dq Model ,,)
"

18 ',"
I'

:"
:)
:)
:)
J
,
)
,)
)
 fundamental component of the magnetic fields of the commutated rotor windings are represented by

this model.

9.5 The Stator Frame dg Axis Machine Model

The machine model outlined in the previous section is usually called the "stator frame

dq-axis model". Fig. 9.5-1 summarizes the model in a single matrix combining the resistive,

inductive and speed voltage terms. In these equations the rotor instantaneous speed per is

symbolized by ror

cor(t) = per(t) 9.5-1

It is instructive to compare these transformed equations with the original equations (Fig.

9.2-5). The frrst observation is likely to be that the transformed equations look simpler because of

the absence of the many trigonometric functions. This is of consid.erable value in itself. More

importan!. however, is to inquire how the transformation has affected the equations in terms of the

vasrious_cases_exarn;nediIuhe ptecedingsection.
~ -

CaseI Voltages and Ioad torque specified - still non-linear differential equations but only
simple product non-lineari.ties.
CaseI! Voltages and speed specified - reduced to linear differential equations with
constant coef:ficients. This is of great value since this case is an important
practical problem.
Casem Zero speed (ttansformer) stilllinear differential equations with constant
coefficients.
Case IV - Currents and speed specified - still a cfirect solution except transformation
-----~----~~ eq11atiIiS-mUst beippllect
Clearly the transformed equations represent a considerable simplification and a step toward

obtaining solutions to the various types of problems. In using the transformed equations it is of

course necessary to translate the independent variables into transformed independent variables and

after solution to transform back to actual physical quantities. These operations, however, constitute

simple algebraic operations and present no real problem. In many applications the rotor currents

19
 ,

)
)

V
5
qs r+Lp
5 5
O Mp O
.5
1
qs
,,
)

S
Vds

S
=
O

Mp
r+Lp
s

~M
S
O

r+Lp
Nfp

~L
.S
lds

.S
,
"

,)
V r r r r r 1
qr qr
)
s ruM Mp roL r+Lp
r r .S
v dr r r r ,)
ldr

;,
"

3 P ~.s .S _.s .S ]
Te =--
22 1 ldr lds l
qs qr "

Fig.9.5-1 Stator Reference Frame dq Model .)

.>
')

L-M
s
L-M
r

')
,
;)

+ + ;)

s s ,)

V v qr
qs )
)
;)
)
s
rorMids (J)rLri~ .)
)

rr )
rs L-M L-M
r
s
,)
+ +
,,
,)

S
V ds
5
Vdr

)
,
+
)
')
rorMiqs . rLri qr
S S
ro

Fig.9.5-2 Equivalent Circuii - Stator Frame dq Variables

,
)

.)
)
20 ;)

,
:>

,)
)
)
)
 and voltages are of no direct concern (i.e. - induction machine problems) and in this case there is no

need to transfonn back to acruaI rotor variables.

It is possible to represent the stator frame equations of Fig. 9.5-1 in tenns of equivalent

circuits. One possible choice of circuits is shown in Fig. 9.5-2. Note that while the two circuits

are drawn separately they are actually coupled throughthe dependem voltage sources. The

developed torque is not conveniently represented in these circuits and is usually evaIuated by using

the torque expression in Fig. 9.5-1 directly. It is interesting to observe that the original equations

(Fig. 9.1-2 or 9.2-5) do not lend themselves to an equivalent circuit representanon because of the

various trigonometric teims contained in the equations. The circuits of Fig. 9.5-2 are useful only

insofaras they serve to reinforce the form of the stator frame equations; the presence of the

dependent sources precludes any form ofgeneral network solution.

As an illustranon of the simplification obtained by using the stator frame model, the

following example problem is worked out using both coil variables and stator frame variables.

Example 9.5-1 _
Determine the average torque developedby a two phase machine if it is operated with both
rotor windings short circuited, stator winding d open circuited, and stator winding q connected to a
battery of E volts and negligible internaI resistance. Assume that the machine is driven at a constam
angular speed and is in the steady state.
SoTtion: The criStramts unposed by the prolem aie-:---
r
=O
5 .S
v qs =E 1
ds
Vqr =0

p
pSr =-2 Cl)
nn
= Cl)
r
Sr =O)t+1
r

In terms of coi! variables, the equations describing this mode of operation become

is + L spiqs
E = rsqs s + MICOS
.r
qr r
J
( Cl) t + 1)"+. r . ( ID t + 1),,]
ld,r'SIn
r

O= MIt.risqscos(O)rt + 1)] + rrirqr +Lrc-n{qr

O= M J 'S
1 S10 O)
qs
(
rt i r + Lrdr
+ 1),,] + rrdr pir

T =-~22P Misl{drsin(ID
q r
t +1) - t cos(O) t + 1)]
qr r

21
 ,,
To obrain a solutiqn we musr solve the frrst three equanons simultaneously for the currems and
substitute imo the torque equation to obtain the final solution. The lIst three equations are linear
but unforrunately have time variable coefficients (this is an example of Case TI of the earlier general
)
,,
,,
discussion) and hence cannot be solved by simple methods. Before attempting solution of these
equations we investigate the problem in terms of stator frame variables.
The first step involves translating the constraint equations into stator frame quanti.ties. Thus

V
s
qr
r ' a =o
=V qrr cosar + vdrsln r
)
vsdr =- vr ' r a a o )
qrsm r + vdrCOS r =
)
and the stator frame equations describing this problem become

E =r sqs pis + Mpt

i S + Lsqs qr ,,
)

O= Mpls +rl.s + Lpl's L ID1dr

.s
qs rqr

O= MOlI.s + L 's
r qr

.s
r r

L's
ID 1 + rrldr + rp1dr
,
)

,>
rqs rrqr

3 P
T = 2 '2 lqs1dr
[.5 .s]
)
The flI'St three of these equations are linear differential equations with constant coefficients. Since
we are interested only in the steady state solution, we can immediately simplify our work by
observing that the driving function is a constant direct voltage and hence the steady state solutions
,.,
"

for the currents will be constant direct currents. Thus, all terms involving time derivatives can be
set equal to zero and the eguations reduce to ,,
E=rf
5 qs
,,
O=rt
rqr
-LIDf
r rdr

o= MOlr~s +LrIDrtqr +rrfdr

,,
where P 9,~ Pqr and ~d.r represent the steady state values of i Sqs' iSqr and i Sdr' Simultaneous solution
of these cquanons ytelds
E
,
)

fqs =r
s ,
)

,
)

t.
dr
=-
2
OlrMrr'
~2qs

r ,
)

r+OlL

r r r
)
as the steady state currents. The steady state torque is )

T=-2'2
3P
2
OlrM rr

r r + IDr
2

~2 ~s)
2
,
)

)
r

22 ,
)

, )

, }

;)
}
 which is a constam and is hence also the average torque. Note tha! this torque is negative,
indicating Ihat it acts agains! the mechanical source driving the rotor. Note further that the ~urrent in
the stator winding is limited only by the winding resistance and could therefore easlly cause
overheatinO" of the winding. Since the machine absorbs power from the mechanical source it is
clear that the rotor circuits must also dissipare energy at arare equal to the mechanical power
pm =protor =wImT
Returning now to the equations describing this operational mode in tenns of coi! variables we
note that whereas the solution in terms of stator frame variables was a dc problem, Ihe solution in
coi! varaibles will involve sinusoidally varying currents. By applying the transfonnation equations
we can write the solution as
= t cos(wrt + y) - t_sin(w
tqrqr ... r
t +y)

tdr = tqrsin(wrt + y) +tdrcOS( rt + y)

CJ)

That these expressions are solutions of the coi! variable equations may be verified by substituting
imo the equations. Thus, any method for solving the coi! variable equations directly, will require
working in terms of sinusoidal time functions (reduced to phasor analysis for practical purposes)
instead of the simple dc analysis resulting from working with the stator frame equations. Clearly,
the use of the transformed equations is of great value in this problem. The reader is urged to try
working out the solution for coi! variables in order that he may fully appreciate the simplification
afforded by the transformation.

9.6 Turns Ratio Transfonnation

While the models developed in the preceding sections describe a machine in terms of the

actual winding inductances and resistances, it is often convenient to perform a "turns ratio
uansfQrmation" and...deal with a IDade] whicb bas the saroe Durober of mrnsin both the stator and

rotor windings. Usually me srator winding is me reference winding and alI parameters are "referred

to the stator (tums)". This is an important advantage when determining parameters from test data

since, in many cases, only the stator terminals are accessible (cage rotor induction machines are a

good example).

The introduction of a "tums ratio" does not alter the form of the machine model; the

parameters and variables are simply scaled by the selected ratio. These scaled parameters and

variables do, however, lead to modifications in the interpretation one can associate with the model,

especially the equivalent circuit description.

If the turn ratio 'a' is def'med as

Ns

a=N 9.6-1
r

23
 ')
)
)
S .5 )
V r+Lp O O 1
qs 5 5 LmP qs :)
5
Vds O r+Lp
5 S
O LmP
.5
lds
:,
= :)
5 , LmP -roL r'+L'p
r r -roL' .5 , )
r m r r
,,
V 1
qr qr

s, roL LmP rorL'r r'+L'p

r r .S ,
v dr r m ldr

"
3 P J's.s, .s.s , ] )
Te = -22- L 1q; ldr - lds1
qr
)
Fig.9.6-1 Stator Referenee Frame dq Model Using Stator Referred Parameters )
:)

,
)

)
)
+ +
)
5 s' )
V V
qs qr
:)
:>

rorLmi~ r r'i~'
roL
,:,
.)

~1 Ld r'
r :)
:)
+ + .)
,)
5
v els
s,
v dr I.,
:,
+ :,
:,
rorLm1.5qs roL ,{,
r r qr ')
2 )

1;1=L
5-m
L ~ .=[N,]
2 Nr L-L
r m N
L=~M
m N
:)
,
r
"

Fig.9.6-2 Equivalent Cireuit - Stator Frame Using Stator Referred Parameters :)

24
,,
)

)
)
)
)
and the transformed-rotor variables as
v' rotor =a vrotor 9.6-2

1.
i' rotor =-1
a rotor
9.6-3

where vrotoT and iroror can refer to abc quantities or dq quantities in any reference frame, it is easily

shown that the tums ratio transformed equations have the same form but contain new pararneters

with the new values

9.6-4
M'=aM

As indicated in Eq.9.6-4, all selfimp~ces of the rotor are scaled by 'a2' and al1 rotor to stator

mutual impedances by 'a'. The resulting stator referred rotor dq parameters are

t,=I~L,_
N
L =M'=~M 9.6-5
m Nr

where the sym.bol Lm is used to denote the rotor to stator mutual inductance referred to the stator.

Figure 9.6-1 gives the stator framedq equations using these stator referred parameters.

n n_--nre-smtOFframe equivalent circuit usng stator referred parameters is illustratennin Fig.9 .6-2.

Although the circuit retains the form of the previous circuit in Fig.9.5-2, the series inducrive

elements are now the conventionalleakage inductances of the machine. The relationship between

the self and murual inductances and the leakage inductances are given in the figure.

In most cases the models employed in machine ana1ysis use stator referred parameteis since
they are the most readily obtainable, either from tests or by direct calculation from machine

geometry. Note that the turn ratio 'a' really enters the equations as a "free" parameter and,

mathematical1y, can be arbitrarily chosen. It is possible, for example, to make one of the"leakage"

inductances zero in the circuit of Fig.9.6-2 by selecting 'a' appropriately. This is sometimes useful

in specific cases. Such special models are, of course, non-physical but mathematically valido

25
9.7 Arbitrar\! Rotaring Reference Frame dq Variab1es

The rransfonnation to stator frame variables introduced in Section 9.4 can be generalized by

referring both stator and rotor quantities to an "arbitrary" set of dq axes 10cated ar an angle e
measured from the stator q-axis. The geometric relationships are illustrated in Fig. 9.7-1 along
with the transformation equations. By specifying the angle e, a number of useful special cases can
be obtained. The stator frame variables, for example, result from specifying e = O. Other

imponant special cases are rotor frame equations where e = ar and synchronous frame equations

where e is chosen as equal to the position angle of a syncbroously rotating field component, e =
COe! + 0., for sinusoidal excitation at a frequency coe'
The equations in Fig. 9.7-2 are the arbitrary frame dq equations resulting from the
rransformation in Fig. 9.7-1. Note that with a =pa = co = 0, the equations reduce to the srator
frame equations of Fig. 9.5-1 as expected.
:,
While the rotation transformation as given in Fig. 9.7-1 relates dq quantities, and hence

translates two phase coi! variables to transformed two phase variables, in mos! cases the actual
,,
:)

machine is a three phase machine. Two transformations are then required; a three phase to two

phase transformation followed by the rotation transformation. The two can clearly be combined to ,
,)

':)
perform both operations simultaneously. Tbis overall transformation from three phase variables to
:,
rotating axis variables is illusttated in Fig. 9.7-3.
"

:)
:)
J
)
,

,
)

)
:,
)
)
:.
)

26 .,'.
)
~
"

,~
I'~

"
I~

"
 rotaring q-axis

,,-.-----...........- - . stator q-axis

stator

d-axis

Geometric Relation Between Stator, Rotor and Rotating Reference Axes

General Rotating dq Transformation

-[fqs] [coss Sins][~l [ ~l =[ cos(9 -9~ sinCS - 9)] [~l

~ = -sin9 cos9 t! {dr -sin(9 - e) cosCS -s~ t!
Inverse General Rotating dq Transformation

Fig. 9.7-1 General Rotating Axis dq Transformation Equations

27
 vaq5 r+Lp Lmp e
1
s s OOLs roLm q5

vdsa r+Lp Lmp a

~Ls s s ~Lm 1ds
=
va , LmP (ro - ro~Lm r'+L'p (00 - oo~Lr'
a,
1
qr r r qr

vaI -(-(~Lm LmP -(( - (~Lr' r'+L

r r
'p 9,
dr ldr

where

( = instantaneous Speed of reference axes

(r = instantaneous speed of rotor

Fig.9.7-2 General Rotating Reference Frame dq Model Using Stator Referred Parameters

28

'I
j

'I
 bs-axis

ar-axis

~;""------'-----'-~as-a.xis

cr-axis

-- - --2it - -----~27t
~eose -c05(9--) cos(9+-)
Flqs 3 3 tas

~ -3'
2
sine sin(9 _ 27t)
3
sin(9+ ~7t) t;,s
f os 1 1 1 tcs
fi fi fi
27t 27t
cos(9 -9) cos(9 -9 - - ) cos(9 -9 r + T)
Flqr r 3 tar
2
t!r -3' sin(9 -9) sin(9 _ 9 _ 27t)
r 3
sin(e _ 9 + 27t)
r 3 r

f or 1 1 1 ter
fi fi fi

Fig. 9.7-3 Three Phase to General Rotating dq Axis Transformation

29
,I . I ,
 ECE 411

INTRODUCTION TO ELECTRIC DRIVES

Appendix 1

Example Problems

72 Pages
1) DC Machine with Pulsating Torque Load 1

2) DC Machine Operation with Fan Load 6

3) Balanced Operation of Induction Machine-Motor Starting 11

4) Balanced Operation of Induction Machine-Peak Torque 16

5) VariableVottageOperation of InductionMa(~hiDe I 21

6) Variable Voltage Operation of Induction Machine 11 27

7) Variable Frequency Ope!:~!!()I!_ of Induction Machine

Constant VoltslHertz 32

8) Variable Frequency Operation of Induction Machine

Voltage Required for Constant Peak Torque 34

9) Unbalanced Operationof Induction Machine 39

10) Variable Frequency Operation of Synchronous Machine

-Constan! TorqueRegion 44

11) Variable Frequency Operation of Synchronous Machine

Constant Power Region 49

12) Synchronous Reluctance Machine Operation in the

Constant Torque Region 52

13) Synchronous Reluctance Machine Operation in ,Constant

Power Region 55

14) Scaling Laws 58

,
,
.)

,)
:)
)
)
)
)
;)

,,
)

)
,

,
,,

,
,

,
,,
)

,
)

)
)
)
)
)
)

,
)

,
)

)
)
)
)
,)
)

,
.)

,
,)

)
15) Adjustable Speed Drives - Harmonic Losses 61

16) Adjustable Speed Drives - Starting Conditions 65

17) Adjustable Torque Drives - Operating Characteristics 67

18) Adjstable TorqueDrives - Starting Torque 7O

1997, D.W. Novotny

:,

,
)

,)

;)

:)

,
)
)

,
)

,
)

,
)

,,
,,

,
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)
)

,
)

)
,)

,)
)
)
J

,
:)

,
)

)
 Induction Machine Dynamic Response

12.0 Introduction. 12-1

12.1 DC Machine Dynamics .
12-1
12.1-1 B10ck Diagram and Characteristic

Equation. .
12-2
12.1-2 Machine Time Constants . . .
12-3
12.1-3 Non Dimensional Root Locus .
12-4
12.2 Transient Pararneters for Induction M,achines . 12-6
12.3 Sma11 Signa1 Dynamic Mode1 . . . . 12-9
12.4 Sca1ing Laws for Transient Pararneters . . . . 12-11
12.5 Induction Machine Root Loci . . 12-15
12.5-1 High ~OT~ Locus . 12-15
12.5-2 Low ~OT; Locus . 12-17
12.5-3 Typical Root Loci . 12-17
12.6 TheDynamic Response Plane (~OT~ vs. T'/Tm > 12-20
12.6-1 Locus of the 'Average Machine' 12-20
12.7 General Properties of Machine Dynarnic Response. 12-22
12.7-1 Stabi1ity Boundaries for o = O 12-22
12.7-2 Dynamic Response in the High ~OT;
Region. . . . . . . . . ~._._~__,__.,_,~ 12-25
12.7-3 Dynamic Response in the Low CilOT; Region 12-27
12.7-4 The Transition Region 12-28
12.7-5 Darnping Contours . 12-28
12.7-6 Osci11ation Frequency Contours . 12-32
12.7-7 Parameter Dependence of Dynarnic
Response. . '. 12-32
12.7-8 Behavior A10ng the Worst Darnping Line . 12-34
12.8 Dynamic Response. . 12-38
12.8-1 Rated Frequency Operation 12-40
12.8-2 Reduced Frequency Operation ,. . 12-42
12.8-3 Worst Damped Operation. 12-42
12.9 The Inf1uence of Design Modification.s 12-45
12.9-1 Inf1uence of Po1e Number. ,. . 12-45
12.9-2 Low Slip Machines (Design A) 12-47
12.9-3 High Efficiency Machines 12-49
12.9-4 High Slip Machines (Design D) 12-51

i
 ,
J

12.10 Response to Sma11 Disturbances.

12-51 "

12.10-1
12-10-2
Torque Step Response
Vo1tage Step Response.
.

12-52
12-52
"::,,

12-10-3 Frequency step Response. . ... 12-53

)
References . ... .......... 12-57 ;,
Appendix Non Dimensional Root Loci and Minimurn ;)
Damping Curves . . . . . . . A-I to A-13
)

,:.

)
)
)
)
,,
)

,,
)

,
)
)
)

,
)

)
)

,
)

"

,)

)
)
)
,)
J
)
ii
,
"

)
"

,
)
 ECE 411
Example Problem 2

De Machine Operation

Fan Load

The 10 hp machine of Practice Problem 1 is proposed for use in driving a load in which the torque
varies as the speed squared
T =k ror2
and requiring 8 hp at a speed of 2400 rpm. Assuming the armatur powc~r supply has the following
limits
OsVs240V -50 ::$; I s 50 A
find:
a) the required voltage and % of rated flux which will yield the desired operating point (8 hp @ 2400
rprn) with the minirnum armature I2R.

PR = 10 hp. ror =1750 rpm

+
Ra =0.57 Q X 1.2 =0.684 Q
Kv = kvCPf= 1.17 Viris
Kt = ktCPf= 0.81mi~A

P=roT

ro
(rpm)
1958 _ __

ror =1750

T(ft.lbs.)

TR = PR = 10 X 746 = 40.73 N.M = 30.1 ft. lbs.

roR 1750 X 2x/60
1
 ,

,
:)
T 30.1
Ia =- =-- = 37.1 A ,)
kt<j)f 0.81
)
,)
Va = Rala + kv{j)f (t) = 0.684 X 37.1 + 1.17 X 1750 X 2Jt/60 = 239.7 V
,)
At no-load, T = O, Ia =O ,)
Va 239.7
(t)o -
kv<j)f
= O 684 = 350.4 ris
.
')
.)
At stall, (t) =0,
:)
Va 239.7
)
Ia = Ra = 0.684 =350.4 A

)
T = ktcj>f Ia = 0.81 X 350.4 = 283.8 ft. lbs.

)
For the required operating point

P = 8 hp. 00 =2400 rpm =251.2 ris

,
)

)
T=P
(O
8 x 746
251.2 = 23.76 NM = 17.5 ft. lbs.
,,

00 ,

(rpm)

2400

?
TL= koo r -
Os Vs 240 V
,
)

1958

-50 sI s50A
,>,
~
)
}
17.5 30.1 T (ft. lbs.) )
)

In order to yield the desired operating point. i.e. 8 hp @ 2400 rprn. we need Va' =V mal{ = 240 V. and ,,
)

the flux to be reduced.

Supose cj>r' = a ~. then Va' = Ia' Ra + kv<Pf (O = -
T
Ra + kvcj>r' (O
ktcj>' f
,
)

240 ~ 17.5 x 0.684 + 1.17 a x 2400 x 21t/60

0.81 a
,, )

293.9 a 2 - 240 a + 14.8 s 0.749 )

,)
a = amax = 0.749 for minirnum I2R ,)
2

,
,)

')

,
)

)
 I ! _l_ - -}--- - - 17_5 - - 28 8A
a - ktq>'f - kt<j>f ex - 0.81 X 0.749 - .

b) The maximum speed this motor could drive the load without exceeding the power supply limits or
the machine steady state ratings.

Pmax = 10 x 746 =7460 00

Prnax 7460
Iamax =-v;; = 240 = 31.1A < 50 A

P = 00 T = <.O koo2 = koo3

k = ~2 = (~i~~)2 = 3.77 x 1()-4 N-Ml(rls)2

romax
~~ =~3.777460
=-\j-r--k- x 10-4

= 270.6 rIs = 2585 rpm

c) An estimate ( 10%) of the minirnum time required to accelerate the load to the 8 hp, 2400 rpm
point without exc@iI:t~J1:te pc:>~~I"~'ply limiJ~_(sincethe!ime is _srt. the motorsteady state ratings
can be ignored). Assume-the loadinertiais equal-to 5-tiJnes-the motor inertia Explain your strategy for
attaining minimum time and the method used for ca1culatingyour estimate.

Strategy: 1) Use maximum current (I =50 A) to accelerate until the voltage reaches the
maximum value 240 V (Region 1 in figure).
2) Reduce fiux to achieve the desired operating speed 2400 rpm (Region 2).

3) Keep speed constant, reduce current to reach the point of 8 hp (Region 3).

RegiOn1
/
50A Region 2

""'-r--~--+--- 50 A 240 V

.-~~~---------- 8hp

o 1750n>m 2400rprn
(183.2 ris) (251.2 ris)

3
 ,
:>

Calculation: Split the whole interval (O - 2400 rpm) into severa! small intervals. then pick the ,)
average Te & TL in each interval as constants to calculated the accelerating time. :,
,)
1t + J m = 6 J m = 6
,
J= x 0.065 = 0.39 ft. lbs. s2 = 0.528 N'M s2
,)

)
:)
')
:,
v =IR + kv co )

240 = 50 x 0.684 + 1.17 x (() ,

)

)
00 = 175.9 ris = 1680.6 rpm )
)
1) co: O to 600 rpm. oo = 600 rpm = 62.8 ris

Te = Kt 1= 0.81 x 50 = 40.5 ft. lbs. = 54.9 NM

, )

TL = kr02 =3.77 x 1()4 x (300 X :tl60)2 = 0.37N.M , )

)
doo Te - TL 54.9 -O
. 37 - 103 3 1 2 t
dt J 0.528 - . rs
)
)
oo 62.8
t1 =- - =
doo/dt
103 30
.
= 0.615 )
)
2) 00: 600rpm to 1200 rprn. oo = 600 rpm =62.8 ris )
)

Te = 54.9 N'M )

TL

doo
=koo2 =3.77 X 1()-4 X (900 X 2:JrJ60) =3.34 NM
Te - TL 54.9 -3. 34 -976/ 2
,,
)

dt J 0.528 - . rs
)

oo 62.8 )
t2 :;::: - - :;::: 97 6:;::: 0.64 s
doo/dt . ,)
)
3) 00: 1200 rprn to 1680.6 rpm. oo = 480.6 rpm :;::: 50.3 ris )
)
Te =Kt I = 54.9 N'M )
)
TL =koo2 :;::: 3.77 X 1()4 X (1440 X :tl60)2 =8.56 NM )
4
,,
)

)
)
.)
 dc.o _ Te-TL 54.9-8.56_ 878 / 2

dt - J 0.528 - . rs

ilc.o 50.3
t3 =- - = - - = 0.57 s
dc.o/dt 87.8
4) (1): 1680.6 rpm to 2040 rprn

iloo = 359.4 rpm =37.6 rIs

P = VI - I2R = 240 x 50 - 502 x 0.684 = 10290

P 10290
Te = -= = 52.86 N-M

O> 1860 x 2x/60

T L = kc.o 2 =3.77 x 104 x (1860 x 2x/60)2 = 14.29 N-M

do> Te-T L 52.86-14.29 -73 /2
dt J 0.528 - I S

ilo> 37.6
t4=--=--= 0.52 s
dm/dt 73 .

5) 00: 2040 rpm to 2400 rprn

ilo> = 360 1J'!ll =}7.3 ris

---

P 10290
. Te = -= = 44.28 N-M

o> 2220 X 2x/60

TL = koo2 = 3.77 X 104 X (2220 X 2x/60)2 = 20.35 N-M

dro Te - T L 44.28 - 20.35 _ 453 / 2

dt J 0.528 -. r s

iloo 37.3
t5 =- - =45 .3
=0.83 s
dro/dt

ttotaI = tI + t2 + t3 + 4 + ts + = 3.17 s

5
,
,,
)

,
)

)
)
)
)
)
)
.)

,
,)

)
,)
)
)

, )

,)
)
.)
;)
)
)

,
)

,)
.)
)
.>

,
"

.>
,)
)
)
:)
,)
J
)
)

,,
,)

"

)
 ECE 411

Example Problem 3

Balanced Operation of Induction Machine

Motor Starting

For a 100 hp, 460 volt, 4-pole, 60 hz induction motor with pu parameters

f r =0.010 Xr = 0.1 Xm =3.0

r2 =0.012 x2 = 0.1
find:

460
V rated-line = 460 volt => V rated-phase = ..J3 = VB
In pu

rr=Ol Xl =0.1 xm=3

r2 =.012 X2 =0.1 Rm =>0::

a) the tum ratio of a transformer which willlimit the line side starting current (s = 1.0) of the
motor to 2. O pu. Assume the source impedance is zero.

lin
.. jX 2

Vm VI

Nr N 2

At starting X m == 30 r; + jX21

:. X m ean be neglected at starting (s = 1)

Transformer Tums ratio:

 ,
)
)

Prirnary tums
J
Secondary turns
}

neglecting no-Ioad current of transforrner and voltage drop across its windings

Given: lin = 2 pu & Vin=lpu

,,
"

At starting s

I _
= 1:
VI
,,
)

1 - fi + r2 + j(Xl + X2)
)
11 = nIin &
:)
nI. - Vin :)
In - n(q + r2 + j(Xl + X2
.>
;}
= I .5 I
1.022 + j.2/ = 2.485
,,
:)

In = 1.576 = N [N 2
:)
b) the value of series reactance (in pu and ohms) which willlimit the starting current to 2.0 pu. )
Assume the source impedance is zero.
, )

Vin=lpu
,, )

\in
)
)

,,
)

.00 ~Xm can be neglected at starting

)
Vin =I 1 [(q+ r2) + j (Xe + Xl + X2)] )
,,
)
,
)
= (~ ) 2 _ (.022)2 =0.2495 )
c)
Xe + Xl + x2 =0.4995 pu .,)
)
)
2 )
)
)
)
,
)
 Xe pu =.4995 - .2 =0.2995 pu
I xepu ".3 pu I

3 (265.6)2
= = 2.838 Q
(745.7) (100)

XeQ = (x e pu) ZB = 2.838 (.3) = 0.85 Q

IXeQ =.85Q I
c) the maximum steady state torque the machine can develop during starting (assuming steady
state conditions hold) and the speed at which it occurs for each of the cases above.
=
P out = 100 HP Prated Ps =
i) With Supply Transformer:

Maximurn steady state torque occurs when Zth =Sf2rnt

jXI JX 2

:. X m == 30lfI + jXII ~ Xm can be neglected in calculating Zth

:. Zth =fI + j (Xl + x:z)

.012 .012 .
= 1.01 + j.21 = .2002 IZth l

Smt =.0599 == .06

00rt = me (1-s)
I (l)rt pu =(1-s) = 0.94 pu

II I = . VI = . V in/n
1 IrI + J(XI + X2) + IZthll IfI + J(Xl + X2) + IZthll

 'j
)
,)
1
= 1.576 10.2102 + j .21 = 2.1866 pu ',)
:)
:,
, )

)
,)
I T rnt::: 0.9 pu 1 .......
___ Maximum S.S. torque
. . in case of supply transformer "

,)
ii) In case of series reactance
.J
Maximum torque occurs when 1ZthI = ..!L
JX1
Smx
jX 2
,,
)

,
)

)
)

Zth = j X2 + [fI + j (Xl + Xe)] IljX rn

,
)

=
j 0.1 + (.01 + j . 4) Ii j 3 <= neglected fI )
=j 0.1 + j . 353 )

=j 0.453
I IZ th I = 0.453 .J
,j
r.,
0.012
.J
Srnx =IZ~I =0,453 = 0.0265
:)
:)
(l)rxpu = 1 - s = 0.97 ]
,)
:)
:)
:)
)
Vim
,
:)

)
'. TI xl + xe

:. fI can be neglected )

,S
)

,
)

,,
)

,
,)

 = I 1 I

I .4+ (.453 + j . 1) (j3) I

IJ .453+j3.1 1

~
= 10.415 + .557471 = 1.438 pu

=(l.37)2 (.453)

f_.T mx =0.85 pu .1.....

- - - Maxirnurn Torque in case of series
reactance connected to motor

.,
')

,:,
)

,,

,
)
)
,
J
)
J
)
)
)
J
:)
,)
;)
,)
,)
:)
,)

;)

,
J
:)
 ECE 411

Example Problem 4

Balanced Operation of Induction Machine

Peak Torque Calculations

For the 440 volt (liDe to line), 60 Hz, 100 HP, 4-pole machine of practice problem 2-1. with
parameters

fI =0.0390 Q Xl =0.260 Q Xm =5.20 Q

r2 = 0.0520 Q X2 = 0.260 Q at 60Hz

a) find an equivalent circuit which has zero rotor side series reactance.

One way to represent the cireuit model of IM is shown below:

XI =OOe (Ls - M) = 0.26 ooeM =.5.20

x2=OOe (Lr - M) =0.26 ooeLs = 5.46
Xm =ooeM = 5.20 ooeLr =5.46
In order to have X2 =O, we can multiply the rotor equation by "a" :I: O. Then we have the following
model:

 "
,)
)
:)
~)
~,
+
')

a 2 R,
:)
jroeaM )
s
)

,,
)

X2 = me (a2Lr - aM) = O

M 5.20
)
=> a =Lr =5.46
= 0.952 )
)
= Rs = 0.039
Then, r1'

r2' = a2 Rr = 0.9522 x 0.052 = 0.047

,)
,,
X I' =(l)e (Ls - aM) =(l)eLs - a roeM )
=5.46 - 0.952 X 5.2 =0.51 )
X2' = (l)e (a2Lr - aM) = O
, )

Xm' = ooea,M = 0.952 x 5.20 = 4.95 )

)
b) Using the circuit of part a. find the slip for peak torque and the peak torque for voltage source
=
excitation (Vin V RatecO and compare with the results of practice problem 2-1. .)
J
Zth ,)

+
r ------~--~---')
?
+
Vin
1
-s- Vth_ ;)
,)
L -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ..)

)
For voltage source excitation. ,)
)
Zth = (rI' + J' Xl') Ii J' Xm' = (0.039 + j 0.51) xj 4.95 003" . O 462 0463 an le 86
(0.039 + j 0.51) + j 4.95 = . - + J . =. g
0
)
)
(j xm' Vin) j 4.95 Vin )
Vth=rl' + j Xl' + j Xm' = 0.039 +j 0.51 +j 4.95 = 0.905 Vn angle 0.4
:)
,)
:)
2 )

,,
)

)
)
 Vin = vu 1..[3 = 440/*/3 = 254 V

V th = 0.906 Vin angle 0.4 0

= 230.1 angle 0.4

The peak torque is achieved when -;' = lZthl,

T ptv =3 x '?E xr , Vth2 .

- I-2+ Z thI?

=3 x~x 230. I2

2 10.463 + 0.032 + j0.4621 2

= 852.1 NM

r '

Sptv = -Zth
211

We got the same results as in Problem 2-1.

Using the approximation'of negle.ctin~xm.~ ..

r2' 0.047
Sptv =-'-I = 0.51 = 0.092
Zth

T ptv = 3 ~. Vth 2 2:L =3 ~ Vth 2 = 1007.5 NM

Ir 2+z th l2 SOOe 2XI'OOe

c) Using the circuit of part a, find the slip for peak torque and the peak torque for current source
excitation. Show that the results are the same if the original circuit is used. lin = lRated

"
, :)
X
1 :)
;)
)
r '
s
2
::::::::>
Ith
r: )
~ ,
)
)
)
)
Use Matlab to calculate lRated, which is for the condition of rated voltage SOUfce and rated power output
The program is shown on attached page. And the result is: lRated 123.75 A = )
)
For current source excitation. the peak torque is achieved when ;' = IZthl. )

Zth = jXm' = j 4.95 ,,

)

Im = Iin = 123.75 A ,,
Ir=
f
Ith" CfllZth)
~
S
'

= Ith Zth
f?'

-;- + Zth

123.85 X j 4.95 0"75 1 45

4.95 + j 4.95 = OI. ang e
0
,,
)
Spti = ...!:.L = 0.047 =0.0095 )
Izthl 4.95 .
)
,)
p lr2 f2' 3 4 87.5 2 x 0.047
Tpti =3 " 2" = x? x J
Spti me - 0.0095 x 2n x 60
,)

= 603.2 N"M J
j
Ta use the original circuit .J
,}
.>
;)
,
:)
.J
,)
..>
,J
J
J
4
,
:)

,
:)

:)

 X
1 x2

r2 '

The peak torque is achieved when r2

s
= IZthl

Iin (X2 II Xm) Iin Xm 123.75 x ~/ =117.62 A

X2 X2 + Xm 0.26 + 5._

Ith - Zth 117.62 x j 5.46 83 8 1 50

=r2 + Zth
- 5.46 + J. 5.46 = .1 ang e 4
s

r, 0.052

Spti =--- = 5 46 = 0.0095

Izthl .

p Ir2 r2' 3 4 83.18 2 x 0.052

T pti = 3 2" - = x 2" x =603.1 N-M
Spti OOe 0.0095 x 2n x 60

The results are the same.

,,
;)

)
,:.

:>
)

,
)

,,
)

,
)

,
)

)
)
)
)

J
)
:)
)

)
,
"

)
 ECE 411

Example Problem 5

Variable VoItage Operation or lnduction Machine - I

For the 440 volt (line to line), 60 hz, 100 HP, 4-pole machine of practice problem 2-2, with

parameters

rI = 0.015 Xl = 0.10 Xm = 2.0

f2 = 0.020 x2 = 0.10 rm =50
find the operating point (voltage, slip and torque) and evaluate the motor losses for cases a and b

below. Express the losses in pu and as a multiple of the losses for rated voltage, rated torque

operation. The frequency is 60 hz for ali cases.

a) Higb Voltage Operation with V =1.10, T =T R.

First, use Matlab to solve for rated slip and rated torque under the rated condition: V =1 pu, Pout

= 1 pu.

The program is shown on the attached page and the results are as follows:

sR = 0.0247 pu, IIR = 1.2824 pu, 12R = 1.1252 pu

TR = Pout =
1.0253 pu

(l-s R )ooe

V 2
Core 108s =-IIIL = 0.0194 pu
rm

In the program, we can vary the slip s to achieve T =TR when V = 1.10 pu. The result shows:

s = 0.0199 pu, 11 = 1.1929 pu, V nn = 1.0855 pu.

12R =112r} + h 2r2 =0.0417 pu = 0.8349 X Rated
Core los8 = r:
V 2
= 0.0236 pu = 1.2168 X Rated.
b) Loss Reduction at Light Load (Efficjency Improvement); find V to give maxmimum efficiency
at T = 0.10 TR

j
 Pin = VII cos e = V Real (lI)

I,2r,

Pout = (1-s) -=-=

s

Pout

't')=
Pin

't')max is calculated by using the Matlab programo Varying s to achieve Tl = 't')max, where sm'l') is
independent of V I,

The programming results show that: SrnTJ =0.0163 pu, Tlmax = 94.01%, Tm'l') = 0.7052 pu.

For fixed slip srn'l') T a V2, therefore:

[T V
V=- \Ir;;;;; . R= 0.1025 03813

0.7052 x 1 =. pu

12R =112r} + 122r2 = 0.0036 pu = 0.0718 x Rated.

V 2

Core loss =..J!IL = 0.0028 pu = 0.1469 x Rated.

rm

c) Energy Saving5 for Specific Duty CycJe' find the reduction in energy cost if the 10ss reduction
scheme of part b is employed (compared to constant rated voltage operation) if the duty cycle is
fuIl rated torque (supplied at rated voltage) for 20% of the time and 0.10 times rated torque for
80% of the time. Assume operation for 8 hours per day, 52 weeks per year with an energy rate
of 4.5 cents per kwhr.

Note that there is. Il~ los8_ red~~t:i~!l d.~~g2_~~(.!!!~_tim~ri~~th J = IR:. 0I!JY during
80% of the time period with T= 0.10 T R, there is loss reduction when V is reduced.

Use Matlab program to calculate the 12R 108s and core loss with T = 0.10 T R' V equal to VR
The re8ult is: 12R = 0.0039 pu, Core 10ss =0.0199pu.
The 1055 reduction time: T = 52 x 7 x 8 x 80% = 2329.6 hrs/yr.

Savedenergy = {<PR)VR - (I2R}v} + {(CoTe loss)VR -(Core 10ss)v} x T

= {(0.0039 - 0.0036) + (0.0199 - 0.0028)} x 75.6 x 2329.6

= 3019.3 kwhr/yr.

$ saved = 3019.3 x 0.045 = 135.87 $/yr.

 - - - --
"

~ _ ~ '. J ,.. ~ _. - _ ~._ ~: _~; ~

, .

. -' ---- ._- ..-------- ~_ .......

%ECE411 HW3 1993

% First, find the rated slip, rated current and rated torque,
% and rated IRloss and rated Coreloss
tparameters

r1=0.015;

r2=0.020;

xl=0.1;

x2=O.1;

xm=2.0;

rm=50;

j=sqrt(-1);
trated conditions

we=1;

VR=1;

PR=1;
tapproximately,. sR=r2=O.02.
tvary the slip s to achieve Pout=1pu,
for i=1:1000

s(i)=i/10000;

V1=VRi
z1=r1i
z2=r2/s(i)+j*:x:2i

z3= (z2*j*xm) 1 (z2+j*xm) i

Z4=j*Xl+Z3 i

z5= (r.m*z4) 1 (rm+z4) i

z=z1+z5;

Il=Vl/z;

IXl=I1 *z5/z4;

12=Ixl*z3 Iz:?;

Vrm=V1-11 *z1;
11r=sqrt(I1*conj(Il;
12r=sqrt(I2*conj(I2'});
Vr.mr=sqrt(Vrm*conj(Vr.m});
P(i)=(1-s(i*(I2~2)*r2/s(ili

if abs(P(i)-PR)<=O.OOl,
sR=s (i)
IlR=I1r
'11.:;-;-2.4""/i
~S::4'

12R=I2r ;I./~~~I

VDDR=Vrmr

TR=PRI ( (1-sRl *We)

:0. ~8d~;
(. O~ 5'31
IRlossR=IlR~2*rl+I2RA2*r2
(J..c-5'o.P
t:orelossR=VrmR"2/rm
end i.!!.:.D!.!:!LJ

end

tal High Voltage Operation withV=1.1Opu, T=TR

tFind the slip, current, torque, IRloss and Coreloss

- __ o - - __ o - - - - __ _

: !'lo

. .
 . - ., . .. '"
- -- - -- --- -- ----
'- ~ , (IJ "
page ,
2 ,
~ ~~,~---~-./

, - - ~- - --.---- -- --_./

)
Vl=1.10; )

,,
T=TR;
%vary the slip s to achieve T=TR=1.0253pu,
:
for i=1:1000
s(i)=i/10000;
zl=rl; )
z2=r2/s(i)+j*X2i
z3=(z2*j*xm)/(z2+j*xm); "
z4=j"Xl+z3;

z5=(rm*Z4)/(rm+z4) i
"

,,
z=zl+z5;
I1=V1/z; )

IX1=Il"z5/z4;

12=Ix1 *z3/z2 i

Vrm=V1-Il *zl;

Ilr=sqrt(I1*conj(Ili

12r=sqrt(I2*conj(I2;

Vrmr=sqrt{Vrm*conj(Vrmi
T(i)=I2r-2*r2/(s(i)~e)i
,
,)
if abs(T(i)-TR)<=O.OOl, ,)
s=s(i)
Il=Ilr
12=I2r
Vrm=Vrmr
IRloss=I1A2"rl+I2A2*r2
,,
)

Coreloss=VrmA2/rm

m=IRloss/IRlossR

n=Coreloss/CorelossR
end
,
end .)
j
)
%b) Loss Reduction at Light Load, with T=0.10*TR of maximum efficiency ,)
%Find the slip, voltage, current, torque, IRloss and Coreloss
)
T=O.lO*TRi
V1=l.O; % Vl can be set arbitruly since s for maximum efficiency .)
% is independent on V1. In this case, we set Vl=VR.
)
%vary the slip s to find the maximum efficiency point ,
for i=1:1000
s(i)=i/10000i
zl=rl i
,
"

z2=t2/s (i) +j*X2;

z3=(z2*j*xm)!(z2+j*xm);
Z4=j*x1+z3;

zS=(rm*z4)!(rm+z4) i
z=Zl+ZSi

,
)

Il=Vl!z; ,)

,,
IX1=Il"z5/z4;

12=Ix1*z3!z2; )

Ilr=sqrt(Il"conj(Il i

,,
12r=sqrt(I2"conj(I2;

,.)

...
- --- -- -- - -- -
- , ~
. . O
- \ ,
~
.~
 e.ag8)

. 3

T(i)=I2r A 2 S r2/(s(i)*we);

Pin=Vl*real(I1);

Pout(i)=(l-s(i) )*I2~2*r2/s(i);

e(i)=Pout(i)/Pin;

if i==1,

emax=e(i);

elseif emax<e(i) ,

emax=e(i) ;

semax=s(i);

Temax=T ( i) ;

end

end

e=emax r~. a.o I f

s=semax o.o/63!

Ternax=Te.rnax

lo. 705"~j
%to calculate VI, note that T 1s proporcional to square(V) for same slip
T=0.10*TR

Vl=sqrt(T/Temax)SVR

%calculate the IRloss and Coreloss with T=0.10*TR and calculated VI

Zl=rl;

z2=rZ/s+j "xZ;

z3=(z2*j*xm)/(Z2+j*xm);

Z4=j"X1+z3;

zS= (rm*z4) 1 (rm+z4) i

z=2:1+z5;

Il=Vl/z;

Ix1=Il *z5/z4 i

12=Ixl"z3/z2;

Vrm=VI-Il sZ1;

Ilr=sqrt(Il"conj(I1);

12r=sqrt(IZ Sconj(I2;

Vrmr=sqrt(Vrm*conj(Vrm;

IRloss=I1rA2*rl+I2rA2"r2

Coreloss=VrmrAZ/rm

m=IRloss/IRlossR

n=Coreloss/CorelossR

%c) Energy Saving for Specific Duty Cycle

% Loss reduccion only with1n 80% of ti.rne period, where T=0.10*TR

%calculate the IRloss and Coreloss with T=O.lO*TR and V1=VR

VR=1.0;

TR=1.0253;

V1=VR;

TO=O.1*TR;

for 1=1:1000
s(i)=i/100000; %s < sR ::: 0.0247 since T = 0.1"TR.
zl=r1 ;

z2:::r2 /s (i) +j *x2;

c-
..

 (psgej
4"
)
z3=(z2~j~xrn)/(z2+j~xm);
z4=j*Xl+z3;
:,
z5=(r.m~z4)/(rm+z4l ; ;)
z=zl+z5;
!l=Vl/z; ;)
Ixl=1l"z5/z4;
12=Ixl~z3/z2; )
Vnn=VI-Il"zl; )
Ilr=sqrt(1l*conj(Ill);

12r=sqrt(I2*conj(I2;

Vnnr=sqrt(Vnn"conj(Vrmi :>
T(i)=12r A 2*r2/(s(i)"we)i
if abs(T(i)-TO)<=O.OOOl,
s=s(i) "
,
)

I1=I1r
12= 12r
Vrm=Vnnr
IRlossVR=Il~2*rl+I2A2*r2
,,
'J

CorelossVR=VrmA2/nn

end

end )
%calculate the saved energy and momey
T=S2~7*8*O.8 % hr/year 2-~;'''' l
,, )

Esaved=IRlosSVR-IRloss)+{CorelossVR-Coreloss*74.6*T
Msaved=Esaved*O.045
% kwhr
% S/year
; 3 0 /1.3 ,
L~_~=dnJ , )
)
.)
.)
)
)

, )

)
.)
,)
)
.)
)

,
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.,
)

)
,)
)
.J

[ "~'"'~=-'"_:0:o_:,:~,~:~ri~~J;~~;~C~ ~";':7~j .~
)
)
.>
J
)
 ECE 411

Example Problem 6

Variable Voltage Operation of lnduction Machine - II

For a 100 hp, 460 volt, 4-pole, 60 hz induction motor with pu parameters

fI = 0.010 "m =3.0

f2 = 0.012 ~=30

Pout = 100 HP = Prated = Pa

460
V rated line = 460 volt => V rated phase = Vi = VB
In pu

fI =.01 Xl =.1 Xm =3.0

=
r2 .012 X2= .1 Rm=30

a) the slip for maximum efficiency and the maximum efficiency.

jX1

zm =>

Zin =fI + j Xl + [ Rm 11 j xm 11 (r2/s + j X2)] (1)

. j Rmxm (r2/s + j xz)

=fI + j Xl + j Rrnxm + Rm (r2/s + jX2) + j Xm (rz/s + j xz)

(2)

Input Power:

1
 :)

,
)

Pin = VIII cos 8

(3) ,,

(4) ,

,
)

Output Power:
.)
.J
(5) )
,,
Pout Neglecting Mechanicallosses ..
Efficiency: 11= (6)
Pio .J
To get maximum efficiency an iterative procedure is used where first a value of s is assumed. then :)
alI the parameters are substituted in equations (1) - (6) to obtain the corresponding T'J. s is varied to :)
obtain maximum efficiency. ,
)

.,

:)
)

At this vaIue of slip:

)
- Zin =.725 + j 0.374 = 0.816 L 27.3 pu
0
)
- 11 = 1.23 L -27.3 0
pu )
- Pin = 1.09 pu )
-1121 = 1.12 .)
- P OUl =1.03 )

Torque at Maximum efficiency:

J
.)
f2 )
TrnT] =11212 s

= 1.04 pu
rnT]
,,
,)

b) the voltage required to allow maximum efficiency operation at a torque of 0.25 pu.

T rnT] = 0.25 pu Sm =0.0144

,,
:)

r2 ="0.0122 pu

IZinl =0.816 pu
:)

,,
"

2
l
)
)
)
)
)
 1111 = 0.60 pU
IVI = 1I11lZinl =0.490
I VI =0.490 pU
or

Since we are operating at constant supply frequency and sarne slip:

I VI = 0.490 pu

c) the power loss as a multiple of rated loss if the machine delivers rated torque at a voltage of 0.8
pu.

i) Rated Conditions:

=
VI 1 pu P out 1 pu
=
Pout = 1I212 r2 (1 - s)
8

_ II 112' Rm II j xm ,2 r2 (1 )

- 1 IRm /I jX m + (r2 + j X 2) , 8 - s

. . . -....... 2

V2 I Rm Ilj Xm I

1 I Rm 1i j Xm+ (r2/8 + j X2) I r2

J m Ii (r2I s +J.
=I(R m IIX x2 +Tl+J. x l-
I) -S (1 - s) = 1.0 pu

Solve tms non linear equation in s to get Srated = 0.014

 J
)
)
)
at s =0.014 ,,
)

IZI = 0.837 pu
II 11 = 1.20 pu ,
1I21
-IVrnl
= 1.09 pu
= 0.938 pu
)
,,
2
11 rI = 0.0143 pu ,
2 ,)
12 r2 = 0.0142 pu

Core 1058: Rm
V2
m
=0.0293 pu
,, )

Totalloss = 0.0578 pu neglecting mechanica110ss ,,

ii) VI =0.8 pu T = Trated
, ,
Poutrated 1
Trated pu = 1 _ Srated = 1 _ 0.014 = 1.014 pu
,
T=lbl2
-
r2
s
)
,,
,
"

)
v2 I Rm 11 j xm ,2
1 ,Rm IIjX m +(f2/s +j XV, f2
)
T =l(Rm Ii jXm // (r2/s + jX2 + fI j Xll 2 s

Solve this non linear equation in s to gef slip at reduced voltage & rated torque .,
J

T

)

,
)

s = 0.024
Vrated
,
)

,)
T rated
.)

CJ)
, )

)
4 ~)

.>

)
)
)
 IZI =0.420 pu
II 11 = 1.52 pu
- 1121 = 1.43 pu
-IVml =0.720 pu
" fI =0.0233 pu
li
2
12 r2 = 0.0247 pu

Core 10ss = v! IRm = 0.0173 pu

Totalloss = O.0653pu

Calculating the losses in reduced voltage case as a ratio to losses of rated case:

2
I Ir 1= 1.63 x rated
2
I l 2= 1.74 x rated
Core loss =0.590 x rated

Totalloss= 1.13 x rated

,
:,

:)

"
:)
:)
:,

:,
)
:
,,

)
,
,
)

,,

,
)
)
,,
)
)
)
)

,
,)

)
)
,)
)
.)
)
;)
)

,
.)

,,

;)

,
)
)
 ECE 411

Example Problem 7

Variable Frequency Operation of Induction Machine

Constant VoIts/Hertz Operation

For the induction motor of Example Problem 6 (100 hp. 460 volt. 4-pole. 60 hz) with pu

parameters

rI = 0.010 Xl = 0.1 Xzn == 3.0

r2 =0.012 x2 =0.1 ~==30

find:

a) The torque and input current at rated voltslhz and rated slip frequency at f =0.5 and f == 0.05 pu
j<Oe Ll j<Oe ~

'ZI 2

j<OeLm

Use Matlab program to solve for rated slip and rated torque under rated conditions : V = 1 pu.

Pout == 1 pu. The results are:

SR =0.0140 pu, T R == 1.0142. IIR = 1.1963 pu

At f= 0.5 pu

VfF =rated. ~ V== 0.5 VR:: 0.5 pu

s<Oe = rated, ~ s=2 SR =0.0280 pu

After Matlab calculation, we have:

TO.5 =0.9954 pu, 10.5 = 1.1697 pu

At f =0.05 pu
VfF =constant ~. V =0.05 VR =0.05 pu
s<Oe = constant ~ s = 20 SR = 0.2800 pu

After Matlab calculation, we have:

To.os =0.7053 pu 10.05 = 0.9737 pu

b) The slip frequency required to obtain rated torque at the operating points in part a

At f = 0.5 pu V =0.5 pu T =TR

1
In the program, we can vary the slip s to achieve T = T R- The results show:
:,
:)
s= 0.0286 sWeRO.5 :;; 0.0286 x 0.5 :;; 0.0143 pu :>
=0.05 pu =T R :,
,
At f:;; 0.05 pu V T
)
We can use the same rnethod as above. however, rated torque cannot be achieved in this case.
The result shows that: T max = 0.9991 pu at s :;; 0.8570 pu, where S(l)eRO.5 = 0.8570 x 0.05 = 1)
0.0428 pu
:
c) The voltage required to give rated torque at rated slip frequency for the frequencies in part a and ,)
b and the efficiency for these operating points.

At f:;; 0.5 pu SWe = (swe) rated,

.

T = TR
,
)

)
SWe = rated s = 2 SR =0.0280 pu

In the program, we can vary V to achieve T = T R,

)
,,
(1 - s) 12 2 r2 (1 _ s) 12 2 r2 ,,
Paut
'YI :: Fin = -V-1-I-1-c-o-s-e- =
S
VI ReaJ(I!)
S

,
The results are : V 0.5 = 0.5050 pu, 'YI:: 93.14 %
,.,
At f

SOOe
=0.05 pu,
=rated, s
SOOe = (swe) rated.

=20 sR =0.2800 pu
T = TR
.,,
We can use the same method as above, and the results are: J
J
V 0.05 = 0.0600 pu, 'YI =56.67% )
J
,)
J
)
)
)

,
)

"

.)
,)

,
"

)
2 ;)

,
:)

,)
)
.)
 ECE 411

Example Problem 8

Variable Frequency Operation of InductionMachine

Voltage Required for Constant Peak Torque

For the induction motor of Example Problem 6 (100 hp. 460 volt. 4-pole. 60 hz) with pu

parameters

fI = 0.010 Xm =3.0
r 2 = 0.012 ~=30

X 1r = x2f 0.1 pu

xm~3 pu
s rI = O.Olpu r 2= 0.012 pu

1-----'----------1
Zm
Rm=30pu

a) the voltage required to give the same peak torque as at rated frequency at f =0.5 and f = 0.1 . .
pu.

f = 1 pu O)e = 1 pu

Maximum torque will occur when the power in r2/s is maximum. For a voltage source

suppl y this occurs when

<=Zth

2th =j X2 + (fI + jx II Rm II jXm

=j 0.1 + (.01 + j .1) Ii 30 I/ j 3
12thl =0.197 pu

 J
')
:,)
')
ZinTm =(r1 + jXl) + Rm Ii j Xm Ii (Sf2T +j X2)
:,

m :)
= (.01 + j .1) + 30 Ii j 3 1i (.O~;9 + j .1) ""

,)
:)
:)
111 1=
I V 11
IZin I =
1
.283 = 3.53 :)
:)
:)
:t
:,
Tm =
2
12 f2 (3.39)2 (.012)
= ( 0604)
.
= 2.264 pu (max.lmum torque) ,,

:)

,
sT m we .

f= 0.5 pu :)
Xl =X2 =0.05 pu
xm = 1.5 pu )

Zth =j .05 + (.01 + j .05) I/ (30 II j 1.5)

IZthl ;;: 0.099 pu

,,
:

)
:.

)
2 f2
T max = L, ---=-=--.
- sT m we ,
)

)
1I212 .012
2.264 = (.1213) (.5) => 12 =3.38 pu
,,

,
j30 Ii j 1.5 + (~) + j .05j

,,
=3.83 I 30/1 j 1.5 I = 3.515 pu

,
IZinTml = 1(.01 + j .05) + 30 /1 j 1.5//(.211; + j .05)1 = 0.146 pu )
,
, )

)
,)
2
)
)
)
J
)
 f =0.1 pu

Xl = x2 =0.01 pu

x m = 0.3 pu

Zth =j .01 + (.01 + j .01) Ii (30 Ii j .3)

IZthl = 0.0218 pu

r2

STm = IZth' =0.551

2 r?

T max =12---

STmWe

.- =112 12
2 '64 .012
(.551) (.1) ~ 12 = 3.224 pu

_ Ij.3 + (~+ j .01)1

- 3.224 I j .3 I = 3.34 pu

IZin"rm1= 1(.01 + j .01) + j ~~~ <3M + j .01}1_:.?J6:_~u

V 110.1 =111 1 !ZinTml =10.123 pu I
b) the slip frequency required to obtain rated torque at the voltages found in part a.

From HW # 3; the rated conditions are:

VI =pu Pout = 1 pu We = 1 pu s =0.0146
~21::: l.~Eu T = 1:!?J45 p~

Zin = rI + j Xl + [Rm Ii j Xm Ii {2 + j X2)]

s
(1)

IIl' = IVII (2)

IZin I

/I
2
,= 11 1, II Rm II j Xm
r2
I
I (3)

I Rm + j Xm (s + j X2) I

(4)

3
 J
<)
:,
:,
:,
An iterative procedure s used where first a value of s is assumed, then alI the parameters are
substituted in equations 1 - 4 to obtain T. 8 is varied until T = 1.015 pu. :)
,)
i) at f - 5 pu IV 11 =0.512 pu OOe =.5 pu ;)

X rn =1.5 pu :,
:)
Re8ults: 8 =.0272 I
~ 8 ooe= .0136 pu I :)
:)
ii) at f:: 1 pu IV 11 = .123 pu

Xl =x2 = .01 pu Xrn

me =.1 pu

=0.3 pu
,::,
Results: s = 0.102 ~ Is me= .0102 pu I )
)

c) the voltage and frequency required to give the maximum possible torque at zero speed (i.e., :
the startng torque) if the motor current is limited to 1.50 pu. :)
:)
Motor current limited to 1.5 pu ~ supply is current source )

,,
)

)
)
)
)
zm
,
)

,,
Maximum possible torque at zero speed means that maximum airgap power transfer occurs when
8=1 )

)
,,
,,
This condition of IDaXimum torque at starting at a very low frequency ~ :. Rrn j X mr me
,,
)

Rm can be neglected
,
)

4
,,
)

}
)
)
 1Zthl = r2
(X2r + Xm r) ooe = r2

ooe =X2 r
:2xm r =1r-.OO-3-S7--pu-.,1
xl = X2 = 0.00387 pu & xm .01161 pu

1Zinl = 1.01 + j .000787 + j .0116// (.012 + j .000387)1 == .0169

VI == 111 1 1Zinl

~ =0.0253 pu

 .)
,)
:)
;)
:)
:)
;)
:)
)
)

,,
)

, )
)

,
)
)

, )

,, )

)
,
)
)
}
)
J
)
)
)

,
J

)
)
)
J
)
)

)
)
 ECE 411
Example Problem 9
Unbalanced Operation of Induction Machine
For the 100 hp machine of Example Problem 6 with pu parameters

fI =0.010 Xl = 0.1 ~=3.0

r 2 = 0.012 Xz =0.1 ~=30

P out = 100 HP = Prated = I13

In pu:
=
fi 0.01 Xl = 0.1 Xm =3.0
r2 = 0.012 x2 =0.1 Rm =30

a) find the torque, stator current, power factor, total 12R losses. core loss and efficiency for
nonnal balanced operation at rated voltage and frequency and a slip of 0.015.

Balanced rareg vo!~~ Yl= lPll

s = .015

Zin =>

Zin = fI + j Xl + [Rm II jXm 1i (r2/s + j X2)]

= .01 + j.l + [3011 j3 II (0.8 + j .1)]

= .789 L27.6

Stator Current:
VI 1 r.::::;J
Is = Zin = 0.789 L27.6 = t..LTh L-27pu

Power Factor = cos e

= cos (27.6) = 10.8861

1
 )
:)
:)
:)
Rotor Current
:)
I - I - Rm//jxm
r - S Rm//jx m + (r2/ s + j X2) :)
.:)
=(1.268) (0.9156) =1.161 )
!Irl = 1.16 )
:>

Electrornagnetic Iorque: :)

T = II~2 r2 :)

5
)
)
.'g~;= 11.08 pu 1
2
=(1.16)2

..,
r; r2
,,:,
I2r= 1s rI +
. =(1.27)2 (.01) + (1.161)2 (.012)
I I
,,
= 0,01608 + 0.01618 =

Core Loss:
0.0323 pu
, )
IVrnl = IV} -ls(r1 + jx})1 =0.935 pu
v2
C L - ~ - (.935)2 10.0292 pu I
,, ~

. . - rrn - 30.
)
Efficiency: )
2 )
P out 3 Ir (1-5) 1.062 )

1) = Pin = 3 VI} Is cos e 1.24 = I 94.5% I )

b) repeat part lal for single phase operation with phase a open. The liDe to line voltage Vbc is to J

betaken..as.13ledvoltage of 1.73-2- pu. )

Phase a open - Vbc = 1.732 pu

)
a )
,,
Single Phase Operation )
J
c )
)

,
)

2 )
)
)
)
)
)
 .Oi j .1 j .1

.012 =0.8
s

.01 j .1 j .1

Zp =Zin for balanced case =0.789 = L 27.6

Zn =fI + j Xl + [Rm II j Xm II (2r2 + j X2)]

-s
=.01 + j .1 + [30 II j 3 Ii (.006 + j .1)]

=.1974 L 85.4

=0.7886 L 21~f/ + O~199'4 L 85.4

=0.909 L 38.2
Stator Current

Vbc 1.732
Ib = -Ic = Zin = 0.909 L 38.2 0

Power Factor =cos e

=cos (38.2) = I 0.786 I
Rotor Current:

11 I - II Rm II j Xm I
rp - I S Rm Ii j xm + (r2/s + j xz) I

= (1.905) (0.9156) = 1.74 pu

3
 :,

,
:)

II I = II Rm II j Xm I :,

m I S Rm Ii j Xm + (r2/(2-5)+ j x2)1 :)

)
=(1.905) (0.%75) = 1.84 pu )
Electromagnetic T orque:
To get the torque we have to use symmetric component circuit which is the same as single
phase circuit with the voltages and currents attenuated by a factor of ~
,
)

)
),
T=Tp-T n

_!!mE. r2 IIm l2 12
,>

- 3

=(1 74)2
s - 3 2-s
,,
)

.
(.012) _ (1.905)2 (.012)
2 (.015) 3 (2 - .015)
,
= .812 - .007
Symmetrical Components
= 1.805 pu I
, )

)
IIpl =lInl = I:~I = 1.10 pu )
Iv3 1

1lP21
-
= I~I
3
1"'1 1
= 1.007 pu
,
)

)
)
)
)
= [(1.1)2 + (1.1)2] (.01) + [(1.007)2 + (1.0064)2] (.012)
)

=1050 I

IVpl = IIp Zpl = 0.867 pu

, ~

IVnl = II n Znl =0.217 pu

, )

IVmpl

IVmnl
=IVp - Ip (rI + jx})1 =0.813 pu
=IVn - In (f} + jXI)1 =0.105 pu
,, )

Core Loss

V2 V2
,, )

R:P + ~n =I 0.022451
)

"

)
)
4
)

,
)

)
)
 Efficiency

P out

'YJ=
Pin

Poutpu = P out p - Pout n = (1 - s) [PaI>p - Pan

I>
]= (1-s) T

(l-s) T
fl = V I
~--cos e
I
= 91.7% I
..J3..J3
c) find the voltage Va on the open phase and the line to line voltage V ab for the conditions of part
'b'.

=j ~ Zp = 0.868 L 79.4 pu

Van=InZn

= -j lZn =0.217 L -42.8 pu

Va=Vap+Van

= 10.7751 L 65.7 pu

V b = a2 Vap + a V an

= 10.7877 IL 65.7 pu

:)
)
:

)
)
 ECE 411

Example Problem 10

Variable Frequency Operation of Synchronous Machine

Constant Torque Region

For a 1000 hp. 4500 volt, 60 hz, unty power factor synchronous machine with pu parameters

~=90

field 12R at rated field current = 0.005

Prated = 1000 Hp =746 (1000) = 746 kW

V line rated = 4500 volt

Parameters in pu:

fI = .008 pu Xs = 1.10 pu Rm =90pu

v E

a) find the stator current (pu and amps). internaI voltage, torque 3.Qd efficiencyat rated voltage.
frequencyand loaci.

Unity Power Factor

V= 1 pu

f= 1 pu => rom = 1 pu : rated speed

P eut

Pout =1 pu =>1=-= 1 pu

O>rn

15 in phase with V => V m in phase with V

:. Im & li =Is - Im are in phase with V

 ,,
;J

,,
, ,
,
l
E
)
From phasor diagram: E cos = Vm Y= ,)
,.)
Pout=EliCOS
=VmIj
"
)
J
j
v - V m - -V m + Pout
---"'-'-
fI - Rm Vm :,
2 2
J
Vm VVm Vm ,)
----+R-+Pout=0
rI rI m )
Solving this quadrateic equation in V m (V =Pout = 1 pu) :)

Vm =0.9918 pu
"
:)
.)
:. li = Pout
V m = 1.008 pu
,)
Vm J
Im =Rm
Stator Current:

= .011 pu
,
J

Is = li + Im = 11.019 pu 1 .)

:)

Prated 746 5
Base Current: IsB = ~ r::; = ~ r::; = 9 .7 A :>
-v 3 Vline rated -v3 (4.5)
:)

Is =Is pu l sB = 197.55 1 ,
)

Torque ,)
,,)
T=OOm=~
Pout r;:l
."
,)
Internai Voltage (back em1) .)
.)
)
"

2
,)
"

,,
,.~
 = 11.49 pu 1

2
Stato.r Copper 10ss : I s
fI = .0083 pu

V2

Core loss: R: .0109 pu

=
Field Co.Pper 10ss: 0.005

To.tal lo.SS = 0.0242

Pinstator =VIs cos cp =1.02 pu <= This is input to stator only. Does not include energy
dissipation in rotor.

Efficiency:

P out =P Pout
t)=-p.
m
D.
out+ "IOSS
= lo.9761
b) find the current and an estimate for the efficiency for operation at 4 hz (constant volts/hz) and rated
torque if the field current is held constant.

1
f=2hz= 30 pu

Constant volt~hz operation => V =3-~P~

At this low frequency condition Rm can be neglected

fI J~

+
.......

Is

V ~E

rI =.008 pu

Xs = ;i = 0.067

z= Vr 2 + x; = .03753 pu
Ir we assume Ejeld excitation remajns lbe same as at rated conditjons:
EI2hz = EJ60hz/30

... lEI =0.0496

 VE . E2r
T = - - sm (- + a) - -
>mZ (OmZ2

1 = -1.323 sin ( - a) - .421

sin ( - a) =-1.0739 < 1 No solution

Which means that under constant field current conditions~ the maximum torque at 2 Hz is less than ')j
1 pu. This can be verified by having sin ( - a) = -1 for T max ,) )

"
VE E2r
T max = - - - - - = 0.902 pu < 1 pu
~
<OmZ <.om Z2
.))

pu~cIDL- i.-:. .J.,

Ir field current is allowed to increase
constant
to meet the conditjons of T ] .
,
1 :)
Pout = TOOm = 30 pu
).
= EIs cos y .)
P J
Ecos y = I~ut ,)
:)
J~ )

+ .J
,}
)
=Isrl + Ecos y
v
2
VIs = Is fi + Pout ,)

.J
.J
.)
')
Solving this quadrateic equation in Is
)
Stator current: )
IIs =1.667 pu I
V m = Y - j IsX s =.0199 pu ,,
J

Stator Copper Loss: I; fI

y2
= .0223 pu .,
J
Core Loss = R: =4.4 x 10-6 pu ,)
E=Ym-jxs1s=.0643 L-71.9
, .)

4
"',
J

}
J
)
 Neglecting saturation: E a Ir

(.0643) 1 ')96 I

.-. I fb = I fa (.0496) =.- fa

:. Field Copper 10ss: (1.3 If)2 Rf= (1.3)2 (.005) =.0084 pu
TotaI Loss = .0307

Pinsl ot = VIs cos <p =0.0556 pu

Efficiency

Pout Pout 1/30

11---
- Pin tot - Pout + Pllosstot 1/30 + .0307

= 10.521 pu I
c) find the pull-out torques for the conditions of parts 'a' and 'b'.

_ VE
T max- E2r

rornZ rornZ 2

where Z = ~r2 +x;

For case a:

V =1 pu E = 1.488 pu rorn =1 pu

r =.OOSpu Z= 1.10(lpu

I T maxa= 1.34 pu I
For case b:
VI =301 pu Wm
1
=30 pu Z = .03753 pu
IfIfb =I fa ::::::> E ::: .6496-pu
I Tmaxb' 0.902 pu

If Ifb =Ifb => E =.0643 pu

IT max b'l.OO9 pu

 :,

;)

,:,

)
)
)

,)

,,

,
t

,,
)

)
,)
,)
)

, )

,
,)

"
,)
)
)

,
,,)

,)

"j
,)
,)
)
;)

,j

,j

, )
 ECE 411

Example Problem 11

Variable Frequency Operation of Synchronous Machine

Constant Power Region

A 100 hp synchronous machine has pu parameters

rI = 0.020 xs = 0.50
The rnachine is rated for operation with a field excitation such that at rated torque with rated voltage and
frequency the power factor is 0.80 lagging.

a) Find the current, power input and the internaI voltage for the rated operating point (T = 1.0 at V= 1.0,
cos e = 0.80 and f == 1.0)

+ -----i~~ I 100 hp synchronous machine

+ r 1=0.02, x s == 0.50
v E

~,

Pollt =0> T:::::;Vl coslL" I .I.'r 1

- .......
_ 1 = 1 x I x 0.8 - I 2 x 0.02

2
1 - 401+50==0

1= 1.292 pu

. ~
Pin = VI cose = 1 x 1.292 x 0.8 = ] 034 pu

cose = 0.80 9 = 36.87

E = v- 1Z == 1 angle 0 - 1.292 angle _36.87 x (0.02 + j 0.5)

=0.5918 - j 0.5005 - 0755 angle 40 22 pu

b) Find the maximum torque and power output at f = 2.0 pu without exceeding the rated values of
voltage, current and field fluxo What is the required value of E and the percent field flux required to
attain this condition?

For rated value V = 1.0 pu, I = 1.292 pu and rated flux,

1
 :,
:,
Pout = VI cose - Prj, the bigger the power factor is the bigger the power output and torque are. :,
~,
f= 2.0 pu, Xs = 2.0 x 0.5 = l.0 pu.
)
If we can have unity power factor then
,
)

E= V - I z = 1 angle 0 -
= 0.9742 - j
=
1.292
1.618 angle -59.98 pu
l.292 angle 0 x (0.02 + j 1) )
,,
Sut we only have E = kcj> O)e =2 ER = 2 x 0.774 = 1.55 pu. so the power factor will be less than 1. .,,
1.55 = 11 angle 0 - 1.292 angle S x (0.02 + j 1)1 ,.,
= 11 - 1.292 x (cosS + j sinS) x (0.02 + j 1)1 .)
,,
neglecting rI. ----~~ 1.55 =1(1 - l. 292 sinS) - j (1.292 cosS) I
,,
1.55 = ~(1 - 1.292 sinS)2 + (1.292 COSS)2 = ~1 - 2.584 sinS + 1.292 2
)
..~
--- sinS = 0.1032. ---~~ e::: 5.92 0
, cosS = 0.995 )
)
Therefore.
)
Paut = VI cosS -FR
= 1 x 1.292 x 0.995 - 1.2922 x 0.02
= 1252 pu
,)

T = Paut/ooe = 1.252/2 = o 626 pu )

E = 1 55 pu, %1> - 100% .,

.)

c) What is the lowest frequency at whicb this increased power output can be attained without exceeding "

the rated values of voltage, current or field flux? What are the corresponding values of torque, E and %
flux? ,,
.)

For rated values VR. IR and +R, the maximum power output is achieved with unity power factor. At
.)
frequency f. Xs = 0.5f, E = kcp O)e = 0.775f then,
,)

E= V- I . Z = 1 angle 0 - 1.292 angle 0 x (0.02 + j 0.5f) = 0.9742 + j 0.646 f .)

.)
0.755f = 10.9742 + j 0.646fl ="(0.9742)2 + (0.646f)2 :)
J
---~~ f2=5.1774, f::: 2.275, where Paut is maximum.
.>
)

2
,
)

,)
)
J
"
 For f < 2.0 pu the power output will be less than POUl = 1.252 pu for f =2.0 pu. $0 the solution for
c is the same as b.

 ECE 411

Example Problem 12

Synchronous Reluctance Machine Operation in the Constant Torque Region

For the synchronous reluctance machine of practice problem 5-5 with pu parameters (r 1 included)

rI = 0.02 Xq = 0.2 at f = 1.0 pu

Synchronous Reluctance Machine

At f = 1 pu:

fI =0.02 pu Xd =0.6 pu Xq = 0.2 pu

I ... ....
.... ...
,I ... ..... _ _ _ _... ___ __L ._._
I
I ......
.~

...
d-axis ... .... q-axis
.... .... I
... ... ,I.
... ,
... ...
,,

a) for operation at Y = 1.0 pu and f = 1.0 pu, find the torque angle <>, the current and the power factor
for a torque of 1.0 pu.

Y = 1.0 pu f =1.0 pu

T =
1.0 pu

:. P = 1.0 pu

Air gap power expression including resistance:

Xd -X
P =2y2 2 9
2 .
[(r 1 - XcIX q) sm 2 + rl(Xd + Xq) cos 2 - q(Xd - Xq)]

(rI +~Xq)2

1
 :,

:).
:)
)
1= ~ - ~.4 ? [[(.02)2 - .121 sin 2 + .02 (.8) cos 2 .02 (.4)] ')
- [(0.02)- + 0.12]
)
-1.65 sin 2 + 0.2208 cos 2 - 1.1104 = O )
Solving the above nonlinar equation in : ;)
)
I =-17.1 I 0

V sin = -Iq X q + Id fI [1]

,,
)

",'
V cos =Id X d + I cf 1 [2]

Solving [1] and [2] together:

)

Id =
v X g cos + V rI sin
2
rI + Xq Xd

= 1.539 pu
,,:.
Iq -_ - Y Xct sin
2
+ Y fI cos
rI + X q Xd

_
- 1.
624
pu
,
)

I = ~I~ + I~ = 12.24 pu I ,, )

EE:

Input Power =Stator 12r + Airgap Power

,
)
)
.,
P.F. =cos e = (2.24)~.~~) + 1 10.4911 ,
j
or ,)
.J
y =sin- 1 It =43.4
,,
0

e= y + ll = 60.5 ~ IpF. =0.492 I

b) find the pull-out torque for the conditions of part 'a'.
,, .)

j
.J
= y2 2 Xd - X g [ft X q cos 2 - (ri -Xd Xq) sin cos - ft Xd sin 2]
(r 1 + Xct Xq)2 "
)
')
2
,)

,, .>
 = ? 0.4 ., [.02 x 0.2 cos 2 - (.02 2 - .12) sin cos - .02 .6 sin 21
(.02- + .2 x .6)

= ~i~~ [ .004 cos 2 + (.1196) sin cos - .012 sin 2 ]

Evaluating this equation for a range of yields

PMax = 1.555 at =-41 0

ITmax = 1.555 pu I

c) repeat part 'b' for f = 0.1 pu. V = 0.1 pu.

V =0.1 pu f = 0.1 pu X q = 0.02 pu

=0\ 0~1 [(.o2)i~~~012]2 [.02)2 - .0012) sin 2 + .02 (.08) cos 2 - .02 (.04)]
Using iteI"atic:m bYymi~g ~~ v~ll~of inth~QQy~~~~!iQP~taini:n,g corresponding T tiU
we get maximum torque

IT max= 0.772 pu occurs at =-13.2 o

or

to~tTmax : aT =0
a

:; -,:: (r~~;~2 [(ri - Xd Xq) cos 21> - fi (Xd + Xq) sin 2j

0= .~1 [(.02)~~~012]2 [.02)2 - .(012) cos 2 - 0.02 (.08) sin 2]

Solving the above nonlinear equation in . we get correspondiIig to T max then substitute
it in T equation.

ECE 411

Example Problem 13

Synchronous Reluctance Machine Operation in the Constant Power Region

For a synchronous reluctance machine with pu parameters (rI neglected)

Xq = 0.2 at f = 1.0 pu

a) For operation at V = 1.0 pu and f = 1.0 pu, find the torque angle . the current and the power factor for a
torque of 1.0 pu.
V

Xd = 2.0, xq=0.2 at f =1.0 pu

q axis

v = 1.0, f = 1.0. T = 1.0

T = _ V2(Xd - Xq) sin(2)

2 (l}e Xd Xq

12 x (2 - 0.2)

1 =- 2 x 1 x 2 x O. 2 sin(2)

sin(2) = -0.4444

= I
2"' . 1 ( -.
sm- 04444) =---'-13
--_.. . 2
_. "'

V cos= Id Xd

V sin
V sin = Iq xq Iq =- Xq =

1
 :,

:)

:)

:)

- -1!g - -I 0.04868 - 23 09 :)

y - tan Iq - tan 1.1418 - .

~)

e = ll + Y = 13.2' + 23.09' = 36.29' )

)
PF = cosa = cos 36.29 = QJill6 )

b) For operation at Y = LO pu and f

the rated current as found in part a
=2.0 pu, find the torque angle , the torque and the power factorJor ,
)

:
f =2.0, xd =4.0. Xq =0.4. Y = LO. I::: 1.24 ,)

{
y2
J2 :::
= (Id Xd)2 + {Iq Xq)2 1
Id 2 + Iq2 = 1.24 2 = 1.54
} =
)
,,
{
16 Id 2 + 0.16 Iq2 = 1
Id 2 + Iq2 =
1.54 ,
{ Id= 0.218
Iq = 1.22
)
,,
= sin- 1 (I\~g) =sin- 1 (_ 1.22 t O'l = -2921' ,,
)
)
"

y = tan -1 (~) = tan -1 (~.;~8) = 10.14 J

e = ll + y = 29.21' + 10.14 =39.35

;)
,
)
PF =cose =cos39.35 =o..m ,;)
,)
=
c) Find the frequency at which the machine reaches pull-out (y 45) and the torque capability at this
frequency under the rated voltage and current conditions of part b.
"

,,
= -45', Y = 1.0, 1= 1.24. Xd =2f. Xq =O.2f
~
I d Xd = -tan = 1
)

)
,
)
!g _ Xd 2f }
1d -
Id 2 + I~
= 0.2f = 10
= J2 = 1.5376 ,,
)

2
)

)
,
)
,,
{ Id = 0.123
Iq = 1.234
y cos = Id X =Id 2f
f =y cos = 1 x cos(-45) _ ?

2 Id 2 x 0.123 - ~$65

T = _ y2(Xd - x Q) sin(2) = 122 x 2.865)- (0.2 x 2.865))

2 )e Xd x q 2 x 2.865 x (2 x 2.865) x (0.2 x 2.865) = _0..214

 ')

J
)
:)
:)
:,
,)

,,
)

.,
,
,
)

,,

,.,

,
)
,,

,
,
)
,)

,
.)

,
)

,"
)

"
.)
)
)
)
)
)
.,)
)
,)

,)
 ECE 411
Example Problem 14

Scaling Laws

The transformer which powers an induction fumace is rated 50 kva (at the input) 460/46 volts. 60
hz. The transfonner operates into what is effectively a shorted single tum coi! in which the 12R loss
provides the heat to melt the material being processed. The load current is determined by the total
leakage inductance and the sum of the winding and reflected load resistance. At fuIl load lhe
efficiency and power factor are 95% and 0.6 respectively. The power factor is corrected to 0.95 by
using power factor correction capacitors.

An order for a 500 kva unit is being considered. Develop estimates. using proportional sca1ing
maintaining constant core flux density B. for the required geometric: scale factor "D" and the resulting
efficiency "E". power factor "F". loss/unit area "L". kva of required capacitors to correct to 0.95 power
factor "e" and the power delivered to the 10ad "P" assuming the load resistance scales the same wayas
the transfonner resistance. NOTE: The current density J will nol be constant for this situation since the
current depends on the resistance and leakage changes resuIting from the size increase.

The equivalent circuit of transformer and load resistance:

x
------~~------~

V_ _ ---..If R

For small transformer:

V line-Iine =460 volt

3 V 52
S5 =50 kVA = 1ZsI

P.F. = 0.8 => r5 = 0.6 (4.23) = 2.54 Q

=> X s = 0.8 (4.23) = 3.39
Scaling Laws:

VaD2N => VL=ND2Vs s: small

N2 Rs

Ra- => RL=N21) L: Large

D
LaN2D => LL= N2D Ls

 ,,
J
:)
:. same frequency => XL=N2DXs :)
:)
For large transforrner: :)

,
:)

:)

,,
:)

,,
,
DlO - 63.95 D4 -36= O
)
,,
ID=2.01 I ,,
Since the load & transformer resistance scale the same way and the power desired is I2R

:. The efficiency remains as before:

,,
,)
I
IE=0.95pu .J
, )
Power Factor
.)
)
~)
.)
RslD
= -----'''---- J
rD 2 + (Xs D)zl
{Rs 112
j
l J
l
IF = 0.183 pu I ,,'J
Active Power Delivered:
:)
Input Power = S cos e 1
)
= 500 (.183) = 91.5 KW )

Power Delivered to load : P = 0.95 (91.5) = 186.9 KW I ,,

J

2 , )

)
,)
)
Loss per Unit Area:

Totalloss =P (1-1)
= 91.5 (.05) = 4.575 KW

. Loss Loss
Loss per umt ara a D2 = K D2 K: constant

= K (4.575) = 1.13 K KW/m2

(2.01)2
For small transformer:

totalloss =P (1 -11)

= (.6) (50) (.05) = 1.5 KW

. Loss

Per Umt ---:'-t- - :

um area

L= 1i.~ = 10.755 pu I
KVAR of required capacitors to correct Power factor to 0.95

(P = constant)

Original Power Factor =0.183 =;. e = 79.4

Original KVAR required by load = S sin e

= 500 sin 79.4

=491 KVAR

For Power Factor = 0.95 ~ e = 18.2 o

Final KV AR required by load =f1N tan e

=91.5 tan 18.2
=30.1 KVAR

c = Required Capacitor KVAR =491 - 30 = 1461 KVAR I

 .J
)
:,

,)
)

.,
)

:)
~,

~
.}
:)
:)
~)
j
.l
., )

)
.)
.)

"'

"

l
, .)

,)

,, )

,,
:)

:J
:)
:)
)
.>

)
.)
J
,)
,)
,)
)
.)
J
"
 ECE 411

Example Problem 15

Adjustable Speed Drives

Harmonic Losses

For the machine of practice problem 74 operated from a six step VSI, find

a) the inverter bus voltage required to yield rated torque at rated slip frequency at an inverter frequenc~
of 1.5 hz. What multiple M of rated volts/hz (voltage boost) does tbis correspond to?

Machine of Practice Problem 7.4:

1
v_~
__ __________________ ~~__
j_x_m_______ r ;2

Per unit parameters at 60 Hz:

=
fI .015 pu Xl = 0.1 pu xm =2pu
r2 = .02 pu x2=0.lpu Rm =50 pu
. -Ratecrcondtions at 6OHZ (fronlProo. 7.4. 2.2 & HW #2)

V~ = 1 pu =460
V3 volt line-to-neutraI

P out =1 pu COe = 1 pu

Use Program developed in HW #3 to get srated =.0248

T - Pout - 1
- l-s - 1-.0248
= 1.0254 pu

At f = 1.5 hz:
SO>e = constant = .0248

OOe = ~g =0.025 pu

S = .0248 0992
.025 = .

Again use Program of HW #3 to get V in case of:

1
 J
:)
;)
"

T = 1.025 pu. s = 0.992. roe = 0.025 .)

)
v <p =0.0417 pu .)
= (0.417) ~ = 11.1 volt line-to-neutral )

For a six step VSI: ,,

)

)
),
where Vr de input voltage to inverter & V<p = RMS fundamental phase voltage of load
.)

I VI = 7} (1I.07) = 246 volts I >.

.)
,)
Ir there is no voltage boost: V<p _ f
,)

:. at f =1.5 hz => V <p =~g (1) = .025 )

~)

l
Voltage boost M =.04168
.025

.)
J.
.)
J
b) calculate the 5th hannonic total I2R 10ss for the conditions of part 'a' and the ratio of this 10ss to th~
corresponding loss at rated frequency and voltage and to the fundamental frequency total I2R 10ss at . .
rated frequency and voltage. '"
.)
5th hannonie at f = 1.5 hz

5 roepu = ~5) = 0.125

,
)

.)
1
.)
:;)
5th hannonic
.2:,2 equivalent circuit .)
s J
j
:)
Speed at f = 1.5 hz: ror = roe (1-s) ,)
= .025 (1-0.992) = .0002 )
,,)

.:')
.)
2
)
)
)
)
)
 5 IDe+ ror
S5=

5roe

_ .125 + (.0002) _ 1 00"

- .125 -.

For six step VSI: V5 = ~l = .0~47 = .008336 pu @ f = 1.5 hz

Substituting in program of HW #3 for:

V 5 = .00834 pu. S5 = 1.002. 5 roe:= 0.125

1I151 = 0.198 pu

1I2s1 =0.188 pu

V5
Of simply: 115 = - - - - - - - - - = '-------
q + j500X lrot + [Rm//j5roX m// (r2/s5 + j5roX2)]

&

J2r 108s for 5th harmonic at f = 1.5 hz:

2 2

= 115 fI + 125 f2

=5.89 x 10 4 + 7.08 X 10 4 = 11.30 x 10 -3 pu

5th harmonic at f =60 hz

5 roepu =5 pu

Speed at f =60 hz =ror = roe (1-s)

=1 (1 - .0248) = .975 pu
_ 5 roe + ror _ 5 + .975 _. 1 195
S5- - 5 -.
5 roe

VI 1

Vs -- -
5-- -
5 .- pu

- O"

Calculating the currents as before:

3
 ,J
.)
)
)
1I151 = ,205 & 1125' = .195
)
,)
12r 10ss for 5th harmonic at f =60 hz
)

= L215 rI + 12
25 r? :.)

=0.63 x 10-3 I
+ .76 x 10-3 = 1.39 x 10 -3pu I
,
)

,)

Fundamental at f

Wepu =1
=60 Hz ,
)

,)

S =.0248 )
V == 1 pu
:)
Calculating the currents as before:
)

1111 =1.28 & 112' =1.126 )

12r los8 for fundamental at f

? ?
=60 hz ,)

fi fI J
2
+ 1 r2

= (24.7 x 10-3) + (25.3 x 10-3 ) = Is.o x 10 -2pu ,"

.>
In problem 2.2-c 'total losses including core loss were ca1culated:

Totallos8 =0.067 pu
,
,)

)
Ratio to fundamental 12r 108s at f =1 :
li~; = 10.933 I "
)
,)
.)
RatiQ to 5thharmonic 12r los8 at f = 1 :
)
1.29?O~ 10-3 = I 0.0259 I "

j
Ratio to fundamental totalloss at f =1 : )
~)
1.297 x 10-3
= 10.0194 )
.067
)
)
)
J
:)

4
,
,:)

)
J
)
)
 ECE 411

Example Problem 16

Adjustable Speed Drives

Starting Conditions

For the induction motor of Example Problem 6 (100 hp, 460 volll, 4-pole, 60 hz) with pu
parameters

rI = 0.010 Xl = 0.1 ~=3.0

r2 = 0.012 X2 = 0.1 ~=30

driven bya VSI with a rnaximum current of two times rated current (not 2.0 pu) find:

a) The stator frequency which will result in maximum starting torque at zero speed.

+ 12

V SI v ~
s

From Example Problem 6, we have sR= 0.014, IR = 1.196

For fixed maximum. current I} = 2 IR = 2.392 pu the maximum torque is achieved when;

~2- =Lib -=nt:2+X'/ll, (ngIectng~T------

r2 0.012
sroe = L 2 + Lm = 0.1 + 3.0 = 0.0039 pu

sQ)e = Q)e - ror

since ror: O -------1........ Q)e =SQ)e =~i.pJ.l

b) The required fundamental voltage and the resulting torque for the condition of part a.
(neglecting Rro)

= 0.01 + j(O.l x 0.0039) . + (.~12 + j(O.l x 0.0039) 11 j(3.0 x 0.0039)

= 0.0169 angle 22.2

v = 11 Zin = 2.392 x 0.0169 = O 0404 pu

1
 .}

)
J
I 2= I I I JXm -+JX .
m
I = I j3.0xO.0039 I :)
I-=
r? + J x? I 2.392x 1(0.012 + jO.1x 0.0039) + j 3.0x 0. 0039 1
,)
IS
,

)
= 1.636 pu

1.6362 x 0.012 ',.,

0.0039 = 824pu )
*This is too big to achieve, and will be limited by )"
saturation. )
c) The required fundamental voltage and frequency to maintain this torque at a speed of 0.1 pu. )1
")j
OOr = 0.1 pu, we still need the maximum current 11 = 2.392 pu to get the maximum torque! :),
12 2 2r l
T= - = 8.24 pu, ~:
SOOe
In order to maintain the maximum torque Tmax =8.24 pu, the slip frequency needs to be :}
maintained at 0.0039 pu. And once 11 and SOOe are fixed, 12 is fIxed at the value of 1.636 pu, :),
independent of the frequency. ),
Therefore, )
{J)e= ror + sooe. = 0.1 + 0.0039 - O] 039 pu ,)
..l
SOOe 0.0039
,)
s = OOe =0.1039 = 0.0375 pu

.)

,)

1
)
= 0.01 + j 0.1 x 0.1039 + (~o~li5 + j 0.1 X 0.1039) /I j(3 X 0.1039) = 0.234
1
angle 46.5 0

)
v = II Zin = 2.392 X 0.234 =
O 56 pu .)
J
)
J
.)
:)
1
)
.)
J

.,
,)

.)
O)
2
,)
)
,)

,
.)
 ECE 411
Example Problem 17

Adjustable Torque Drives

Operating Characteristics

For the maehine of practice problem 7-4operated with field OIltented controI:

a) find the values of IST' Isq, and the slip frequency to yield rated torque at rated rotor flux at Ole =1.0.
From problem 7-4, the pu parameter at 60 Hz are:

fi =.015 pu xl=O.lpu Lm =xm =2pu

r2 = .02 pu X2 =0.1 pu Rm =50pu

To represent machine behavior in terms of rotor flux (instead of the conventional airgap flux

oriented approach) we represent the induction machine by an equivalent eireuit without rotor

leakage by having the referral ratio be a = t instead ofbeing Lhe tums r.:ltiO.

Ls =LI + Lm =2.1 pu Lr =L2 + Lm == 2.1 pu

2
Lm
T = Lr Iscp 1sT

Field Oriented ContoI Equations

&

From HW#9, the rated eonditions are

s = 0.0248

T = 1.0254

1sT =[T s~ a:tr

= [(1.026) (.~~) (/)2t/ 2= 11.18 pu I
I - f2 IST
scp - Lr
SOle

= 2~i (.ck~) I
= 0.455 pu I

1
b) find and plot lhe voltslhz which is required for operation at rated torque at rated rotor flux at roto'.)'

speeds of 1.0,0.5,0.25,0.125 and 0.0625 pu. Note that ths Is the volts/hz schedule needed for ,:),

operation at rated torque and current in an open loop, "constant voltslhz" ASD.

,:);
Operation at rated torque :::::. 1sT = constant ,)
= 1.18 pu ,)
)
Operation at rated rotor flux :::::. Is<p =constant
=0.455 pu )
,)
r2 1sT .
Therelore, sroe = Lr ISqJ IS constant : sroe = 0.0248
c

, )

Is = ~2
"

I + I 2 = 1.27 pu = constant
sT s<p
'J
Vary the speed ror: .,)
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All in per unit:

,
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s v ":>
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1.0 1.025 0.0242 1.02 0.998
."
0.5 0.525 0.0473 0.531 1.10
0.25
0.125
0.065
0.275
0.150
0.898
0.0902
0.166
0.276
0.286
0.163
0.105
1.04
1.09
1.17
.,
,)

,)

c) repeat par! b for operation at rated rotor flux and zero torque, Plolon the same graph as part b.
Operation at zero torque:::::. 1sT = O
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Operation at rated rotor flux :::::. IS<jl =constant
,
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 Isq;;;; .455 pu
fr 1sT O
SWe = Lr Isq; = O : s =
and coe = cor

1s =1scp = .455 pu

Vary the speed ror:

=> s =O

All in per unit:

v V/COe

1.0 1.0 0.957 0.957

0.5 O.S 0.478 0--9S/
0.25 0.25 0.239 0.957
0.125 0.125 0.120 0.958
0.065 0.065 0.0625 0.961

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 ECE 411
Example Problem 18
Adjustable Torque Drives
Starting Torque

For the induction motor of Example Problem 6 (100 hp, 460 volt, 4-pole. 60 hz) with pu parameters

fi = 0.010 X m = 3.0
f2 = 0.012 Neglect ~
a) find the values of 1ST ' IScjl and the slip frequency to yield rated torque at rated rotor flux at <.Oe = LO.
r1 X X
1 2 L 2
fI jOJe. (Ls- ~ )
... Is
I\,f\/'ty

...
rY'''YY\ L r

I~
I
s
f2
X . Lrn 2
m
S ~
J<.Oe-
Lr
Isc!> (Lm/.-.2.
Lr s

fI = 0.01, Xl = 0.1, Xm = 3.0

f2 = 0.012, x2 = 0.1
At rated cOI1ditOfis~-wenaVe: .------
sR = 0.014, TR =
1.014, IR = 1.196 (From Example Problem 3)

<.Oe= 1.0

S<.Oe = SR<.Oe = O 014 pu

!
j
. I
----I~~ 1ST =

f2 1ST 0.012 1.124

Iscp = Lr = 3T x O.014 = Q.lllp..u
SWe

 ,:,

b) find the flux and torque commands, the slip frequcncy and the volts/hz which is required for operation witb )

,
maximum starting torque if the stator current is limited to t,vice iateu currcnt (same conditions as Example pro,
)
Imax = 2 IR = 2x 1.196 = 2.392 pu
To achieve maxin::um torque with a current source, ,.)
.,)
r: = Ole (L2 + Lm) ,)
)
r2 0.012
SOle = L 2 + L m = 0.1 + 3.0 = O0032pu
, )

At zero speed, s = I, Ole= 0.0039 )

)
I5 = "IST 2 + Is.2 = lmax = 2.392 )
IST = Iscp )
1 )
... 1ST = Is+ = ~ x2.392 = 1 692pu
)

Zin = rI + jOle (Ls- t~ + (jOle Lr:~ /I (Ctf:2) ,

)

)
33.~~ ;'.~~ "
= 0.01 + j 0.0039 (3.1 -
= 0.0169 angle 22.2
+ (jO.0039 ( 3. O) 2 O. O12)
3.1 1 "

,
)
v = 15 Zin = 2.392 x 0.0169 =0.0404 pu )
Volts/hz = 0.040410.0039 = 10 36 pu )
)
=3.0) up to 1.5 pu flux and .,
c) repeat part b assuming the rotor flux magnetization characteristic is linear (with Xm
then saturates and remains constant for all higher values of magnetizing current
, .

)
)
Is. = r / Lm = 1.5/3.0 = Q 5 pu
,,
)

1ST ="2.3922 - 0.52

f2 1ST
= 2339
0.012 2.339
pu )
,
SOle =Lr 15. = ~ x.5 = Q0181 pu "

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s=l-----
. ... Ule = 0.0181 pu .)
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J
J
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I

= 0.01 + jO.0181 (3.1 _ 33.~2) + (jO.0181 ;'.~~ 11 (~:.~)2 O.. 01~12)

= 0.0216 ang1e ]5 T

v = 15 Zin = 2.392 x 0.0216 = 0.0517 pu

Voltslhz = 0.0517/0.0181 - ?85 pu

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