2016-2017

1st Semester

Fundamentals of Fire Safety in Civil Engineering

- Introduction to Fire Safety -

PhD Eng. Zeno GRIGORAS

Universitatea Tehnic Facultatea de Construcii

Gh. Asachi, Iai i Instalaii
Types of natural hazards

Earthquakes;

Fires;

Landslides;

Floods;
Objectives of the course

General information about fires;

Fire classification of fires;

Fire models;

Structural design;

Fire safety scenario part of a building project that

summarizes the fire safety measures;
Positive effects of fires

It provides a great source of power/heat for:

- domestic needs (cooking food);

- industrial needs (oil refineries, melting steel, smelting,
forging);
- clearing land for agriculture;
- generating heat and light;
- propulsion purpose;
- incineration of waste;
- cremation;
- religious rituals;
Negative effects of fires

Hazard to life and property;

Atmospheric pollution;

Water contamination;
Negative effects of fires

Structural failing caused by high temperatures

Negative effects of fires

Hazards of smoke from building fire (Poh, 2011)

Negative effects of fires

CONVECTED HEAT burns of the respiratory system and of the mucosal

membrane (eyes, ears, nose and mouth);

RADIANT HEAT skin burns;

TOXIC GASES hilarious states, blackout, intoxication or asphyxiation;

SMOKE OBSTRUCTION reduce visibility;

This is not a directly life threatening but may reduce walking speed, block evacuation
routes and may produce panic. It may lead to an increased exposure time to heat and
toxic gases which needs to be taken into account.
What is fire safety?

FIRE SAFETY IN CIVIL ENGINEERING is the set of practices

intended to reduce the destruction caused by fire.

Fire safety measures include those that are intended to

prevent ignition of an uncontrolled fire, and those that are
used to limit the development and effects of a fire, after it
starts.

Fire safety measures include those that are planned during

the construction of a building or implemented in structures
that are already standing, and those that are taught to
occupants of the building.
Fire safety objectives

Limiting the possibility of:

casualties;

material losses;

environmental damage;

architectural, historical and/or cultural value damage;

infrastructure damage;
Notions about fires
FOCUL - ardere autontreinut, organizat, cu producere de efecte
utile i a crei propagare, n timp i spaiu, este limitat (ardere
controlat);

INCENDIUL - ardere autontreinut, neorganizat, cu producere de

efecte duntoare i a crei propagare, n timp i spaiu, este
nelimitat dac nu se intervine (ardere necontrolat).

COMBUSTION rapid oxidation reaction of a FUEL found in gaseous

state;

FUEL material/substance which has the property of

COMBUSTIBILITY;

COMBUSTIBILITY the property to ignite and burn further

contributing to increasing the amount of heat released;
Notions about fires

Thermochemical reaction of combustion:

FUEL + OXYGEN COMBUSTION PRODUCTS + HEAT

Chemical reaction of combustion:

FUEL + OXYGEN COMBUSTION PRODUCTS

Notions about fires

FUEL CLASIFICATION
SOLID
NATURAL: wood, coal, dry vegetation, cotton, wool
ARTIFICIAL: plastic, rubber, synthetic fibers
LIQUID
NATURAL: petroleum
ARTIFICIAL: gasoline, diesel, alcohol, LPG (liquefied petroleum gas)
GASEOUSE
NATURAL: methane
ARTIFICIAL: butane, propane
Notions about fires

MAIN COMBUSTION PRODUCTS

CO2 carbon dioxide
H2O water vapors
CO carbon monoxide
SOOT carbon particles resulting from incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons
NOx nitrogen oxides
other toxic/irritating gases CN (cyanide), HCl (hydrochloric acid), HBr (hydrogen
bromide), HF (hydrogen fluoride), SO2 (sulfur dioxide),
Notions about fires

HEAT energy that spontaneously passes from fuel to

surroundings.

Thermochemical reaction of combustion:

FUEL + OXYGEN COMBUSTION PRODUCTS + HEAT

(ENERGY) (ENERGY)

THERMAL TRANSFER: CONDUCTION, CONVECTION, RADIATION

Fire triangle

The combustion process involves the presence in the same place and
time of: FUEL, OXYGEN and HEAT.

FIRE TRIANGLE
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Fire triangle

HEAT
It can be generated by sparks from welding operations,
discarded cigarette butts, electrical shorts, frayed wiring,
friction from power tools, thermal radiation, hot exhaust
pipes.

FUEL
It may be liquid, solid or gas;

OXYGEN
21% of air is oxygen. We cant do much about this side of the
triangle, air is usually present everywhere.
Fire triangle

Heat, fuel and oxygen must be in the proper proportion for

fire to occur.

It is possible to have the three ingredients without causing a

fire. For example, there may not be enough heat or air to
ignite the fuel and cause it to burn.
Fire triangle

EXEMPLE FOR FIRE TRIANGLE

FIRE TRIANGLE
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Extinction of a fire

To stop a fire, one of the three elements of the fire triangle

must be removed:

If a fire runs out of fuel it will smolder out;

If you can cool a fire down it will lose heat and go out;

If the oxygen is removed it will suffocate;

Fire safety, at its most basic, is based upon the principle of

keeping fuel sources and ignition sources separate.
Fire classification
Class Symbol Description
solid fuels that burns and form ash
A
(wood, paper, fabrics, plastics that do not melt)
liquid and solid fuels that melt
B
(paraffin, alcohol, paints, oils, wax, plastics that melt)
gaseous fuels
C
(propane, butane, methane)
metals
D
(aluminum, magnesium, titanium)

electrical fire
E
(electrical equipment, devices and wires)

cooking oils and fats

F
(vegetable and animal fats)
Fire classification

What happens if you use the wrong substance to extinguish a fire?

CASE: Burning oil and water!!!

Fire classification

How to effectively extinguish a fire?

What is a flame
FLAME

Is a mixture of air and fuel gas in reaction, often associated with

the emission of light.

Color and temperature of a flame are dependent on the type of

fuel involved in the combustion.
Flame classification

PREMIXED: the air and gaseous fuel are mixed before ignition
(for example: blowtorch flame)

NON-PREMIXED: the air and gaseous fuel are initially separate

and the combustion occurs in the zone where they are mixed
(for example: candle flame)
Common flame temperatures

Fuel type Temperature (Celsius)

Coal 750 1200
Methane 900 1500
Candle flame 1100
Animal fat 800 - 900
Wood 1000
Methanol 1200
Propane blowtorch 1200 1700
Acetylene blowtorch 2300
Oxyacetylene blowtorch 3300
Dicyanoacetylene blowtorch 5000
Combustion classification

COMPLETE COMBUSTION: when the fuel burns entirely,

because there is enough oxygen for oxidization;

INCOMPLETE COMBUSTION: when the fuel partially burns,

because there is not enough oxygen for oxidization;
Combustion classification

COMBUSTION WITH FLAME: when the fuel burns in gaseous

phase, emitting light (most common fires)

INCANDESCENT COMBUSTION: when the fuel burns with

visible light emission on its surface (coal case);

SMOLDERING: when the fuel burns without visible light

emission. It is signaled by environment temperature increase
and by smoke appearance. It is self sustained by the heat of
internal reactions
Combustion clasification

SLOW COMBUSTION when the temperature increases, without

reaching the value corresponding to light emission;

NORMAL COMBUSTION when the propagation velocity is of

the order of cm/s

QUICK COMBUSTION (case of explosions), when the

propagation velocity is high (tens of m/s - subsonic level)

VERY QUICK COMBUSTION (case of detonation), when the

propagation velocity is very high (km/s - supersonic level) and
it is accompanied by a shock wave.
What is ignition?

It may be defined as that process by which a rapid,

exothermic reaction is initiated, then propagates and causes
changes of the involved materials, producing excessive
ambient temperatures.

It occurs only when the fuel reaches a gaseous phase.

The ignition of a combustible mixture occurs when the

velocity (rate) of heat generation by chemical reactions
exceeds the rate of heat loss.
What is ignition?

Ignition of a gaseous fuel

The initiation of the combustion with flame at a certain point,

by bringing the fuel to the ignition temperature.
What is ignition?

Ignition of a liquid fuel

VAPORIZATION is the transition phase from the liquid phase to

vapor. There are two types of vaporization: EVAPORIZATION
and BOILING.
Evaporization is a surface phenomenon;
Boiling is a bulk phenomenon;

Ignition of a liquid fuel is the initiation process of combustion

by vapor release and their ignition.
What is ignition?

Ignition of a solid fuel

PYROLYSIS is the thermochemical decomposition of a material

at elevated temperature in the absence of oxygen.
It involves the simultaneous change of chemical composition
and physical phase, and is irreversible.
Ignition classification

GAS GAS

VAPORIZATION
PYROLYSIS

SOLID LIQUID
Ignition conditions

The mixture combustible concentration to be inside the

flammability limits;

The energy release, as heat, to be able to maintain the

mixture temperature over the ignition temperature.