15

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

 Permeability and Seepage -4

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

 Different types of fluid flow in soils
A 1-D flow condition is the one where the velocity vectors
are all parallel and of equal in magnitude.
In other words, the water always moves parallel to
some axis and through a constant c/s area.
1-D flow
Steady downward flow occurs when
water is pumped from an underground
aquifer.
Steady upward flow occurs as a result
of artesian pressure when a less
permeable layer is underlain by a
permeable layer which is connected
through the ground to a water source
Flow through providing pressures higher than local
a confined aquifer hydrostatic pressures.
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
Different types of fluid flow in soils
2-D flow
It occurs when all the velocity vectors are confined to a
single plane but vary in direction and magnitude within that
plane.

Long excavation
Sheet pile wall
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
Different types of fluid flow in soils

3-D flow

Most general flow condition

E.g.
Flow towards a
water well

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Multi-dimensional fluid flow in soils
As of now, we have considered one-dimensional flow in soils,
where all fluid is flowing in the same direction.

In most cases, however, fluid in different regions will be flowing

in different directions. Multi-dimensional flow

Hence, it is required to learn how to solve multi-dimensional

flow problems
To develop these capabilities, we use
i) Equation of continuity
ii) Multi-dimensional forms of
Darcys law

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Seepage
Equation of continuity Laplace Equation
In many practical cases, the nature of the flow through soil is
such that the velocity and gradient vary throughout the
medium.

For these problems, calculation of flow is generally made by

use of graphs referred to as flow nets.

The concept of flow net is based on Laplaces equation of

continuity, which describes the steady flow condition for a
given point in the soil mass.

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Seepage z qz + dqz
Details of small qy
Equation of continuity element at A
qx + dqx
qx
x
qz + dqz
H1 h H2 y
qz
Flow at point A

Datum
A

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Seepage
Equation of continuity
Flows entering the soil prism in x, y, and z directions can be
given from Darcys law as:
h
q x = k x ix Ax = k x (dydz )
x
h h = hydraulic

q y = k y i y Ay = k y (dxdz ) head at point A
y
h
q z = k z iz Az = k z (dxdy )
z
Where qx, qy, qz = flow entering in directions x, y, and z respectively.

Where kx, ky, kz = flow entering in directions x, y, and z respectively.

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
 z qz + dqz
Seepage qy
For flow in x direction (Ax = dydz; h
= total head) qx + dqx
h qx dz
q x (in) = q x = k x (dydz )
x x1 qz + dqz x
dy
h
q x (out ) = q x + dq x = k x (dydz ) y dx
x x 2 qz
x1 x2
h h
dq x = k x (dydz )
x x 2 x x1
Change in gradient over dx
2 h
dq x = k x 2 dx (dydz )
x
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
Seepage
Equation of continuity
The respective flows leaving the soil prism in x, y, and z
directions can be given from Darcys law as:

h 2 h
q x + dq x = k x (ix + dix ) Ax = k x + 2 dx (dydz )
x x
h 2 h
q y + dq y = k y (i y + di y ) Ay = k y + 2 dy (dxdz )
y y
h 2 h
q z + dq z = k z (iz + diz ) Az = k z + 2 dz (dydx)
z z

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Seepage
Equation of continuity

Using the principle of the conservation of fluid mass:

For steady flow through an incompressible medium,
the flow entering the element is equal to the flow
leaving the element:

qin = qout

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Seepage
Equation of continuity

q x + q y + q z = (q x + dq x ) + (q y + dq y ) + (q z + dq z )
By simplifying: Volume change/unit volume
= (1/1+e)e/ t = 0 (i.e. e/ t = 0)

Net flow into (or out h 2

h h 2 2
of) element/unit kx 2 + k y 2 + kz 2 = 0
time dx dy dz
h 2
h 2
For 2-D flow in the x-z plane kx 2 + kz 2 = 0
dx dz
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
Seepage
Equation of continuity
If the soil is isotropic with respect to permeability, kx = ky = kz,
and the continuity equation simplifies to:
Change in ix gradient/unit distance in x-direction

h h h
2 2 2
kx = ky = kz = k
+ 2 + 2 =0
k 0
2
dx dy dz
Simplified Laplaces equation of continuity

For 2-D flow in the x-z plane h 2

h 2
kx 2 + kz 2 = 0
kx kz dx dz
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
Flow through a constant head permeameter in
the laboratory Water Constant
supply
For 1-D flow in the Z water level
direction:

h2
=0 A = area of
h z
dz 2 C/S of the L
specimen
Change in iz
gradient/unit distance
in z-direction
i.e. vx = vy = 0
Ix =0; iz = constant.

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Possible methods for solving the Laplace Equation
1) Analytical, closed form or series solutions of
the partial differential equations
- quite mathematical, and not very general
2) Numerical solution methods
- typically, the finite element method or finite difference
method;
- very powerful and easy to apply
- can deal with heterogeneity, anisotropy, 2D, 3D

3) Graphical Techniques FLOW NET METHODS

- commonly used in engineering practice to solve 2D
problems

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Flow net methods
Straightforward graphical method to solve 2D seepage
problems
Solutions of Laplace Equation consist of two families of
orthogonal curves in the (x, z) plane. These families of
curves make a flow net. Equipotential lines
The path which a particle i.e. A line joining
of water follows in its equal head
course of seepage
through a sat. soil mass is
called flow line
Flow lines
Partial flow net

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Flow net methods

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Seepage - Flow net solution
The flow net solution is a graphical method of
solving the 2-D Laplaces equation:

h h
2 2
h 2
+ 2 =0 =0
x z
2
x 2

2-D flow 1-D flow

It describes the energy loss associated with flow

through a medium, and is used to solve many kinds
of flow problems, including those involving heat,
electricity and seepage.
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
 Seepage - Flow net solution
Flow nets are based on two mathematical functions:

Potential function and Flow or Stream function

x
Consider a function (x, z) 1
such that: 2
3
h 4

= vx = k (A) 1
x x 2
h 3
= vz = k (B) z
z z
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
Seepage - Flow net solution
By differentiating and substituting in Laplace equation
of continuity:

We get

2 2
+ = 0
x 2
z 2

(x, z) satisfies the Laplace equation

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

 Seepage - Flow net solution
= vx = k
h
x x
Integrating (A) and (B), h
= vz = k
z z
( x, z ) = kh( x, z ) + f ( z ) --from (A)

( x, z ) = kh( x, z ) + g ( x) --from (B)

Since x and z can be varied independently, f (z) = g(x) = Constant

h( x, z ) = [C ( x, z )]
1
-- (C)
k
If h (x, z) represents a constant h1, equation (C) represents a
curve in (x, z) plane.
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
Seepage - Flow net solution
Equipotential line: Curve in the cross-section such that
is constant along the curve.

i.e., Total head is constant along equipotential line

Thus, family of curves is similar to the contour lines on

a topographical map
Except drawn in a vertical section and the lines
represent equal heads (not equal elevations)

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Seepage - Flow net solution
Along such contours of equal total head d = 0
From the definition of partial differentiation and
combining equations:

= vx = vz
It gives: x z

d = dx + dz
x z dx dz vx

d = v x dx + v z dz vz

Along an EQP line, = constant, so d = 0 dz vx

=
dx vz
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
 x
Seepage - Flow net solution 1 2
Flow or Stream function
Consider a function (x, z) such that: 3
4

h 1
= vx = k
z x 2
3
h
= vz = k z
x z Inverse of potential function
Combining equations and substituting in
Laplace equation:
2 2

So, (x, z) also satisfies the + 2 =0
Laplace equation x 2
z
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
Seepage - Flow net solution
From the definition of partial differentiation and
combining equations:

It gives: = vz = vx
x z
Total differential of the (x, z) is: vz
dx

d = dx + dz dz
x z
vx
d = v z dx + v x dz
For a given flow line, if is a constant, dz vz
=
d = 0 dx vx
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
Seepage - Flow net solution

It is apparent that the flow lines and equipotential

lines intersect each other at right angles (or
orthogonal).

dz vx
=
dx vz

dz vz
=
dx vx

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Use of continuity equation for solution of simple flow
problem
h h1> h2
h 1
2

Datum x
3
z Soil B

2
LB
Soil A
1
1 D flow through
LA
two layers of soil

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Use of continuity equation for solution of simple flow
problem
Case: 1 Dimensional flow through two layers of soil

The flow is in one direction only, i.e. x axis

Lengths of two soil layers (LA and LB) and their
coefficients of permeability in the direction of x-axis
(kA and kB) are known.
Total heads at sections 1 and 3 are known.
Required: Total head at any other section for
0 < x < LA + LB
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
Use of continuity equation for solution of simple flow
problem 2
h
Case: 1 D flow through two layers of soil =0
x 2

Integration of Laplace equation (for 1-D flow) gives:

h = C2 x + C1 Where C1 and C2 are

constants
For flow through soil A, the boundary conditions are:

1. at x = 0, h = h1
h1 h2
2. At x = LA; h = h2 h =
L
x + h1
A
For 0 x LA
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
Use of continuity equation for solution of simple flow
problem
Case: 1 D flow through two layers of soil

For flow through soil B, the boundary conditions

are:

1. at x = LA, h = h2 h = C2 x + C1
2. At x = LA + LB; h=0

h2 LA
For LA x LA + LB L
h = 1 + L
x + h2
B B

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Use of continuity equation for solution of simple flow
problem
Case: 1 D flow through two layers of soil
q = rate of flow through soil A = rate of flow through soil B

h1 h2 h2
q = kA
L A = kB
L A
A B
A is the area of c/s of soil perpendicular to the direction of flow
k A h1
h2 =
kA kB
LA
+
LA LB

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
Use of continuity equation for solution of simple flow
problem
Case: 1 D flow through two layers of soil

kB x (for x = 0 to L )
h = h1
1 k L + k L
A
A B B A

kA (for x = LA
h = h1 ( LA + LB x ) To L + L )
k A LB + k B LA A B

For LA = LB = L; kA = kB = k x
h = h1 1
(i.e. x = L/2 h = h1/2 L
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
Pore pressure in steady state seepage conditions

i = head drop per

unit length
For steady state
seepage
i = constant

Change in PWP between points P and Q: (per unit width)

u = i w (s )
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
Seepage - Flow net solution

When water flows through a porous medium such as

soil, head is lost through friction.
Similar head losses occur when water seeps
through an earth dam (unconfined flow) or under a
sheet pile cofferdam or concrete masonry dam
(confined flow)
As the particle of water proceeds from A to B, it
exerts a frictional drag on the soil particles; this drag in
turn produces a seepage pressure in the soil structure.

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Example Problem: Flow net construction
Datum Number of Flow
channels Nf = 4.5

Number of
Potential drops
Nd = 6

Seepage pressure

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Example Problem: Flow net construction

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay

Seepage - Flow net solution : Computation of
discharge q

Aspect ratio: a/b

hL / N d
Hydraulic gradient i = h/b
i=
b
Equipotential drops between two flow lines h =hL/Nd
From Darcys law, flow in each channel is:

hL / N d q = Total discharge
q = k a per unit width
b
a
Nf a
q = khL
N

d b b
Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay
Example problem: Flow net method q ? and pw at B

Nf = 4
Nd = 12
h =
2/12

Prof. B V S Viswanadham, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Bombay