Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

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Tamarind Seed: Properties, Processing and

Utilization

Chandini S. Kumar & Sila Bhattacharya

To cite this article: Chandini S. Kumar & Sila Bhattacharya (2008) Tamarind Seed: Properties,
Processing and Utilization, Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 48:1, 1-20, DOI:
10.1080/10408390600948600

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Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 48:120 (2008)
Copyright
C Taylor and Francis Group, LLC
ISSN: 1040-8398
DOI: 10.1080/10408390600948600

Tamarind Seed: Properties,

Processing and Utilization

CHANDINI S. KUMAR and SILA BHATTACHARYA

Grain Science and Technology Department, Central Food Technological Research Institute, Mysore 570 020, India

Tamarind seed is an underutilized byproduct of the tamarind pulp industry. Only a small portion of the seed, in the form of
tamarind kernel powder (TKP), is used as a sizing material in the textile, paper, and jute industries. Though many applications
of this seed are possible, there have been hardly any other uses for it including using it as an additive in food formulations.
The excellent gelling cum adhesive characteristics of the decorticated seed powder can lead to several applications in food
and pharmaceutical industries which are evident by the number of research papers as well as patent applications. This article
thus focuses on the possibilities of using the seed in several food and non-food industries with particular reference to physical
and engineering properties, hydration behavior, rheological properties, functional and nutritional characteristics, and the
processing of the tamarind seed for wider applications.

Keywords tamarind seed, roasting, kinetics, physical properties, flow behavior, TKP, testa

INTRODUCTION
Tamarind (Tamarindus indica L.) is a member of the dicotyle-
donous family fabaceae (Leguminosae) (Chant, 1993). It grows
in more than 50 countries of the world. The major areas of pro-
duction are in Asian countries like India, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka,
Thailand, and Indonesia, and in the African and the American
continents. The tamarind tree is a long-lived, large evergreen
or semi-green tree, grows wild, though cultivated to a limited
extent. A mature tree may attain a maximum height of 30 m
(Jambulingam and Fernandes, 1986; Stross, 1995). The tamarind
tree has the ability to grow in poor soils because of their nitro-
gen fixing capability and withstanding long periods of drought
makes them ideal low input, high yielding trees (Felker, 1981;
Felker and Clark, 1980).
Tamarind is a multipurpose tree species; almost every part
of it finds some use. The fruit contains about 55% pulp, 34%
seed, and 11% shell, and the fiber in a pod (Rao and Srivastava,
1974). The fruit is pendulous, the pods are oblong or sausage
shaped, curved or straight, with rounded ends. The shell is light
greenish or scruffy brown and minutely scaly, often irregularly
constricted between seeds, brittle, and easily broken, if pressed.
It is filled with firm soft pulp surrounding the seed cavities.
The pulp is thick and blackish-brown in color (Coronel, 1991;
Purseglove, 1987).
Address correspondence to Sila Bhattacharya, Fax: (0821)-2517233, Tele-
phone: (0821)-2510843. E-mail: silabhat@yahoo.com
1
The fruit pulp is the chief souring agent for curries, sauces,
and certain beverages. Pods contain 110 seeds, irregularly
shaped, flattened, rhomboid, with the center of each flat side
of the seed marked with a large center depression. The seeds are
very hard, shiny, reddish, or purplish brown. They are embedded
in the pulp, lined with a tough parched like membrane, and joined
to each other with tough fibers (Purseglove, 1987). Tamarind
seed is a by-product of the tamarind pulp industry. The presence
of tannin and other coloring matter in the testa makes the whole
seed unsuitable for consumption (Rao and Srivastava, 1974).
The major industrial product of tamarind seed is the tamarind
kernel powder (TKP) which is an important sizing material used
in the textile, paper, and jute industries.
India produces about 0.3 million tons of tamarind yearly, of
which the seed constitutes about 3034% of the whole fruit.
The potential for exporting tamarind from India in the past 5
years shows a good market for tamarind, especially in the Gulf
Countries and Europe. The intrinsic value of raw tamarind can
be further enhanced through value addition activities and there is
a good market for these processed products both in the domestic
as well as in international circuits.
Tamarind pulp and seed are widely accepted as cheap sources
of raw materials for industrial purposes though at present the pro-
duction and export is limited to a handful of countries (Gunasena
and Hughes, 2000). The processing techniques, particularly the
removal of pulp from the pod or seeds from the pulp, and han-
dling and storage of the seed and the pulp are practiced in a
traditional manner of the growing region or country. These pro-
cessing techniques, already available in one place, have not been
2 C. S. KUMAR AND S. BHATTACHARYA

disseminated among other places or countries in a scientific and
systematic manner. Product development and diversification are
also required for commercial exploitation.
Tamarind seed is a typical underutilized raw material in the
places where it is grown but there is a scope to make it more use-
ful. The proper use of the seed may fetch better return to the pulp
processing industries that in turn may help the people who gather
or even cultivate the tree. A few reviews have appeared in the
literature on tamarind (Lefebvre, 1971; Lewis and Neelakantan,
1964; Hasan and Ijaz, 1972; Shankaracharya, 1998; Gunasena
and Hughes, 2000) but there is still a need for an updated ver-
sion on the chemical composition, the processing technique, and
the products derived from tamarind seeds. The present review
critically analyses these aspects of the tamarind seed.
PROPERTIES OF TAMARIND SEED
The study of the chemical composition as well as of the phys-
ical and engineering properties of the tamarind seed and the
kernel is essential for the development of useful extracted raw
materials and blended foods, in the design and operation of the
processing equipment, the removal of the seed coat, grinding
into powder, and for storage. Data concerning these aspects are
scarce.
Physical and Engineering Properties
Some important physical and engineering properties of
tamarind seed are determined (Bhattacharya et al., 1993) such
as, shape, size, density, length, breadth, thickness, sphericity,
roundness, surface area, average weight and volume per seed,
angle of repose and angle of friction (Table 1). The shape of the
Table 1 Physical properties of tamarind seed
whole tamarind seed does not confirm to any of the standard
shapes of seeds as mentioned by Mohsenin (1986). The round-
ness and sphericity of the seed is given by equations (1) and (2),
respectively.
Roundness = Ap /Ac (1)
Sphericity = (abc)1/3 /a (2)
Here, Ap is the largest projected area of the object in natural
rest position (mm2 ), Ac is the area of the smallest circumscribing
circle (mm2 ), and a, b, and c respectively indicate the longest
intercept, longest intercept normal to a, and the longest intercept
normal to a and b (mm). The roundness of the tamarind seed
ranges from 0.51 to 0.78, and the sphericity ranged from 0.68 to
0.77 for tamarind seeds collected in West Bengal, India having a
moisture content of 11.3 1.4% (wet basis). The length, breadth,
and the thickness of the whole seed were 14.4 1.7, 10.5 0.9,
and 6.3 0.8 mm, respectively. The bulk density of tamarind
seed is slightly higher for whole raw seed (821 to 840 kgm3 )
than for the roasted kernel (760 to 771 kgm3 ). The difference
is due to the marginal expansion in volume and loss of moisture
from the raw seed during the roasting operation (Bhattacharya
et al., 1993).
The weight and volume per seed are 0.69 0.15 g and 480
90 mm3 , respectively for the whole seed; for the kernel, the cor-
responding values are 0.55 0.08 g and 450 60 mm3 . Volume
per seed or the decorticated kernel can be obtained from Eq (3)
employing the conventional method of determining bulk density.
Here, the volume of 100 seeds/kernels was first noted by putting
them into a graduated cylinder. Later, an inert liquid of known
volume was poured to fill the empty spaces among the seeds.
Volume/seed or kernel = (V V1 )/100 (3)

Maximum Minimum where V is the average volume of tamarind seed or kernel (mm3 )
Physical property Unit Value value Mean SD and V1 is the volume of liquid required (mm3 ) to fill the empty
Length mm 17.3 10.8 14.4 1.7 spaces. The porosity or void fraction, as determined by using Eq
Breadth mm 12.6 8.2 10.5 0.9 (4), is marginally different for the raw whole seed and the roasted
Thickness mm 7.5 4.5 6.3 0.8 kernel; the values are 40.2 and 40.9%, respectively. The porosity
Maximum mm 19.6 13.1 17.9 2.4 of tamarind seed resembles that of Bengal gram and corn, but it
dimension
is significantly less than that of other common cereals such as
(amax )
Average g 1.18 0.57 0.69 0.15 wheat, oat, and paddy (Chakraverty and De, 1981).
weight/seed (w)
Average mm3 690 430 480 90 Void fraction or porosity (%) = (V1 /V) 100 (4)
volume/seed (v)
Projected area (A) mm2 133 82 122 21
Perimeter (P) mm 48.0 37.0 43.2 3.3 The total surface area per seed, as determined from Eq (5),
Total surface area mm2 685 441 537 69 are from 441 to 685 mm2 .
(S)
Sphericity (SP) Dimensionless 0.77 0.68 0.73 0.03
Roundness (RD) Dimensionless 0.78 0.51 0.72 0.10 S = 2A + P c (5)
Reprinted from Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd, Bhattacharya, S., Bal, S.,
Mukherjee, R.K., and Bhattacharya, S. Some physical and engineering prop-
where P is the perimeter of the tamarind seed (mm), c is the
erties of tamarind (Tamarindus indica) seed, 84, 1993, with permission from thickness of tamarind seed (mm), A is projected area of the seed
Elsevier. (mm2 ), and S is the total surface area of the seed (mm2 ).
 TAMARIND SEED 3

The angle of repose, as determined by stacking the seeds

(Mohsenin, 1986), for roasted kernel is between 34 and 39 ,
and that of raw whole seed is 31 to 35 ; the angle of friction are
21 to 23 for smooth surface, and 30 to 31 for rough surface
(Bhattacharya et al., 1993).

Hydration Behavior of Tamarind Seed

To use tamarind seed in foods, it is important to remove the

testa of the seed completely which is usually done by roast-
ing followed by decortication from the edible kernel so as to
avoid undesirable effects such as depression, constipation, and
diarrhea (Rao and Srivastava, 1974). Apart from the roasting-
decortication process, the hydration of the tamarind seed in wa-
ter followed by drying is an alternative process for removing
the testa (Anon, 1977). The advantage of this method is that it
can produce ivory white powder which is desirable as a sizing
material for the jute and textile industries (Bhattacharya, 1997).
The hydration characteristics of unpunched and punched
seeds at different temperature are shown in Figure 1(a) and (b).
For both types of seeds, the moisture uptake is high in the ini-
tial phase of hydration. This is due to immediate filling of the
void space between the seed coat and the kernel. Water gets an
easy passage into the void space in punched seeds (Bhattacharya
et al., 1997). Punching of the seed increases the hydration rate
constant and the equilibrium moisture content but reduces the
activation energy for hydration compared to unpunched seeds.
There is a fairly uniform increase in the moisture absorption
with temperature. The hydration rate constant values for the un-
punched seeds are 0.13, 0.16, 0.18, 0.31, and 0.38 h1 at hydra-
tion temperatures of 25, 35, 50, 65, and 85 C, respectively. The
corresponding values for the punched seeds are 0.37, 0.40, 0.41,
0.43, and 0.52 h1 , respectively. There is a marked increase in
the moisture content, between 50 and 65 C (Figure 2). The equi-
librium moisture content also increases linearly (r 0.95, p
0.01) with an increase in the hydration temperature (Figure 3).
The hydration equation for the moisture transfer, as pro-
posed by Bhattacharya et al. (1997) by combining the ef-
fect of temperature and time of hydration, is shown in
Eq (6).

   
M Ms E
= exp A exp (6)
M0 M s RT

where A is the frequency factor (h1 ), E is the activation energy

(J mol1 ), R is the Universal gas constant (8.314 Jmol1 K1 ), T
is the hydration temperature (K), and is the time of hydration
(h). The terms M, M0 , and Ms denote the moisture contents at
any time t, initial, and at saturation, respectively. Punching of
the seed improves the hydration ability and is suitable where the
seed coat tenaciously adheres to the kernel.
Figure 1 Moisture content of (a) unpunched and (b) punched tamarind seed
during hydration at different temperatures. (a) Reprinted from Elsevier Science
Publishers Ltd., Bhattacharya, S., Bal, S., Mukherjee, R. K., and Bhattacharya, S.
Kinetics of Tamarind seed hydration, 131, 1997, with permission from Elsevier.
(b) Reprinted from Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd., Bhattacharya, S., Bal, S.,
Mukherjee, R. K., and Bhattacharya, S. Kinetics of Tamarind seed hydration,
132, 1997, with permission from Elsevier.
4 C. S. KUMAR AND S. BHATTACHARYA

Figure 3 Arrhenius plot of punched and unpunched seeds. Source:

Bhattacharya, 1990 (Unpublished data).

Figure 2 Equilibrium moisture content of tamarind seed as a function of hy-
dration temperature. Reprinted from Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd., Bhat-
tacharya, S., Bal, S., Mukherjee, R. K., and Bhattacharya, S. Kinetics of
Tamarind seed hydration, 135, 1997, with permission from Elsevier.
Rheological Behavior of Tamarind Kernel Powder (TKP)
Dispersions
The flow properties of the tamarind kernel powder, its deriva-
tives and their blends with maize starch have been studied by
Prabhanjan and Ali (1995). The pasting and the flow prop-
erties of cooked dispersions of TKP, its carboxymethyl and
hydroxypropyl derivatives, exhibit shear thinning flow behav-
ior characteristics. Chemical modification decreases the shear

The flow behavior of TKP dispersion in water is an im-

portant functional property in characterizing the material, the
product development, and for the design of the processing
units. The rheological behavior of TKP dispersion has been
studied by Bhattacharya et al. (1991), Prabhanjan and Ali
(1995), Prabhanjan (1989), Yamanaka et al. (2000) and Salazar-
Montoyo et al. (2002). The effects of concentration (2, 4, 6, 8, and
10% TKP powder) on the flow behavior index, the consistency
index, and the apparent viscosity are investigated. They behave
like non-Newtonian, shear-thinning fluids (Figure 4) with yield
stresses. The yield stress values are low at low concentrations of
TKP but become prominent at high concentrations. An increase
in TKP concentration increases the non-Newtonian behavior,
i.e., the flow behavior index diminishes, whereas the consis-
tency index, the yield stress, and the apparent viscosity increase
(Figure 5). The HerschelBulkley model (Eq 7) can adequately
fit the shear stressshear rate data (r 0.99, p 0.01).

= 0 + k n (7)
Figure 4 Rheogram of TKP dispersions at different concentrations. Reprinted
where is shear stress (mPa),
.
0 is yield stress (mPa), k is from Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd., Bhattacharya, S., Bal, S., Mukherjee, R.,
consistency index (mPasn ), is shear rate (s1 ) and n is the flow and Bhattacharya, S. Rheological behavior of tamarind (Tamarindus indica)
behavior index. kernel powder suspension, 154, 1991, with permission from Elsevier.
 TAMARIND SEED 5

(a)
25
(b)
0.9
Yield stress, mPas

20

Flow behaviour index, (-)

15
0.8

10

0.7
5

0
0.6
2 4 6 8 10
2 4 6 8 10
TKP Concentration, % TKP Concentration, %

(d)
12
(c) 8

7 Apparent Viscosity (mpas ) 10

Consistency index (mpasn)

6 8
5
6
4
3 4
2
2
1
0 0
2 4 6 8 10 2 4 6 8 10
TKP Concentration % TKP Concentration %

Figure 5 Effect of TKP concentration on (a) yield stress (b) flow behavior index (c) consistency index and (d) apparent viscosity. (a) Reprinted from Elsevier
Science Publishers Ltd., Bhattacharya, S., Bal, S., Mukherjee, R., and Bhattacharya, S. Rheological behavior of tamarind (Tamarindus indica) kernel powder sus-
pension, 155, 1991, with permission from Elsevier. (b) Reprinted from Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd., Bhattacharya, S., Bal, S., Mukherjee, R., and Bhattacharya,
S. Rheological behavior of tamarind (Tamarindus indica) kernel powder suspension, 155, 1991, with permission from Elsevier. (c) Reprinted from Elsevier Science
Publishers Ltd., Bhattacharya, S., Bal, S., Mukherjee, R., and Bhattacharya, S. Rheological behavior of tamarind (Tamarindus indica) kernel powder suspension,
155, 1991, with permission from Elsevier. (d) Reprinted from Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd., Bhattacharya, S., Bal, S., Mukherjee, R., and Bhattacharya, S.
Rheological behavior of tamarind (Tamarindus indica) kernel powder suspension, 156, 1991, with permission from Elsevier.

dependence characteristics of viscosity as the degree of substitu-
tion increases. The TKP derivatives show maximum association
with a 10% starch concentration blend. As the pasting temper-
ature of the blend is increased, the pseudoplasticity and yield
stress show a decreasing trend as a function of the degree of
solubility. At high levels of modification, the extent of associa-
tion decreases. These authors have explained this phenomenon
on the basis of molecular association of the seed gum and its
derivatives with starch molecules.
Prabhanjan (1989) has studied the different properties of
modified TKP. Sodium salt of o-carboxymethyl derivatives of
TKP, at different levels of substitution has been prepared in an
isopropanol medium. The derivatives are characterized by the
degree of substitution (DS), the intrinsic viscosity, and the elu-
tion profile. Alkaline solutions, purified by alcohol precipitation,
show a higher intrinsic viscosity due to an alkali soluble frac-
tion. Dispersion properties of the derivatives as a function of DS
are found to be affected both by the substituent groups as well
as by the alkali used for derivatization. The swelling power, the
solubility and tolerance to organic solvents of the derivatives
increase with increasing carboxymethylation. The interaction
properties of TKP with calcium chloride and sodium tetraborate
are reported to be reversed upon carboxymethylation.
Yamanaka et al. (2000) have studied the gelation and rheo-
logical properties of tamarind seed xyloglucan in the presence of
ethanol. Xyloglucan undergoes thermo-reversible gelation in the
6 C. S. KUMAR AND S. BHATTACHARYA

presence of ethanol at lower temperatures. The dynamic oscil- Table 2 Proximate composition of tamarind seed, kernel, and testa
lation properties (storage modulus, G and loss modulus, G ) of Whole Seed kernel Testa
tamarind gels, and the influence of saccharose and polysaccha- Constituent seed (%) (cotyledons) (%) (seed coat) (%)
ride concentrations are studied (Salazar-Montoyo et al., 2002).
Moisture 9.411.3 11.422.7 11.0
The gels of tamarind seed polysaccharide present a storage mod- Protein 13.326.9 15.020.9
ulus greater than the loss modulus indicating the prevalence Fat/oil 4.516.2 3.916.2
of elastic character. The relationship of the storage modulus Crude fiber 7.48.8 2.58.2 21.6
(G ) and the loss modulus (G ) with frequency can be used Carbohydrates 50.057.0 65.172.2
as the characteristic property of a strong gel. Its native macro- Total ash 1.604.2 2.44.2 7.4
Nitrogen free extract 59.0
scopic form is maintained even after shearing. Saccharose favors Yield of TKP 50.060.0
the association of the polymeric chains and increases storage Calories/100g 340.3
modulus. Total sugar 11.325.3
Polyose has been isolated from TKP (50% yield) by alco- Reducing sugar 7.4
hol extraction of an acidified boiled aqueous extract, which has Tannin 20.2
been subsequently dried and pulverized (Marathe et al., 2002). Source : {ICUC} Copyright, Gunasena and Hughes, Tamarind (Tamarindus
The gelling behavior of polyose and its blend with pectin has indica), 2000.
been studied in a 65 Brix sucrose solution as a function of pH
and concentration; 1% pectin gives a good firm gel, whereas whole fruit. The seed comprises of the seed coat or testa (20
80:20 and 60:40 blends of polyose/pectin give a firm gel at a 30%) and the kernel or endosperm (7080%). The proximate
concentration between 1.5 and 2.0%. A blend of pectin/polyose compositions of the whole seed, the kernel, and testa are shown
gives a good set at 2.0% beyond which the jellies are hard and in Table 2. The whole seed is rich in proteins (1320%) while
difficult to chew. The 2% polyose from TKP can adequately sub- the seed coat is rich in fiber (20%). Shankaracharya (1998) men-
stitute 1% pectin in ready-to-eat jelly formulations. This can be tions that the whole seed contains 131.3 g crude protein, 67.1 g
an economical alternative to pectin as a gelling agent provided crude fiber, 48.2 g crude fat, and 56.2 g tannins per kg of seed,
the local food laws permit such use. The gel strength of polyose and trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) of 10.8. The trypsin inhibitor
as a function of concentration shows that 3.5% polyose at a pH activity is higher in the pulp than in the seed, but both are heat
of 3 gives the strongest gel. An increase in the concentration labile. Ishola et al. (1990) report that the seed also contains 47
increases the gel strength, whereas an increase in pH results in mg of phytic acid/100 g seed which has a minimal effect on
a weaker gels with lower gel strength (Marathe et al., 2002). its nutritive value. The crude protein and nitrogen free extracts
Okuno (1989) claims a patented method for imparting heat comprise 15.5 and 59% of the seed, respectively. Pentose sugars
stability to dessert and jelly with high sugar content. Claims constitute approximately 20% of the soluble sugars. Mannose
are also made that it can prevent the formation of a sol during (1735%) and glucose (1180%) are the principal soluble sug-
heating by using tamarind seed polysaccharides together with ars. Inositol and sugar alcohol are also present (Marangoni et al.,
gelan gum. The latter can be used together with tamarind seed 1988). Alkali extraction of the seeds shows that about 70% of the
polysaccharide or the resultant blend containing both can be used proteins are extractable. The protein isolated is relatively high in
together with other pastes (e.g., xanthan gum, pullulan dextran, lysine (406 mg/g N), phenylalanine and tyrosine (520 mg/g N),
curdlan, alginic acid, or guar gum). The amount of gelan gum and leucine (496 mg/g N). The seeds are an important source
used is preferably between 0.001 and 0.1% (w/w). of protein and valuable amino acids (Shankaracharya, 1998).
Shimohiro (1981) claims a patented method for the produc- Albumins and globulins constitute the bulk of the seed proteins.
tion of an industrial paste using tamarind seed powder solubi- The seed is also rich in cysteine and methionine but threonine
lized in cold water. Tamarind seed powder has been heated with and tryptophan are limiting amino acids (Table 3). The essential
water at 90 C or above, preferably between 120 and 180 C, amino acid index for the seed protein is 71.5% relative to the
for 1020 min to make the powder soluble in cold water. The FAO pattern (1973). From the content of sulphur amino acids,
gelation behavior of mixtures of the tamarind seed xyloglucan 3.5% is equally divided between methionine and cysteine, and
has been investigated by Nitta et al., 2003. The storage and loss is usually high for legumes, while its high lysine content is sim-
moduli, G and G of the mixtures, show that a thermoreversible ilar to that of many food legumes, such as soybean, chickpea,
gel has been obtained. The synergistic interaction of the mixture groundnut, and cowpea (de Lumen et al., 1986). The amino acid
of tamarind xyloglucan is also revealed by differential scanning analysis of tamarind seed protein, conducted by Bhattacharya
electrometry and circular dichroism. et al. (1994a) shows that it is rich in glutamic acid, aspartic
acid, glycine, and leucine but deficient in sulphur containing
amino acids (methionine and cysteine). The proportions of hy-
Composition of the Tamarind Seed drophobic amino acids (alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, and
phenylalanine) and hydrophilic amino acids (lysine, histidine,
The composition of tamarind seed varies widely with variety aspartic acid, glutamic acid, and arginine) are 28.2 and 42.3%,
and the extent of maturity. The seeds form about 30% of the respectively (Bhattacharya et al., 1994a).
 TAMARIND SEED 7

Table 3 Amino acid content of tamarind and some food legumes, mg/g N Table 5 Fatty acid composition of tamarind seed oil

Amino Acid Tamarind Groundnut Cowpea Chickpea Soybean Fatty acids Percentage

Isoleucine 313 211 239 277 284 Palmitic 1420

Leucine 531 400 440 468 486 Stearic 67
Lysine 475 221 427 428 399 Oleic 1527
Methionine 113 72 73 65 79 Linoleic 3649
Cystine 106 78 68 74 83 Arachidic 24
Phenylalanine 318 311 323 358 309 Behenic 35
Tyrosine 287 244 163 183 196 Lignoceric 38
Threonine 200 163 225 235 241 Sterols
Tryptophan 65 68 80 Beta sitosterol of total sterols 6672
Valine 306 261 283 284 300 Campesterol 1619
Arginine 450 697 400 588 452 Stigmasterol 1114
Histidine 143 148 204 165 158
Alanine 312 243 257 271 266 Source : {ICUC} Copyright, Gunasena and Hughes, Tamarind (Tamarindus
Aspartic 768 712 689 725 731 indica), 2000.
Glutamic 1056 1141 1027 991 1169
Glycine 331 349 234 251 261 is 14.9 0.6 (Bhattacharya et al., 1994a); roasting markedly
Proline 287 272 244 263 343
decreases the foam capacity. The FC values for the concentrates
Serine 350 299 268 318 320
are about 33% for rice bran (Bera and Mukherjee, 1989), 56%
Source : {ICUC} Copyright, Gunasena and Hughes, Tamarind (Tamarindus for soybean meal, and 75% and 80%, respectively for defatted
indica), 2000. groundnut flour and protein concentrate. The roasted meal shows
a marked decrease (about 40%) in foam volume compared to raw
The edible seed kernel is rich in phosphorus, potassium, samples.
and magnesium (Table 4). However, the calcium content is in The emulsifying capacity (EC) (Beuchat et al., 1975) of raw
comparison with other cultivated legumes (Bhattacharya et al., and roasted kernel meal, and freeze dried raw and roasted ker-
1994a). nel has been reported. Raw meal has an EC value of 122.0
The seed kernel is also a rich source of oil (Table 5). The 3.1 whereas it is 107.8 2.2 for the roasted meal. A two gram
major fatty acids are palmitic, oleic, and linoleic (Andriamanan- sample and 23 ml distilled water are mixed for 30 s in a lab-
tena et al., 1983). The lipids contain a relatively large proportion oratory blender. After complete dispersion, refined groundnut
of unsaturated fatty acids with linoleic acid (3649%) in high- oil has been added from a burette with continuous mixing till a
est concentration. Other major fatty acids are oleic (1527%), visual separation of the aqueous and the oil phase is observed;
and palmitic acid (1420%). Several hydrocarbons such as EC values are reported as milliliters of oil emulsified per 100 g
amyrin, campesterol, and -sitosterol have been identified in the of sample. The EC of raw and roasted protein concentrates are
unsaponifiable matter of the seeds (Table 5). 68.7 2.4 and 51.7 1.6, respectively. Roasting reduces the EC
values indicating that only a small amount of fat can be emulsi-
fied by the kernel protein obtained after roasting. Denaturation
Functional and Nutritional Properties of Tamarind Kernel
of protein owing to heating (roasting) may be responsible for
Protein
the decrease in the EC values. Defatted samples exhibit higher
EC values than the concentrates.
The foam capacities (FC) of raw and roasted meal are 21.9 The water absorbing capacity (WAC) for raw and roasted
1.1 and 10.8 0.4%, respectively. Raw protein concentrate has tamarind kernel meal is 245.7 6.2 and 196.6 5.0, respec-
a FC value of 28.3 0.6 and that of roasted protein concentrate tively; the WAC values for raw and roasted protein concentrates
are 336.0 8.1 and 324.1 8.3, respectively. The WAC of
Table 4 Mineral content of tamarind pulp, seed, kernel, and testa
the protein concentrate is more than the raw meal because pro-
Mineral mg/100 g Pulp Seed Kernel Testa tein concentrates being rich in protein content, have more hy-
Calcium 81.0466.0 9.3786.0 120.0 100.0
drophilic groups exposed than the meals. Bull and Breese (1968)
Phosphorus 86.0190.0 68.4165.0 have reported a linear relationship between the content of the hy-
Magnesium 72.0 17.5118.3 180.0 120.0 drophilic groups of a protein and WAC.
Potassium 62.0570.0 272.8610.0 1020.0 240.0 The nitrogen solubility index (NSI) of raw meal attains the
Sodium 3.076.7 19.228.8 210.0 240.0 lowest value of 15% at about a pH of 4. The NSI values are high
Copper 21.8 1.619.0
Iron 1.310.9 6.5 80.0 80.0
at highly acidic and alkaline pHs. The maximum solubility of
Zinc 1.1 2.8 100.0 120.0 about 74% has been observed at a pH of 10. The NSI value for
Nickel 0.5 roasted meal is smaller than those obtained in raw meals; they
Manganese 0.9 are higher in magnitude between pH 6 and 10 while showing
Source : {ICUC} Copyright, Gunasena and Hughes, Tamarind (Tamarindus a minimum value at a pH of 4. The NSI values for raw seed
indica), 2000. proteins show a maximum solubility of about 70% at a pH of
8 C. S. KUMAR AND S. BHATTACHARYA
10; the minimum solubility has been observed at a pH of 4 for
both raw and roasted tamarind kernel meal, TKM (Bhattacharya
et al., 1994a).
The in vitro protein digestibility of kernel protein is 69.1%,
which is lower compared to edible beans (Hsu et al., 1977),
possibly due to the presence of protease inhibitors in the seeds
of tamarind, or may be due to the nature of the protein present
in it (Marangoni et al., 1988). Experiments at the Central Food
Technological Research Institute, Mysore, India show that
substituting 25% of rice in a mice diet with TKP improves the
growth promoting value of the diet (Anon, 1955). Investigations
conducted at the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, India
show the possibilities of TKP being used as fodder. Feeding
experiments on bullocks for long periods with TKP have shown
that they put on weight and there are no adverse effects. Using
kernels for feeding up to a third of the total fodder given has been
recommended (Anon, 1955). It is also found that TKP can suc-
ceed starch in several non-food industries to release food grains
for human consumption. The kernel powder does not show any
toxic ingredients in it. Iida et al. (1978) have studied feeding and
toxicity studies of tamarind seed polyose in rats for two years.
Tamarind seed polysaccharide (glyloid) has been incorporated
at levels of 4, 8, and 12% in a standard commercial diet and
feed ad lib, to male and female rats. No significant changes are
noted in the behavior, mortality, body weight, food intake, bio-
chemical analysis of urine and blood, hematological test, organ
weight, and histopathological findings of rats receiving glyloid.
Tamarind seed polysaccharide is not mutagenic in either in vitro
chromosomal aberration tests using Chinese hamster fibroblast
cell line (Ishidate et al., 1985) or the Salmonella typhimurium
reverse mutation assay (Ames tests) (Sivaswamy et al., 1991)
and is also not toxic or carcinogenic in rats (Iida et al., 1978).
The carcinogenic potential of tamarind seed polysaccharide has
been examined by Sano et al. (1996) in both sexes of B6C3F1
mice. Groups of 50 male and 50 female animals are given diets
containing 0, 1.2%, and 5% of tamarind seed polysaccharide
for 78 weeks. Body weight retardation has been exhibited by
the females in the 1.2% and 5% groups from 34 weeks to termi-
nation. However, there are no treatment-related clinical signs or
adverse effects on the survival rate, the food, and the water con-
sumption, or the hematology findings or organ weights. Detailed
histopathological examination also reveals no treatment related
increase in the incidence of any neoplastic or non-neoplastic
lesions. These results demonstrate that tamarind seed polysac-
charide is not carcinogenic in mice of B6C3F1 in either sex.
Separation of Tamarind Seed Fractions
Isolation, purification, and fractionation of tamarind ker-
nel polysaccharide have been conducted by Chakraverti et al.
(1961). The method of purification of polysaccharide uses the
following principles: (a) solubilization or alternative precipita-
tion of either the polysaccharide or the albuminoid components
(b) selective adsorption (+ve or ve) of one of the components
with Fullers earth or kaolin at different pHs (c) solubilization of
the proteins by heat, denaturation, and coagulation followed by
extraction of the polysaccharides and (d) preparation of metallic
complexes of the polysaccharide followed by the regeneration
of the purified product (Chakraverti et al., 1961). The copper
complex as obtained above is insoluble in water and alkali but
is readily soluble in ammonia, and in mineral and organic acids.
The product is resistant to microorganisms and the copper con-
tent can vary between 5 and 6%.
A process for the production of polysaccharide from tamarind
seed has been reported by Kenji (1988). Tamarind seed is ground
into powder and agitated in an aqueous solvent to separate
into upper and lower layers taking advantage of sedimentation
rate differences based on powder particle size; the powder in
the lower layer is separated, thus obtaining the polysaccharide.
Claim has been made that this process gives highly pure and
high yield of polysaccharide, which can be used as a thicken-
ing or gelling agent in foods, paper making, textile fibers, etc
(Shimohiro et al., 1985). Jones (1979), and Keisuke (1983), have
developed a process for the purification of tamarind gum by air
classification.
Masayoshi (1984) developed a method of dissolving tamarind
seed powder in water in the presence of an organic compound
consisting of a cation and an anion at room temperature under
stirring for 0.51.0 h. In an alternative process, tamarind seed
powder was dissolved by stirring it in water in the presence of
urea/thiourea. The pasty liquid of 5% powder obtained by this
method is a light brown, opaque liquid having excellent fluid-
ity and claims have been made to possess better water holding
capacity and flow characteristics than that of the pasty liquid
obtained by heating and dissolving the said powder in water.
Okuno (1989) developed a method for imparting heat stabil-
ity to tamarind polysaccharide that can be used in dessert, gel,
jelly with a high sugar content, jelly/jam, marmalade etc. and to
prevent the formation of a sol during heating by using tamarind
seed polysaccharide together with gelan gum, and a blend con-
taining both together with other pastes (eg., xanthan gum, guar
gum, pullulan, dextran, etc).
Bhattacharya et al. (1994a) described a method for the isola-
tion of tamarind protein concentrate from TKP. The procedure
involves the mixing of defatted TKP with 1(M) NaCl solution
and the pH of the solution was adjusted to about 10. After stir-
ring for 30 min, the mixture was centrifuged at 6000 rpm for
15 min and then extracted twice with 1(M) NaCl solution. The
supernatant was brought to a pH of 4.6 (isoelectric pH), and
ammonium sulphate (salting out phenomenon) was added to the
saturate at which point proteins of TKP was precipitated. The
suspension was centrifuged at 8000 rpm for 20 min to obtain
the precipitated protein. The precipitated protein was purified
by dialysis.
The process for the production of the purified tamarind seed
component has been developed by Mochida (1985). Purified
seed component is produced having a thickening cum stabiliz-
ing action, gelling action, etc. Improved transparency of aque-
ous solution is useful in the field of food and paper making by
 TAMARIND SEED
washing tamarind seed powder with organic solvent and later
extracting the powder with water. Water is added to extract the
seed component under heating preferably at 7095 C. The re-
sultant extract is filtered and the filtrate is dried or a hydrophilic
organic solvent, eg. methanol or acetone has been added to the
filtrate. The precipitate formed is collected to give the desired
components.
Savur (1955) developed a process of manufacturing tamarind
polyose by a process that may be termed as a cold process. The
product thus obtained by this method gives 100% alcohol precip-
itate expressed as moisture free basis. The polyose has a better
finish than the fruit pectins and it is free from the typical unde-
sirable odor of TKP. The process embodies a novel method of
bringing the nonpolyose materials from TKP into homogenous
aqueous solutions at room temperature, without the application
of heat. While the mixture of polyose is maintained in an insolu-
ble state, without causing coagulation or gelatinization whereby
the two components are separated either by dilution or directly
by dialysis. The polyose prepared by the above method can be
brought into solution by merely spraying it on cold water which
has been kept constantly stirring followed by heating for a few
minutes. The polyose obtained by the cold process is a color-
less and tasteless product, and therefore, its addition does not in
any way affect the natural flavor and taste of the fruit products
prepared out of it. The polyose can be set even without acid.
Tamarind Seed Xyloglucan
The xyloglucan of tamarind seed, which is called tamarind
gum, is commercially available as a food additive for im-
proving the viscosity and the texture of processed foods.
Tamarind seed xyloglucan is a branched heteropolysac-
charide having -(14)-linked D-glucan backbone chain
that is partially substituted at the 0-6 position of the D-
glucopyranosyl residues with -D-xylopyranose or with 2-0--
D-galactopyranosyl -D-xylopyranose. Cellulase digestion of
tamarind gum gives heptasaccharide (XG07,Glc:Xyl=4:3), oc-
tasaccharide (XG08,Glc:Gal:xyl = 4:1:3), and nanosaccharide
(XG09, Glc:Gal:xyl = 4:2:3) in fairly good yield (Sone and Sato,
1994). Xyloglucan oligosaccharides so obtained are measured
by a competitive ELISA method using antibodies raised against
a complex of BSA and xyloglucan monosaccharides measured in
the range of 0.1 to 40 nmol/well. In the assay of ELISA method,
a plate is used to measure the quantity of the xyloglucan and the
plate contains 96 wells or holes.
Oriented samples of the xyloglucan polysaccharide from
tamarind seed have been examined using X-ray diffraction pe-
riodicities indexing on a spacing of 2.06 nm are observed along
the chain direction. This value is twice that reported for cellulose
and is commensurate with four -1,4 linked glucose residues.
Flat ribbon like two-fold helical models for the -1,4 linked
polyglucose backbone, with two possible schemes for decora-
tion with xylose and galactose side groups, are proposed (Iain
et al., 1985).
9
The borohydride reduced forms (oligoglycosyl alditols) of
two isomeric octasaccharides (Glc4 Xyl3) that are released from
xyloglucans of various plant species upon treatment with a fun-
gal endo--glucanase are isolated and structurally characterized.
A mixture of oligosaccharide that is released from tamarind
seed xyloglucan by the endo-glucanase is digested with a com-
mercially available -galactosidase (Aspergillus Niger). The -
galactosidase selectively hydrolyses the galactosyl residue of
one of the two isomeric octasaccharides present in the mixture.
A homogenous preparation of the -galactosidase resistant oc-
tasaccharide is prepared by high resolution gel permeation chro-
matography of the enzyme digestion products. Spectroscopic
characterization of the oligoglycosyl alditol prepared by reduc-
tion of this octasaccharide confirms the previously proposed
structure that has been based on analysis of the mixture of iso-
meric octasaccharide. The availability of large amounts of the
pure reduced octasaccharide and pentasaccharide make it possi-
ble to completely assign their 1 H and 13 C NMR spectra. In addi-
tion, the borohydride reduced form of the beta-D-galactosidase
susceptible octasaccharide isomer has been purified by high pH
anion exchange chromatography of the endo--glucanase re-
leases octasaccharides from rape seed xyloglucan and its 1 H
and 13 C NMR spectra are assigned (York et al., 1993). York
et al., in 1990, have developed a method to determine rapidly
the identities and proportions of the oligosaccharide repeating
units in plant cell wall xyloglucans. The correlation between
the 1 H-NMR spectra and the structures of the oligoglycosyl-
alditols can be used to identify oligoglycosyl-alditols derived
from xyloglucans of unknown structure. The identities and rela-
tive amounts of the oligosaccharide subunits of xyloglucan iso-
lated from tamarind seed are determined on this basis.
To improve the solubilization of tamarind seed xyloglucans,
a pressure cell heating method has been used by Picout et al.,
2003. Conditions allowing solubilization and chain depolymer-
ization are produced by appropriately varying the pressure, the
time, and the temperature applied. The various fractions of sol-
ubilized xyloglucans are characterized by capillary viscometry
and light scattering techniques. Mark-Houwink and Flory expo-
nents have been found to be 0.67 0.04 and 0.51 0.06. The
tamarind gum solutions are slightly perturbed by the effect of ex-
cluded volume. Chain flexibility parameters, characteristic ratio
C , and persistence length Lp are calculated for tamarind using
the Burchard-Stockmayer Fixman (BSF) geometric method; Lp
values of 68 nm have been estimated for xyloglucan. The seem-
ingly linear structure of tamarind suggested by the value of the
Mark-Houwink and Flory exponents obtained follows from the
analysis of the data by the classical Zinm method but not when
employing the square root or Berry method which suggests a
more branched profile.
Uses of Tamarind Seed
There are many possible uses for tamarind seed in food as
well as in non-food industries. Tamarind seed or kernel is a
byproduct of tamarind pulp industry. Tamarind seed kernels are
10 C. S. KUMAR AND S. BHATTACHARYA
generally used to obtain tamarind kernel powder (TKP). TKP
came into commercial production in 1943 as a replacement for
starch in the cotton industry as a sizing material in the Indian
textile market (Gerad, 1980). Some of the uses of tamarind seed
have been summarized in Table 6.
Food Uses of Tamarind Seed
Tamarind decorticated seed kernels contains 46 to 48% of a
gel forming substance. Tamarind seed polysaccharide is termed
as jellose or polyose and is found to be superior to other
methods of fruit preservation. The substance gelatinizes with
sugar concentrates even in cold water or milk (Savur, 1948).
The name jellose has been suggested for this polysaccharide as
it describes both its jelly forming properties and the carbohy-
drate character (Rao, 1948, 1956). Unlike fruit pectin, tamarind
seed polysaccharide can form gels over a wide range of pHs, in-
cluding neutral and basic conditions. Tamarind polysaccharides
are not affected by boiling in neutral aqueous solutions, even
if boiled for long periods. Fruit pectins undergo degradation on
boiling and fall to one-third of the original value after one hour
of boiling. Therefore, tamarind polysaccharide can be useful
as a gel forming agent, and may be substituted for fruit pectin.
Tamarind polysaccharide does not contain galacturonic acid and
methyluronate and is therefore regarded as true pectin; hence,
it is termed as jellose (Rao, 1948). Jellose can be prepared on a
large scale by adding TKP to 30 to 40 times its weight of boiling
water, containing citric or tartaric acid at a concentration of 0.2%.
It is then stirred vigorously and boiled for a further 3040 min.
The resultant solution is kept overnight for setting and the su-
pernatant liquid is siphoned off and concentrated under vacuum,
passed through filter press and then dried in a drum drier. The
resultant product is pulverized in a ball mill. A good sample of
jellose should have a relative viscosity which is somewhat higher
than that of corn starch. Jellose is much cheaper than corn starch
and is required only in smaller quantities (Gunasena and Hughes,
2000). Jellose may be used for the preparation of confectionery
products, salad dressings like mayonnaisefrozen desserts such
as ice cream and ice milk (Vinod, 1997). Polyose has good
film forming and gelling properties. Currently, purified refined
TKP is produced and is permitted in Japan in the trade name of
Glyloid as a thickening, stabilizing, and gelling agent in the
food industry (Gliksman, 1986). It is often used more effectively
in combination with other gums such as guar gum and alginate
(Yin and Lewis, 1981). Protein concentrates also have been made
from TKP (Rao and Subramanian, 1984). The isolated proteins
or TKP from roasted TKP can be used to prepare jelly, and for-
tified bread and biscuit (Bhattacharya, 1990 and Bhattacharya
et al., 1994b). Tamarind kernel powder can be supplemented
with other legume seeds to prepare nutritious balanced foods (de
Lumen et al., 1986). TKP may be used as a dehydrating agent
in making powdered products and as an emulsifying agent for
essential oils (Vinod, 1997). Tamarind seed coat extracts possess
good antioxidative properties. Tamarind seed coat, a byproduct
of tamarind powder making industries, can be used as a low-cost
source of antioxidant in lipid containing foods, oils, and fats.
Four antioxidants have been identified in the seed coat of Indian
tamarind, 2-hydroxy-3,4-dihydroxyacetophenone, methyl 3,4
dihydroxybenzoate, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetate, and epicate-
chin (Tsuda et al., 1994, 1995a, 1995b; Luengthanaphol et al.,
2004). The quality of dried food, frozen food, or gel type food
is improved by adding polysaccharide hydroxylates of tamarind
seeds or xyloglucan oligosaccharides (Shimohiro, 1995).
Heat resistant gels for food using tamarind seed are manu-
factured. TKP can be used as a film forming gum for the ex-
tension of shelf-life of fish (Shetty et al., 1996) and also as an
effective preservative for the storage of pineapple (Chen et al.,
1988). Emulsions containing -carrageenan and polysaccha-
rides from tamarind seeds are also better stabilized for products
like milk preparations such as skim milk, butter, instant cof-
fee, glucose fructose syrup, etc. (Kawaguchi et al., 1989). Water
release is prevented if tamarind seed gum, guar gum, and/or
locust bean gum are used in soybean curd (Veda et al., 1992).
TKP is also used in the preparation of xyloglucan by enzyme
treatment (Kuwano et al., 1995), as a health beverage (Tamura
et al., 1996), used in cakes (Goto et al., 1994) and chewing gums
(Anon, 1989). Cream compositions containing -carrageenan,
-carrageenan, xanthan gum, tamarind gum, and locust bean
gum as stabilizers are also used. The composition is soft and
shows good shape retaining property even when being frozen
or defrosted (Goto et al., 1994). Health beverage or oral prepa-
rations containing glucosyl transferase inhibitor extracted from
tamarind husks prevents development of dental caries (Tamura
et al., 1996). Racciato et al. (1981) claims for the production of
a novel blend of algin and TKP. The blends are useful in com-
mercial gum applications where thickening, suspending, emul-
sifying, stabilizing, film forming, and gel forming properties are
needed. They are particularly useful in the paper and textile in-
dustries. Yin and Lewis (1981) claims for a novel blend of algin,
TKP, and guar gum. The blends are prepared as mentioned in
US patent 4,257,816. The tamarind seed derived oligosaccha-
ride can be used to produce low calorie candy, chewing gum, dry
cake, cookie mixes, frozen dairy desserts, nutritional bars, baked
goods, gelation desserts, and spoonable dressings. Chiu et al.
(1998) claims for a process of preparing bulking agents from
food gums. The bulking agents are derived from naturally oc-
curring food gums from tamarind seed gum along with xanthan
gum, guar gum, carrageenan Konjae gum, and pectin, or a com-
bination of these items obtained by enzymatic, chemical, ther-
mal, or mechanical depolymerization processes. These bulking
agents can be included in edible formulations like baked goods,
puddings, creams, and custards, jams, jellies, sweetened bever-
ages, sauces, salad dressings, ice cream, etc. Whistler (1991 and
1995) claims for a method for preparing reduced calorie foods
using a cellulase hydrolysate of tamarind polysaccharide. Singer
(1994) claims for a carbohydrate cream substitute in which uses
of tamarind seed polysaccharide have been mentioned. Whistler
(1995) claims for a method of preparing tamarind oligosac-
charides. A cellulase hydrolysate of tamarind polysaccharide is
 TAMARIND SEED 11

Table 6 Food and non food uses of tamarind seed

Type or fraction
Function Example of tamarind seed Cited by

Food uses
As food Like roasted/boiled nut, to make Indian chapatis Roasted/boiled FAO (1988); Purseglove (1987)
and cake dehusked
kernel/flours
Emulsifier Salad dressing, essential oils, in heat resistant low Seed gum Vinod (1997); Yuji and Soichiro (2000)
acid emulsion foods
Stabilizer Skim milk, butter, instant coffee, glucose fructose Seed polysaccharide Morton (1987); Kawaguchi et al. (1989); Susumu (2003);
syrup, mayonnaise, cheese, emulsions, stabilize Hiroomi and Takuya (2002); Mayumi and Hiroyuki
laccase activity, seasoning powder (2000)
Gelling agent Puddings, desserts, confectionery, sour milk gel, Seed gum Gliksman (1986); Yasuhiro (2004); Takao and Katsumi
low water releasing gel, yoghurt, Sarcocarp like (2004); Ichiro (2004); Kazuo (2000); Junichi and
jelly, heat reversible gelling agents Tatsuo (1999)
Palatability improving Instant noodles Seed gum Norifumi (2000); Norifumi (2003)
agent
Antimicrobial agent Processed foods Seed gum Kazumi and Masaaki (2004); Masamitsu and Kazuto
(2003)
Disperser Vegetable powder Seed gum Ayako and Kenichi (2001)
Water retainer, cold Foods Seed gum Yuji and Horonori (2001)
insulator
Thickening agent Jams, pie fillings, sauces, albumen foam stabilizer, Seed gum Hidemi and Katsuhiro (2004); Taiji (2003); Makiko and
W/O/W- type compound emulsion, viscous Katsuji (2002); Satoshi and Tetsunori (2001); Toshio
seasoning fluid, contrast medium, Vegetable pan and Takkanovu (2001); Michiya and Katsuhiro (2000);
cake, galactoxyloglucan preparation, protein Taro and Masaaki (1999); Atsuro and Masaaki (1999);
free foods, acidic protein foods, vegetable Katsuhiko (1999a, 1999b); Mayumi and Yamada
dressing (2000); Hironori and Masaaki (1999); Gliksman
(1986); Yuanfan et al. (1997)
Odor improver Chitosan Seed gum Yasuyo (2001)
Glazing agent Foods Seed gum Tadanobu (1999)
Stickiness preventer Medicinal gels Seed gum Toru (2000)
Bodying agent Health beverage Seed gum Tamura et al. (1996)
Filler Bread Seed gum Haruhiko and Noriaki (2001)
Coagulants Water treatment Seed powder Ishikawa et al. (1992)
Film forming gum Extension of shelf-life of fish, pineapple Kernel powder Shetty et al. (1996); Kaur et al. (1993); Chen et al. (1988)
Molding Gum drops, jelly, candies Purified kernel Bhattacharya et al. (1994b)
powder
Coating material Sausage casings, protective coatings, storage of Seed powder Toshihiro and Keisuke (2002); Shetty et al. (1996); Chen
pineapple, fried foods et al. (1988)
Crystallization Ice-cream, frozen foods, Soya bean Tofu, fried Seed polysaccharide Kanae and Tadanobu (2002); Mayuko (2005); Koei and
inhibitor, Paste frozen food, Sterilized and frozen albumen, Kenkichi (2001); Hisayasu and Yoshikazu (2001);
material freeze dried gel, frozen grated yam, Frozen Mikio and Takashi (1997); Nobumasa and Hidemi
boiled noodles, frozen food covered with jelly (1997); Goto et al. (1994); Namio and Masaro (1992);
Hiroshi and Yasusuke (1990); Masahiro (1989)
Dehydrating agent In making powdered products Kernel powder Vinod (1997)
Improver Dried food, frozen food or gel type food Polysaccharide Shimohiro (1995); Sone and Sato (1994)
hydroxylates of
seeds
Bulking agent Baked goods, puddings, creams and custard, jams, Seed gum Tadanobu (2004); Wai-Chung and Matthew (2002);
jellies, sweetened beverages, sauces, salad Mayuko (2005); Naoki and Juychi (2002); Yoshio and
dressings, ice-cream, ice candy Tetsuo (2001); Chiu et al. (1998); Whistler (1991 &
1995); Bhattacharya et al. (1994b)
Deformation Cooked foods Seed gum Katsuhiro and Makiko (2002)
preventing agent
Mineral dispersant foods Seed polysaccharide Yasutaka and Keisuke (2003)
Low calorie food To prepare reduced calorie foods of candy, Tamarind seed Hideo and Hisashi (1995); Goto et al. (1994); Anon
chewing gum, dry cake, cookie mixes, frozen oligosaccharides (1988)
dairy desserts, nutritional bars, baked goods,
gelation desserts and spoonable dressings,
cream having low oil content
(Continued on next page)
12 C. S. KUMAR AND S. BHATTACHARYA

Table 6 Food and non food uses of tamarind seed (Continued)

Type or fraction
Function Example of tamarind seed Cited by

To prevent water In making soybean curd Seed gum Veda et al. (1992)
release
Preservative Soy bean curd, bread, boiled noodles Seed polysaccharide Minoru and Kazuhiko (1999); Masaharu and Misako
(1993); Shigenori (1981)
Paste material Heat resistant rice cake seed gum Hirobumi and Makiko (2001)
Freshness maintaining Fruits vegetables and meat Seed gum Toru and Kenji (1997)
agent
Pharmaceutical use
As medicine To treat boils and dysentery, anti viral agent, Seed powder Nobuharu and Sakikazu (1991); Akira (1984); Rama Rao
agent for lowering blood sugar (1975)
As a curative against rheumatism Seed powder Anon (1955)
On eye diseases and ulcers Seed powder Rama Rao (1975)
To treat diabetes Seed coat Rama Rao (1975)
Treatment of chronic diarrhea and jaundice Seed powder Rama Rao (1975)
To prevent formation of pimples Seed coat Rama Rao (1975)
As an anti-obesity agent for the treatment of Kernel powder Koichi et al. (1997)
obesity
Hair dressing Kernel oil Rama Rao (1975)
Substrate To convert organic waste into biofertilizer Seed coat Madhulata and Rao (1997)
Suppressant For proliferation of gram negative bacterium Seed gum Tsutomu and Yukiko (1996)
Carrier, fixer Microbial fixing beta-galactosidase, laxative Seed gum Ji and Jiayu (2005); Shiyuuhachi (1994)
action in dietary fibre composition
Excipient In making greaseless ointments Seed powder Vinod (1997)
Gelatinizing agent Making colloidal iodine jelly Seed powder Vinod (1997)
Emulsifying agent For insecticides for delicate foliage Seed powder Vinod (1997)
Substitute Production of penicillin Seed powder Patil and Nadagoudar (1997)
Promoter of water Petroleum base preparations Seed powder Patil and Nadagoudar (1997)
absorption
Cosmetic preparations Lather less saving cream, moisturizing creams Seed powder Takashi (2004); Patil and Nadagoudar (1997)
Oral cavity To clean oral cavity Seed gum Naomi (2004)
composition gel
Antioxidative Increasing shelf-life Seed coat Tsuda et al. (1995a) and 1995b; Osawa et al. (1994)
component
Extender Mulching sheets Seed gum Iwao and Shigezo (2004)
Stabilizer Capsule preparation, denture stabilizer, solution Seed gum Yoshimitsu and Kazuto (2003); Takashi and Kunitomo
for contact lens (1998); Mitsuhiro (1998)
Non food uses
Solid feed For cattle and pigs, gelled food for aquatic animals Tamarind seed Keiichi (2002); Hubert and Dietmar (2002); Rao and
Srivastava (1974); Reddy et al. (1986)
Sizing material In jute and textile industry Kernel powder Anon (1976); Yin and Lewis (1981); Toshihiro and
Katsuhiro (2000)
For sizing spun viscose Kernel powder Patil and Nadagoudar (1997)
Adhesive Paper glue, saw dust briquettes, plywood industry Kernel powder Anon (1976)
Cementing material Wood cement Seed gum Rama Rao (1975)
Strengthening agent False roofing and room partitioning Seed gum Veluraja et al. (1997)
Conditioner and For brick making from soil, detergents Seed powder John and James (2001); Anon (1976)
stabilizer
Thickener In explosive Seed powder Patil and Nadagoudar (1997)
Binder Binding to cellulose, Seed powder Chakkingal (2005); John and John (1999 and 2003)
Prevents dental caries In tooth paste Seed coat Tamura et al. (1996); Racciato and Yin (1981)
Tanning material In lather and textile industry Seed coat Anon (1976)
Printing paste In press Seed powder Anon (1976)
Creaming agent Concentration of rubber latex Seed powder Anon (1976)
Paints, varnishes In making idols Kernel oil Anon (1976)
Water soluble For condoms Seed gum Kyogo (1999)
lubricants
Burning In burning lamps Kernel oil Salim et al. (1998)
Water feeding Potted plants Seed gum Hide (1998)
material
 TAMARIND SEED
utilized as a substitute for a portion of metabolizable carbohy-
drates in processed foods to prepare reduced calorie foods having
excellent organoleptic quality. The tamarind hydrolysate com-
prising DP7/DP9 oligosacharides is isolated from the hydrolysis
reaction mixture by precipitation. The tamarind hydrolysate is
further processed to remove monosaccharides and low molecu-
lar weight oligosaccharides by yeast fermentation. The product
oligosaccharides mixture is typically isolated as a dry, free flow-
ing, white, to cream colored powder. TKP can also be used as
an antimigrant in foods (Joseph, 1982).
Non-Food Uses of Tamarind Seed
Tamarind seed is often used as a feed for cattle and pigs
(Rao and Srivastava, 1974). TKP finds extensive use as a sizing
material in the jute and textile industries (Rao and Subramanian,
1984). TKP has also been found useful for sizing spun viscose
as it offers a distinct advantage over the use of starch being more
easily removable from the spun fabric (Patil and Nadagoudar,
1997). TKP when boiled with water gives a very good paper
adhesive.
Tamarind seed gum is used for finishing textiles and in the
preparation of printing paste for calico. TKP serves as a good
creaming agent for the concentration of rubber latex. It can be
used as a conditioner and stabilizer of soil for brick-making and
as a binder in making sawdust briquettes. It has been recom-
mended as a thickener in certain types of explosives (Patil and
Nadagoudar, 1997). Tamarind seed testa is a potential tanning
material, which is available as a byproduct of the tamarind ker-
nel industry. However, this material is not fully utilized due to
some inherent defects associated with it. These include swelling
of the material during extraction and the dark color of the re-
sulting extract (Rao et al., 1997). A simple process for obtaining
a good tanning material from tamarind seed has been claimed
(Gokulprasa, 1978).
The oil present in the kernel resembles peanut oil and is re-
ported to be useful in the preparation of paints and varnishes, and
for burning lamps. TKP oil is used as an emulsifying agent for
essential oils. TKP is used as an emulsifying agent for insecti-
cides for delicate foliage (Vinod, 1997). Antioxidants extracted
from tamarind seed coat with ethyl acetate are used as an additive
in feed, cosmetic, and pharmaceutical preparations.
Pharmacological Uses of Tamarind Seed Polysaccharide
Preparations of TKP have been found suitable as substitutes
for corn steep liquor in the production of penicillin (Patil and
Nadagoudar, 1997). TKP as an ingredient of cosmetic prepara-
tions and lather-less shaving creams, a promoter of water absorp-
tion (upto 50%) by petroleum base preparations, and a thickener
also have been claimed.
The polysaccharide fraction of tamarind gum is used for
the production of a thickened ophthalmic solution having a
13
shear thinning rheological behavior and muco-adhesive prop-
erties. The solution is useful as artificial tear and as a vehicle
for sustained release of ophthalmic drugs (Marco et al., 1997).
Tamarind seed xyloglucan is also known to be a lipid increase
inhibitor (Osumu et al., 1997). Hydrolyzed xyloglucan from
tamarind seed using endo-(14)--glucanase is known to have
hypolipidemic effects in rats fed with a high fat diet. The release
pattern has been compared with matrixes of other polysaccha-
ride polymers such as ethyl cellulose, hydroxyethylcellulose and
hydroxylpropylmethylcellulose and isoptin SR. The in vitro re-
lease of the drug from the matrixes prepared has been studied
using the satorius dissolution simulator. The results indicate a
good correlation between in vitro and in vivo studies (Kulkarni
et al., 1997). An extraction of tamarind seed coat being rich in
procyanidin, which is the active ingredient in the anti-obesity
agent, exerts as such a potent anti-obesity effect without purify-
ing anymore (Koichi et al., 1997).
Processing of Tamarind Seed
Tamarind seed consists of an outer hard brown testa. The
testa is to be completely removed from the kernel; otherwise,
undesirable effects such as depression, constipation, and gastro-
intestinal inflammation might result if the same is used for food
purposes. The testa is separated from the kernels either by roast-
ing or by soaking the seed in water. Microstructure of the cross
section of tamarind seed (Figure 6) shows the dicotyledons that
are fused together and are enclosed by the testa or seed coat. The
latter is composed of an outer integument (elongated cells that
are perpendicular to the outer surface) and an inner integument
(Figure 7). The thickness of the seed coat varies roughly between
100 and 250 . The cotyledons contain storage parenchyma cells
that are roughly ovaloid in shape. The cotyledons are a com-
posite of complex carbohydrate granules embedded in protein
matrix. After roasting (Figure 8), a gap is created between the
seed coat and cotyledon that is beneficial for the removal of the
seed coat. As the mineral content of the seed coat is higher than
that of cotyledon, it is expected that the thermal properties and
behavior of the seed coat and cotyledons are different resulting
in different extent of expansion and contraction that helps in
detaching the seed coat from the seed. If the severity of roasting
is further increased, the separation of the individual cotyledons
is likely to occur.
Seeds are thoroughly washed to remove the adhering pulp
and to float away partially hollow infected seeds. To remove
seed coat or testa, seeds are generally parched at 150 C for
10 to 15 min. Control of temperature and duration of heating
should be minimal to prevent color development, decrease in
molecular weight, and the consequent decrease in viscosity of
the isolated gum (Anon, 1976). The parched seed is then fed
into a grain cleaner provided with beaters and an exhaust fan to
remove testa and dirt (Whistler and Barkalow, 1993). In another
process, the seeds are directly subjected to hammer milling to
break the more brittle seed coat for removal by screening or by
14 C. S. KUMAR AND S. BHATTACHARYA

Figure 6 Microstructure of cross-section of raw tamarind seed.

air separation. A combination of these two main processes is rec-
ommended to obtain good quality TKP. The decorticated seed is
then ground by crushing in an impact grinder followed by pul-
verizing to the required fineness. The tamarind kernel powder
is liable to deterioration on long storage, particularly in a moist
environment. Thus, a dry place in moisture proof containers
is preferred after suitable fumigation for storage of TKP. The
powder may be mixed with 0.5% of sodium bisulphite before
packing to prevent enzymic deterioration (Anon, 1976). Uni-
form, white tamarind seed kernels are also possible to obtain by
heating tamarind seeds with one or more powdered salts selected
from the group consisting of NaCl, Na2 SO4 , MgCl2 , MgSO4 ,
KCl, K2 SO4 , and CaCl2 for 15 to 30 min at a temperature not
exceeding 120 C, and decorticating the seeds. The best result is
obtained by heating the mixture at 100150 C for 1/2 h. White
tamarind seed kernels are obtained by subjecting tamarind seeds
to a process which comprises of hammering, scratching, filling,
piercing, or treating the seeds with concentrated H2 SO4 so as
to break the outermost layer at least in one place without ex-
posing the kernels. The seeds are steeped for 815 h in water

Figure 7 Microstructure of the cotyledon of tamarind seed showing internal structure.

 TAMARIND SEED
Figure 8 Microstructure of cross-section of tamarind seed after roasting.
or water containing any acid in a quantity not exceeding that
required to precipitate completely the gum present in the seeds.
The powder which is used for sizing cotton and jute yarns is pro-
duced by grinding the kernels obtained after decorticating the
seeds.
Bhattacharya (1997) has studied the effects of different pro-
cessing methods on the dehulling characteristics of tamarind
seed. The desirable characteristics are to obtain a white kernel
powder, complete dehulling of seeds, and low fracturability, and
hardness values of the dehulled seeds. Roasting of the seeds has
been conducted in a rice puffing unit with sand (passing through
20 mesh) and seed ratio of 4:1. The results indicate that the color
of TKP is markedly affected by long roasting time. The suitable
condition for sand roasting is found to be 1.5 min in the temper-
ature range of 225 and 250 C. The disadvantage of this process
is that extremely white TKP is difficult to obtain. In the other
process involving direct drying in a mechanical dryer, the seeds
are dried in a thin layer dryer at 40 to 100 C up to 12 hours. The
disadvantage of this process is that 100% dehulling efficiency is
difficult to achieve. In the third process, the seeds are hydrated
at room temperature for 24 h followed by drying at 40100 C
for 59 h. Very white TKP can be obtained at 80 C for 6 h, and
the hardness of the kernel after hydration-drying is also low. In
the method involving hydration-shade drying-roasting, the seeds
are first hydrated at room temperature for 24 h, and then dried in
the shade for 24 h followed by sand roasting for 125175 C for
38 min; very white TKP can be obtained by this process. Yoji
et al. (1983) mentioned about the purification of TKP to obtain
tamarind seed jellose, the polysaccharide constituent of TKP.
This process requires bleaching of coarsely ground tamarind
seed kernels which are then dispersed in water. After injection
of steam, the dispersion is filtered and jellose is precipitated by
using a sulphate and alcohol. Mehta and Mehta (1967) men-
tion an improved method for the oxidation of starches and other
15
polysaccharides in which the polysaccharide may be starch, cel-
lulose, or the polysaccharide contained in the tamarind kernel.
The oxidized products are easily dispersible in water to give
pastes having little or no tendency to retrograde. Cottrell (1981)
claims for a novel tamarind/xanthan gum blends. The blends of
xanthan gum and tamarind kernel powder exhibit synergistic
viscosity phenomenon. The blends can be prepared in a variety
of ways, either in the solid or liquid state. TKP can be used as in
the form of cold water soluble tamarind kernel powder or as cold
water soluble tamarind gum. The synergistic viscosity increase
of TKP and xanthan gum blends are in the range of 5:95 to 95:5.
The synergistic effect also varies with the total gum concentra-
tion. The synergistic viscosity increase occurs only at total gum
concentrations above 0.5%. This novel blend can be used in ap-
plications requiring viscous solutions such as print paste which
gives very good fine line control in printing 100% nylon carpets,
as a fluid loss control additive and rheology modification for oil
well drilling, etc. Sandford (1984) claims of a process for the
development of clarified tamarind kernel powder by treating the
TKP with a strong base such as 50% NaOH followed by neutral-
ization with HCl and isolation of the clarified TKP. The addition
of alkali makes the pH of the slurry in the range of 1014 of
which pH 13 is preferred. The resulting slurry is diluted with 5
volumes of water and stirred for 2 hrs to which HCl has been
added to obtain the polysaccharide present in TKP as the precip-
itate. The resultant polysaccharide can be used in applications
where crude TKP can be used like in wrap sizing, latex rubber,
adhesives, paper, and plywood industries and in explosives. It is
especially useful where clarity in the product is required such
as reducing pectin. The product can also be further useful as a
thickener for products useful for human and animal consump-
tion. Teraoka et al. (1990) claims for a process of separating
polysaccharides from tamarind seeds. The process comprises
of pulverizing the tamarind seeds to form particles of less than
16 C. S. KUMAR AND S. BHATTACHARYA
80 microns and dispersing the particles in an aqueous medium
consisting essentially of water and 560% by weight of at least
one water soluble organic solvent, and classifying the dispersion
in a hydrocylone from which they are discharged and whereby
particles of other components, in particular proteins, simulta-
neously rise to the top of the hydro cyclone, from which they
are discharged. This process produces a high grade of powdered
polysaccharide at a low cost and by simple operations. It can be
used in paper and fiber industries and as a thickening agent.
Specification for Tamarind Kernel Powder
According to Indian Standard specifications (Anon, 1977 and
1962), TKP for use in the cotton and textile industries should
be, (i) creamy white (not exceeding 0.3 red and 0.5 yellow val-
ues against the standard white of the Lovibond Tintometer), (ii)
without any disagreeable odor, (iii) it should all pass through a
85 mesh sieve and at least to an extent of 80% through 100 mesh
British standard test sieves, (iv) it should be free from testa, and
(v) it should have a relative viscosity of 4.55.0 at 35 C in 0.5%.
Polysaccharide and its xylose content should be between 19 and
21% and it should not have more than 3% ash. The TKP which
confirms to these specifications gives excellent results for use in
the jute industry, and the powder need not meet such rigid specifi-
cations at least in certain aspects, such as color, fineness, and the
content of testa. The testa may be present in an amount up to 3%,
and the color should not exceed 0.8 yellow and 0.8 red values.
Seed Testa
During the course of processing of tamarind fruits, a good
amount of seeds, to the extent of 25 to 40%, are obtained as
a byproduct. The typical color of the testa is reddish brown
(Chapman, 1984; Shankaracharya, 1998). The seeds are pro-
cessed for the manufacture of kernel powder, during which testa
is left as a residual byproduct. On an average, the seed contains
2030% of testa or hull. The testa is removed from the kernel
either by roasting or by soaking the seed in water followed by
drying (Bhattacharya, 1997). The testa contains 38 to 40% of
water soluble of which 80% is a mixture of tannins and coloring
agents. This mixture comprises 35% pholbatanins, 55% depside
group of tannins, and 10% of an uncharacterized material (Rao
et al., 1997). Leucoanthocyanins have also shown to be present
in it. Testa can be used in dyeing and tanning of several materi-
als such as leather and textiles. The dye stuff is reported to give
brown and olive brown shades on wool, silk, and cotton, and with
rosin and alum, it can be used for providing attractive colors to
paper. The water soluble dye shows various shades. An acidic so-
lution of the dye is yellowish to orange in color while the alkaline
solution is of a bright crimson shade (Anon, 1955). The tannins
of tamarind testa are used as a potential tanning material but this
material is not fully utilized due to inherent defects associated
with it. Tannins of tamarind testa are more prone to oxidation and
thereby forming dark colored solutions that also undergo pro-
gressive polymerization under acidic condition resulting in the
formation of highly insoluble Tannin reds or Phlobaphenes.
However, the extraction of tannins from the raw material also
possess problems due to the presence of appreciable quantities
of carbohydrate known as jellose. The testa swells in water when
soaked for the extraction of tannins. Further, the tannin infusion
imparts an undesirable red color to leather during tanning. Ex-
traction of tannins at low temperature, usage of anti-swelling
agents, and hydrolysis of starchy materials present along with
tannins are some of the methods which may offer good scope for
achieving better results (Rao et al., 1997). The utilization of testa
as a raw material for the preparation of plywood adhesives has
also been recommended. Studies have been carried out on the
utilization of spent (detanned) tamarind seed testa as a substrate
to grow Pleurotus florida in order to convert organic wastes into
biofertilizer (Madhulatha and Rao, 1997). The antioxidative ac-
tivity of crude extract prepared from tamarind seed coat has been
investigated (Tsuda et al., 1995a). Tamarind seed coat extraction
shows high antioxidative activity and a synergistic antioxidative
effect with citric acid. The antioxidative activity of the extrac-
tion is stable against the heat treatment at 100 C for 2 h, and
is lower at pH 5 than that at pH 3, 7, and 9; about 70% of the
activity can be obtained even if treated at 100 C for 2 h in the
presence of 10% NaCl.
Tamarind Kernel Oil
The tamarind kernel oil is amber in color, free of smell, and
sweet to taste. It can be used for making varnishes, paints, and
burning in oil lamps. The oil is also used for making varnish
to paint idols (Anon, 1976). The oil has been mentioned to be
palatable and of culinary quality (Morton, 1987).
Tamarind seed is dehusked by roasting and decorticated in a
roller beater machine. Tamarind kernels are moistened and dis-
integrated in a hammer mill fitted with a perforated screen (1.6
mm). The moistened kernels are flaked and air dried. The kernels
are cooked in a kettle cooker and passed through an expeller to
give a cake like material. The processed kernel is charged into
a batch extractor. Hexane is added and mixed thoroughly. The
mixture is allowed to stand overnight. The miscella is drained
through a sluice valve at the bottom of the extractor. The solvent
can be recovered by distillation. The desolventized oil is neutral-
ized with 16 Be alkali. The oil is refined and bleached (Reddy
et al., 1979). Kernels which are cooked and passed through an
expeller give a slightly higher yield of oil (about 7%) than the
moistened and flaked material (6.4%). Cooking and expelling
darkens the oil to a significant extent than flaking alone. The steps
like refining and bleaching improve the color of the oil markedly.
Oils from six samples of tamarind seeds have been examined by
Andriamanantena et al. (1983). The seed kernels are extracted
with hexane, and a mixture of chloroform and methanol; the
yield of the oil are 6.0 to 6.4%, and 7.4 to 7.0%, respectively. In-
vestigation by GLC reveals that about 15 fatty acids, mainly
 TAMARIND SEED
palmitic (1420%), stearic (67%), oleic (1527%), linoleic
(3649%), arachidic (24%), behenic (35%), and lignoceric
(38%) are present. Seven sterols have been separated from the
oil of which major sterols are -sitosterols (6672%), campes-
terol (169%), and stigmasterol (114%). The acid value and
saponification values of the crude TKP oil reduce on refining
and bleaching, and refining can improve the quality of seed oil,
but there will be a refining loss of about 20% (Shankaracharya,
1998).
CONCLUSIONS
Tamarind seed, a byproduct of tamarind pulp industries, is a
typical underutilized material. Though there are industrial uses
for decorticated seeds as a low-cost sizing material in jute and
textile industries, there have been hardly any other uses includ-
ing using it as an additive in food formulations. The excellent
gelling and adhesive characteristics of decorticated seed powder
possess several applications in food and pharmaceutical indus-
tries which are evident by a number of research papers as well
as patent applications. It is desirable that more research works
are conducted on the processing aspects of this seed to make it
more useful for the food processors.
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