Year 11 Physics Holiday Homework Read through section 1.1, 1.2 and 1.3. Complete all questions at the end of each section (40 questions in total) All questions are due the first lesson back. Miss RocheAtoms, Atoms In order to understand radioactivity it i necessary to be familiar withthe structure of the atom, The central part of an atom, the nucleus, consists of particles known as protons and neutrons. Collectively, these particles axe called nudeons, and ate almost identical in mass and size, However, they have very different electrical properties. Protons have a positive charge, whereas neutrons are electrically neutral and have no charge. The nucleus contains neatly all of the mass of the atom, but accounts for less than a million millionth (10°) of its volume. Most of an atom is empty space that is only occupied by negatively charged particles called electrons, These are much smaller and lighter than protons or neutrons and they orbit the nucleus of the atom at high speed. ‘The simplest atom is hydrogen. It consists of just a single psoton with a single electron orbiting ata distance of about 510" m. Compare this with ‘a uranium-238 atom, Its nucleus contains 92 protons and 146 neutrons. Its 92 electrons orbit the nucleus, Uranium-238 is the heaviest atom found in the Earth's crust, seyoreiems eae itossie enna es «ATOMIC NUMBER (2}—the numberof protons inthe nucleus ofan atom. «+ HASS NUMBER (A] the total numberof protons and neutronsin the nucleus ‘Appasticular atom can be identified by using the fllo ing format mass number — ‘element symbol stomic number ~ ‘The atomic number defines the clement. Atoms with the same number of protons will all belong, to the same element. For example, if an atom has six protons in its nucleus (ie. Z=6) then itis the element carbon. Any atom containing six protons is the element carbon, regardless of the number of neutrons. In an electrically neutral atom, the number of electrons is equal to the number of protons. Any neutral atom of uranium (Z = 92) has 92 protons and 92 electrons, ‘The complete list of elements is shown in the periodic table in Figure 16, Isotopes All atoms of a particular element will have the same number of protons, but may have a different number of neutrons. For example, lithium exists naturally in two different forms. One type of lithium atom has three protons and three neutrons, The other type has three protons and four neutrons. These different forms of lithium are isotopes of lithium. Isotopes are chemically identical toeach other. They react and bond with other atoms in precisely the same way, The number of neutrons in the nucleus does not influence the way in which an atom interacts with other atoms. The (Chapter 4 Nuclear physics and radioactivity | Isvt0p 95 and ps Molsvioo a3 Physics file © ‘To gain an idea of the emptiness of tome and matter, consider this example 1 the nucleus of an atom was the size of ‘pea and this was placed inthe contre fof the MOG, the elaetrons would oPbit in f three dimensional apace that would fextond Into the grandstands. s uolous consistingof @ = ~ cloud of electrons [EMEEE tre nucourofan atom ocuples about 0°" ofthe volumo othe atom, yet ito more than 98% ots mass. Atoms are mostly ‘erm spacel @ co} @ [EMEEE (a) Hysrogenis th simplest tom {consists ust one proton and one electron. (e) ranium- 238 the heaviest naturally ‘securing atom. ts nucleus cenains 238 ‘ueleons—92 protons and 146 neutrons,& [EREEE) :mopos ort {a} he rucieus ‘ofativum Sater consis theo protons and three netens (6) he nucleus of alta? ‘stm contains thee protons and four newtens. EEEERS rcs raisotopes ferred sins uses are monufcturedio he care afte ura Hens ean Sydney Tis Aas’ alg mules restr faci andhas been operating since 1958. he ginal reactor swaseplacedby the OAL (Open oat Austain Lightwater eatin 2002 luclear physics and radioactivity difference between isotopes lies in thelr physical properties. More newtsons in the nticteus will mean that these atoms have a higher densi. soars west tthe san nner ptrba eet rb ‘fms enpe he er lpn ae pea pont ‘When referring to a particular nucleus, we talk about a nuclide. In this case, we ignore the presence of the electrons. For example, the nuclide lithium-6 has three protons and three neutrons. Stable isotopes can be found for most of the elements and, in all, there are about 270 stable isotopes in nature. Tin (Z.= 50) has ten stable isotopes, while aluminium (Z = 13) has just one. Radioisotopes Most of the atoms that make up the world around us are stable, Their nuclei have not altered in the billions of years since they were formed and, con thelr own, they will not change in the years to come. However, there are also naturally occurring isotopes that are unstable. An unstable nucleus may spontaneously lose energy by emitting a particle and so change into different element or isotope. Unstable atoms are radioactive and an individual radioactive isotope is known as a radioisotope. By way of illustration, carbon has two stable isotopes, carbon-12 and carbor-13, and one isotope in nature that is not stable. This is carbon-I4. The nucleus of a radioactive carbon-I4 atom may spontaneously decay, emitting high- ‘energy particles that can be dangerous. If you look at the periodic table in Figure 16, you will see that every isotope of every element with atomic mass greater than that of bismuth (Z =83) is radioactive, Most of the elements found on Fatth have naturally occurring radioisotopes; there are about 700 of these in all. As well as these, about 2000 radioisotopes have been manufactured. During the 20th century, an enormous number of radioisotopes were produced in « process known as artificial transmutation. Artificial transmutation: how radioisotopes are manufactured Natural radioisotopes were used in the early days of research into radiation. ‘Today, most of the radioisotopes that are used in industrial and medical applications are synthesised by artificial transmutation. There are now more than 2000 such artificial radioisotopes. In the periodic table, every element with an atomic number greater than 92 (ie. past uranium) is radioactive and is produced in this way. ‘One of the ways that artificial radioisotopes are manufactured is by neutron absorption. (In Australia this is done at the Lucas Heights reactor near Sydney.) In this method, a sample of a stable isotope is placed inside a nuclear reactor and bombarded with neutrons, When one of the bombarding, or irradiating, neutrons collides with a nucleus of the stable ope, the neutron is absorbed into the nucleus. This creates an unstable tope ofthe sample element.Group Group 123 4 8 6 7 86 § HH RP B MB Ww 7 18 7 =] H He Period 1 H He 2 ae 2| Li | Be B|C|N|O]F |Ne | cas | 501 sost | 75x | ve | 00 | a9 | za @ oe ps |e pe | as Mg Al’ si] P| S | Cl) Ar % 2690 | oh | ane | sas | gas | 5055 22721372 [2 rape peta pepe yet e lel 4 Ca| Se | Ti] V | Cr [Mn Cu| Zn | Ga | Ge | As] Se | Br | Kr soo | aos | 4435 | 20 | sae | soo | 98 st | Gay | re | 7059 | tase | 7a | pon | ann oye |e) ea) a2 | 8 vte pe} ops |) S| 5/Rb| Sr] Y | Zr |Nb|Mo| Te Ag |Ca | In | Sn] Sb | Te,| | Xe asa) | 740 | sant | saa | 2051 | see | 0) 178 | og [mae | sng [12.25 | 0 | 2260 | 130 eye pe Ta] eT | apa) a |e ye |e |e | 6| Cs | Ba] La | He} Ta | W | Re Aug | TL | Bb | Bi,| Po | At | Ro 15951 |r| as | 78> [ts | ass | i802 | 902 | 2a [soso | 96 | anh |25e37 [20729 |ons9s| cx | cam | co) Pe pe por] tes paw | ior Pw | soo Por fa fos | oe ps Poe Por |e 7) Br | Ra| Ac | RF [Db | Sg | Bh | Hs |Mt| Ds | Rg [Uub|UutWug|up|uh| uo) 228) | @26) | (27) | (261) | (262) eS (264) | (277) | (268) | (271) | 272) | 277) (289) (289) 4293) e] es, Ce | Pr |Nd|Pm|$m J Bu | Gd 32 | sans | 2e42s | 20s [sus [191.96 [15725 Sele ‘Tb | Dy | Ho | Er |Tm] Yb | Lu 22 | er30 | 3649 | 67.26 0893 | 17308 [17497 {[] Bvery isotope ofthese elements ie radioactive sn BLASTS Teele | eS |e wo mee Th| Pa] U Np Pu |Am|Cm} Bk | Cf | Es | Fm |Md| No} Lr 08} oat) [280s exh | ex) | er | Gan) | our esi) | 238) | a6) | 250 | 057 ‘cobal-50: stable ERIEEE te aril casoioorop cobl 60's used extensively inthe treatment of cance, [is producedby bombarding sample of cobalt 8 with nutrons. Thisishow the radioisotope cobalt-60 (widely used for cancer treatment) {is manufactured. A sample of the naturally occursing and stable isotope cobalt-59 is irradiated with neutrons. Some of the cobalt-59 nuclei absorb eutrons and this results in a quantity of cobalt-60 being produced: Jn +8Co > $Co. This nuclear transformation is illustrated in Figure 17. Chapter 4 Nuclear physics and radioactivity EEE te poise of oman. cm Physics file ve "nha heaviest stable Isotope in the universe ie BI. Bvery isotope of every clement with more than 88 protons, ‘a, bayond bismuth in the pestodlo table is radioactive, For example, covery isotope of uranium (Z= 92) ie radjoacive. Teohneslum (Z= 48) and promethium (= 61) ara the anly olemonts with an atomle number below bismuth (Z= 83) that do not have any stable Ssotopes, Uraniom is the heaviest lomont that oceure naturally on Barth All the elements with atomfo numbers greater than 92 have been artificially manufactured,Use the periodic table in Figure 1.6 to determine {the symbol forlement 1X the number o protons, nucleons and neutronsin this isotope, Sng {From the perio tbl, the clamen with a atomic numberof 42s Ho, molybdenum, 1b The lover umber is the stomie timber, so his igatope has 42 protons. The upper ‘wimeris the mass nurber, This indicates the numberof particles in the nucleus i, the numberof nicleons, so this atom has 95 nucleons. The numberof neurons can be found by svbtracting 42 rom the mass number This isotape has $3 neurons ‘Quarks and other subatomic particles! Our understanding of the atom has chengod greatly tn the past 100 years, It wae once thought that atoms were Ike ‘miniature Dillard balls: solkd and indivisible. The word ‘atom’ comes from the Cre2k ‘atomos' mesning indivisible. Mat Wea ‘was changed foravor whan tho fret cubatomie patticles—the ‘leon, tho proton and then the neutron—were discovered in the period from 1887 to 1952. Since World War I, further researuh has uncovered about ‘500 other subatomie particles! Examples of these includ pt ‘mesons, mmesons, kaons, tau loptons and neuteines. For mary years, phystoists found it dificult to make sense of this ‘array of eubatomie particles. It was known that one family ‘of paroles called the leptons had atx members: electron, ‘leetvon-neutrino, muon, muon-neuteino, tau and tauneuteino. Thon in 1964 Murray Gell-Mann put forward « simple theory Ho suggested that most subatomio particles were themselves composed of a number of more fundamental particlos oaled queries. Currontly, i s accepted that there are six different quarks, eadh with diforent properties (and strange names!) up, down, charmed, stranga, top and bottom. “The latent quark tobe identified was tho top quark, whose existence wes confirmed in 1888, The proton consists of two up quarks and one down quar, while neutrons consist ‘of ono up quark and tro down quarks, Subatomic particles that consist of quarks are known as hadrons. Leptons are Indivistbio point partoles; they are not composed of quar. ‘A significant amount of effort and money has been vy from rest, * centr nara ney rested to tasking Gol-Mann’a theory-—both theoretically ‘and exporimontally. Tha has involved the construction of langor and larger particle accelerators svoh es Karmllab in (Chicago and CERM tn Geneve. Australa bull te ov particle accelerator—a synchroton—next to Monash University. This began operating in 2007. ‘into the current theoxy suggests that quarks nd leptons aro the ultimate fundamantal particles that cannot be further divided, the nature of solontific theottes and models is auch, thet they ean change as new experimental data are obtained. ‘Are quark end loptone mado of emallor particles again? Time veil tot+ Thenucleus of an atom consists of positively charged protons and neutral neutrons, Collectively, protons and neutrons are known as nucleons. Negatively charged electrons orbit the nucleus, + The atomie number, Z, is the number of protons in the nucleus. The mass number, A, is the number of nucleons in the nucleus, ie. the combined number of protons and neutrons. + Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons buta different number of neutions. Isotopes 1 How many protons, neutrons and nucleons are in’ the following nuclides? a $Ca b AU . U0 @3th 2. How many protons and neutrons are in these atoms? Use the periodic table to answer this question. 4 Cobalt-60 b Plutonium-239 © Carbon-4 3 What is the difference between a stable isotope and a radioisotope? Give three examples of stable isotopes. 4 Can a natural isotope be radioactive? If so, give an example of such an isotope. 5 Which of these atoms are definitely radioactive? Mg, $Co, Pt *BP0, BU Explain how you made your choice, 6 a A proton has a radius of 1.07 x 10° m and a mass of 1.67 x 10 kg. Using the fact that the volume of mass, volume i calculate the volume of proton fi. calculate the density of a proton. asphereis V b Ifweassume thatthe density of an atomicnucleus is equal to that ofa proton, determine the mass of Lem? of nuclear material, ae of an element are chemically identical to each other, but have diferent physical properties. + An unstable isolope—a sadioisotope—may spon taneously decay by emitting a particle from the nucleus. + Arifical radioisotopes are manufactured ina process called artificial transmutation. This commonly takes place as. result of neutron bombardment in the care ofa lear reactor: ¢ How many 1 tonne cars would it take to balance Lem? of nuclear material? d What does this ell you about the density ofnormal ‘matter compared to the density of atomic nuclei? 7 Themucleus ofa gold atomhasa radiusof6.210% m while the atom itself has a radius of 1.3x 10m. Using the volume formula from the previous question, determine the valte ofthe fraction: volume of nucleus volume of atom 5 As part of a science projec, a student wanted to make a scale model of a gold atom using a marble ‘of radius 1.0m as the nucleus. Calculate the radius ‘of the sphere to bé occupied by the electrons in this. model. Use the information in question 7 to assist your calculations. 9. Krypton 84 is stable but krypton-9 is radioactive. 4. Discuss any differences in how these atoms would interact chemically with other atoms. bb Describe the difference in the composition of these ‘evo atoms, 40 A particular artificial radioisotope 1s manufactured by bombarding the stable isotope “Al with neutrons. The radioisotope is produced when each atom of AI absorbs one neutron into the nucteus. Identify the radioisotope that is produced as a result of this process. Chapter 1 Nuclear physics and radioactivity 7 \ jp: vi‘workon adouctive materials lofact, aie Cre clned the ter raiactviy ands tho only scintsttohave been avarded two Hotel piles. Se ecolued ane fr chemisty andone forphyscs, Talend andi considered be one ofthe estes experimental physi that over ved His discoveries form the foundation of nucleo physics, t @q 8 ‘Nuclear physics and radioactivity | AZ yegiiote® ‘Through the Micidle Ages, alchemists had tried without success to change lead into gold. They thought that it would be possible to devise a chemical process that would change one element into another. We now know that it isextremely difficult to change one element into another and that chemistry is not the way to do it. About 100 years ago, Ernest Rutherford and Pati! Villard discovered that there were three different types of emission from radioactive substances. They named these alpha, beta and gamma radiation, Further experiments showed that the alpha and beta emissions were actually particles expelled from the nucleus, Gamuna radiation was found to be high-energy electromagnetic radiation, also emanating, from the nucleus, When these radioactive decays occur, the original atom spontaneously changes into an atom of a different element. Nature was already doing what the alchemists had so fruitlessly tried to dot 4 Alpha decay 3% When a heavy nucleus undergoes radioactive decay, it may eject an alpha particle. An aipha particles a positively charged chunk of matter. Itconsists ‘of two protons and fwo neutrons that have been ejected from the nucleus ofa radioactive atom. An alpha particle is identical toa helium nucleus and canalso be written as He", c, 4a or simply ot ‘alpha particle urarlum-238: unstable thorium-234 (EREEEE nthe nucleus ofuranivn 238 decays itl spontanously eet high speed ipa porte that eonsist of to oton ad vo neuter Te eainng nucleus is thorium 23, Koei energycariedby the theum- 234 ad alpha prices, sreleasedasa rest ofthis docay Urantium-238 is radioactive and may decay by emitting an alpha particle from its nucleus. This can be represented in a nuclear equation in which the changes occurring in the nuclei can be seen. Electrons are not considered in these equations—only nucleons. The equation for the alpha decay of toranitarn-238 is: BU 2gTh + fo.+energy or US 2TH In the decay process, the parent nucleus *—U has spontaneously emitted an alpha particle (0) and has changed into a completely different element, 24th, Thorium-234 is called the daughter nucleus, The energy released is ‘mostly Kinetic energy carried by the fast-moving alpha particle, When an atom changes into a different element, it is said to have undergone a siuclear transmutation. In nuclear transmutations, electric charge is conserved—seen as a conservation of atomic number. In the above example 9290 + 2. The number of nucleons is also conserved: 238:=234 +4,ss cosmecarocio tg rinacive dca onicandmasesenionse | Sistem reed tn ome ' a Beta decay °B Beta particles are electrons, but they are electrons that have originated from the nucleus of a redioactive atom, not from the electron cloud. A beta particle ean be written as, Bot $9. The atomic nimber of ~1 indicates that it hasa single negative charge, and the mass numberof 70 indicates that its mas is far less than that ofa proton or a neutron. Beta decay occurs in nucle in which there fs an imbalance of neutrons to protons. Typically, fa light nucteus has too many neutrons to be stable, a neutron will spontaneously change into a proton, and an electron and an uncharged massless particle called an anineutsino V are ejected to restore the nucleus toa more stable state Consider the isotopes of carbor: "IC, YC and YC. Carbon-I2 and carbon-13 are both stable, but earbon-Id is unstable, It has moze neutrons and so undergoes a beta decay to become stable. In this process one ofthe neutrons changes into a proton. As a result, the proton number increases to seven, and so the product is not carbon, Nitrogen-14is formed and energy is released. ritrogen-t4 stable carbon-t4 beta particle. Unstable hahaa [EERIE Me nuceus ocarbon44is unstable. none to chive stailty,oneneuton {ansonns info arte, and an eetron and anno ae emitedin he process Theemited econ beta parte andit travels at nearigthe speed of ight. ‘The nuclear equation for this decay NCO UN+ $840 + energy ‘The transformation taking place inside the nucleus is Inoipt ery ‘Once again, notice that in all these equations the atomic and mass numbers are consérved. (The antineutrino has no charge and has 90 little ‘mass that both its atomic and mass numbers are zer0.) Garnrna decay Y Gonerally, after a radioisotope has emitted an alpha or beta particle, the daughter nucteus holds an excess of energy. The protons and neutrons in the daughter nucleus then rearrange slightly and off-load this excess energy by releasing gamma radiation (high-frequency electromagnetic radiation). Gamma rays—like all ight—have no mass and are uncharged and so theit symbol is fy. Being a form of light, gamuna rays travel at the speed of light. ‘A common exaniple of a gamma ray emitter is iodine-131. Todine-131 decays by beta-and gamma emission to form xenon-131 as shown in Figuze 1.13, Chapter 1 Nuclear physics and radioactivity ¢ SENN ZS Physics file ‘A different form of beta decay occurs in ‘atoms that have too many protons. An | ample of this isthe radioactive decay | of unstable nitrogen-12, There are protons and five neutrons in the nucleus, 7 fand a proton may spontaneously change | {nto a neutzon and emit @ neutrino and ‘positively charged beta partile, Tis Is exown as 8 Cbote-poottive) decay and the positively charged beta particles called a positron, | "The equation for this doay ts: i UW Mergesveonerey | Pecitrons, 8, ave the samo properties as electrons, but their [ lectrfoal charge Is postive rather than ‘negative, Positrons are an oxampla of antimatter. oc xy 2X /> Physics tile : beta pats 4p (Gamma decay alone ooours when | a nase is finan enerled or : {te state foloing an pba or eta fedinestst: xenon a doy Tas ented satin known 8 stab sre ry fr metastable state and It usually only lasts for a short time. An example of this fs the radlcactive decay of fodine.151, usually @ two-stage process. First, a ‘ota parol Is emuttad and the axotted ‘uollde xenor-181m ts formed, Thon, the ruolevs undergoes a second decay by, emitting a game ray: RIERA nthe beta decay ofiovne 13, a high-energy garuna ay photons also eid, is high-nexgy electromagnotic radiation has nocletriccharge—just energy. he beta paricleandxenon aeleusals carry eergu, ‘The equation for this decay is: I> BXe+ tery YL > Mipxe + ge eK 9 Ke +7 i ‘Tho 'm’ denotes an unete oF motastablo stata, Cobalt 60 and ‘echnetium-£8 also exist in metastable states. aS ae Since gamma rays carry no charge and have almost no mass, they have no effect when balancing the atomic or mass numbers in a nuclear equation. ‘The chart in Figure 1.14 identifies the 272 stable nuclides, as well as some — radionuclides and decay modes. i active emission to form yteurm-9D. The equation is: 509 BY4X Determine the atomic and orass numbers for X and identi the type of radation that i emitted during this decay. fy balancing the equation its found that X has a mass number of zero and an atomic number of —1. X is an oloctran and so this must be beta decay. The full equation is WO RY+ te, (eee) todine.13i, 9 radlofsotope that is used inthe treatment of thyroid cancer, is produced in a ‘two-stage process, First, tllurium 130 [e) is bombarded with neuteens inside the core ‘of nuclear reactor. This results in the formation ofthe very unstable telluriumI34 and a gamma ray. Write down the balanced nuclear equation fr this process. b Teluriamt3i decays by beta emission to produce a daughter nuclide and an ntineutrno, Mentfy the daughter nuclide a ett mery Born the atomic and mass pumber of he antineutving are 2er0, The beta particle has a Seontium-90 decays by ra ‘mass number of zea and anatomic narmber of 1 Te > Ke Pew Balancing the nuclear equation gives the unknown element an atomic numlser of '53 and a mass aumber of 131, The periodic table reveals the daughter nucle to bs iodine t31 10 + + Nuclearphysics and radioactivityBismuth, 2 = 83 Promethivm,Z= 61 Technetiom, Z= 43 stable nuctide Bremer Bremitior oy emitter 60 70 80 9 100 ‘Atomic number 30 [TERED ern tis tate of statteisxopes and radiolsotopes, tis evdet ht lager nltheels asin mbna between the umber of i rotons and netrans Th ine of stably ofthe stabienceldes canbe seenas.line that curves aay fam the N= Zine Notice tat every element op {Dandincuding smash has stable isotopes exept or technetium and pometium, Also notce that everyisocpe every element beyond bismuth is radisctve Chapter 1 Nuclear physics and radioactivity <1 AA atPrysice file ‘Mautainos are particles with the lowest ‘mass in natura, and they permeate the uunlvarso, Neutrinos have no chargo and thelr mass has only recently been. ‘dlszovered to be about one bilfonth ‘that of @ proton, Lo. about 10° ke, ‘While you have been reading these sentences, bilone of neutrinos have ‘passed right through your body, and continued on to pass right through the Barthl Fortunately neutrinos interact with matter very rarely and 120 are completely harmless. It has ‘been estimated that If noutrinos passed ‘through a plece of lead 8 light-years ‘hla, thay would stl hava only a 80% hanes of being absorbedt >) overactive wt 1 7 sone stability thinmica —_postively charged window ‘lectiode argon negatively chargod gas aluminium tube [EMERG etoactiv omission that omers ‘he tbe ina Geiger counter vllonse the augon gas and cause pulse of electrons to owt between he electrodes. his pulse reistrsosa ‘countanammete Why radioactive nuctei are unstable Inside the nucleus there are two completely different forces acting. The first is an electric force of repulsion betiveen the protons. On its own, this would blow the nucleus apaet, so clearly a second force must act to bind the nucleus together. This is the nuclear force, a strong force of attraction ‘between nucleons, which acts only over @ very short range. In a stable nucleus, there ig a delicate balance between the repulsive electric force and the attractive nuclear force. For example, bismuth-209, the heaviest stable isotope, has 63 protons ancl 126 neutrons, and the forces between the nucleons balance to make the nucleus stable. Compare this With bismuth-211, It has two extra neutrons and this upsets the balance between forces. The nucteus of "Bi is unstable and it eects an alpha pay inan attempt to attain nuclear stability Figure 1.14 shows all the stable nuclei with their proton and neutron numbers. Itisevident that there isa“line of stability’ along which the nuclei tend to cluster Nuclei away from this line are radioactive. For small nuclei with atomic numbers up to about 20, the ratio of neutrons to protons is close to one. However, as the nuclei become bigger, so too does the ratio of neutrons to protons, Zirconium (Z = 40) has @ neutron to proton ratio of about 1.25, while for mercury (Z = 80) the ratio is close to 1.66. This indicates that for higher numbers of protons, nuclei must have even more neutrons to remain stable. These neuitrons dilute the repelling forces that act between the extra protons. Elements with more protons than bismuth (2 =85) simply have too much repulsive charge and additional neutrons are unable to stabilise their nuclei. All of these atoms are radioactive How radiation is detected Our bodies cannot detect alpha, bela or gamma radiation. Therefore a number of devices have been developed ta detect and measure radiation. ‘Acommon detector is the Geiger counter. These are used: + by geologists searching for radioactive minerals such as uranium + to monitor radiation levels in mines + to measure the level of radiation after a nuclear accident such as the accident at Chernobyl + to check the safety of nuclear reactors '* to monitor radiation levels in hospitals and factories. ‘A Geiger counter consists of a Geiger-Muller tube filled with argon gas as shown in Figure 1.15. A voltage of about 400 V is maintained between the positively charged central electrode and the negatively charged aluminium tube, When radiation enters the tube through the thin mica window, the argon gas becomes ionised and releases electrons. These electrons are attracted towards the central electrode and ionise more argon atoms along the way, For an instant, the gas between the electrodes becomes ionised ‘enough to conduct a pulse of current between the electrodes. This pulse is registered as acount. The counter is often connected to.a small loudspeaker ‘so that the count is heard as a ‘click’. People who work where there is a risk of continuing exposure to low- level radiation usually pin a small radiation-monitoring device to their dlothing.‘This could be either a film badge or a TLD (thermoluminescent dosimeter) These devices are used by personnel in nuclear power plants, hospitals, airports, dental laboratories and tiranium mines to check their daily exposure to radiation. When astronauts go on space missions, they wear monitoring badges to check their exposure to damaging cosmic rays. Filin badges contain photographic film in a lightproof holder. The holder contains several filters of varying thickness and materials covering a piece of film, After being worn fora few weeks, the filin is developed. Analysis of the film enables the type and amount of radiation to which the person has been exposed to be determined. ‘Thermoluminescent dosimeters are more commonly used than film badges. TLDs contain a disk of lithium fluoride encased in plastic. Lithiam fluoride can detect beta and gamma radiation as well as X-rays and neutrons. Thermoluminescent dosimeters are a cheap and reliable method for measuring radiation doses, [EERE imtndgs arouseay dct, rags dertsts and echins ho work ‘than, moter their exposure levels Malertube = Phyziee in action How technetium is produced ‘Technetiui-00m le the most widely used radioleotope in nuclear medicine Tis used for dlegnosing and teeating ‘cancer. Honaver, this radloisotape deeays relatively aqulokly and go usually needs to bo produced clo to ‘hare It to be used Technetium-98m ts produced in small nuolear genavatons thet ane located tn hospitals ‘sround tho country. In this provess, the radioisotope molybdenum 99, cttalned from Lucas Heights, 1s used as the parent nuollds, Molybdenum-99 decays Dy bets ‘emigaion to form a relatively stable (or metastable) ‘sotope of technetium, technetium-99m, as shown vetow Mo-9 "BT + S847 ‘Technothum Go io used from tho gonorator ‘sing a saline solution. The radolstopo is then ‘uted and avachod to an appropriate chamical compound totoro being administered tothe pallet aaa taser. Technetium 06m Is purely @ gamma emer. his makes i vary useful as « ‘lngnoste tool for loeating and treating cancer 1ts decay equation i gto + Bre +7 : 1 Choptor { Nuclearphysies and radioactivity «13radiation thatisemitted from thenuclei of radioactive atoms. Gamma rays usually accompany an alpha or Radioactive isotopes may deray, emitting alpha, beta and gamma radiation from their nuclei + Analpha particle, a, consists of two protonsand two bela emission, neutrons. Its identical to a helium nucleus and can + In any nuclear reaction, both atomic and mass be written as Se, or tHe. numbers are conserved, + A bela particle, Bis an electron, Je, that has been + Radiation can be detected ising a device such as a emitted from the nucleus of a radioactive atom as a Geiger counter. People can monitor their exposure to result of a neutron transmuting into a proton, radiation with film badges and thermoluminescent + A gamma ray, y is high-energy electromagnetic dosimeters. eee 1 From which part ofa radioisotope, thenucleus orthe a. List the paxticles that comprise the decay side of electron cloud, are the following particles emitted? this equation, a alpha particles b beta particles ¢ gamma rays bb Analyse the particles and determine which particle from the parent nucleus has decayed. € Write an equation that describes the nature ofthis Discuss the physical differences betiveen a, Band 7 rays. ‘ decay. 3 Identify each of these partctes. Secseeeeniaeeaetns a 4 Energy is released during this decay. In what form at i ‘ ce does this energy exist? 4 Determine the atomic and mass numbers for the unknown elements, Xin these decay equations, then use the periodic table to identify the elements. 9 Use the chart in Figure 1.14 to answer these ‘questions. 4 List all the stable nuclides of calcium, Z = 20, : a oe nae Y SAMS How many table cds does nicbiam, 2 =, 5 Determine the mode of radioactive decay foreach of «9K asa large imbalance of neutrons over protons the following transmutations. and so is radioactive. Find potassium-48 on the a BRn Pot X+y — b BAX AU chart and determine whether itis an alpha or beta Pb 'MBI4X+y — d BWPu SU emitter © "Co > Co +X 4 White the decay equation for potassium-d8 and determine whether the daughter nucleus is iself stable or radioactive. Calculate the ratio of neutzons to protons for each 6 When the stable isotope boron-10 is bombarded with neutrons, it transmutes by neutron capture into a different element X and emits alpha particles. The © equation for this reaction is ‘of potassium-48 and its daughter nucleus. "88 + Jn X +e £ ‘BF ie 9 sadiiotope, Ist an alpha or bet Identify the final element formed. 8 Determine the decay processes that francium-217 7 Identify the unknown particles in these nuclear undergoes before it becomes a stable nuclide; transmutations. identify this nuclide. a UN+a94O+X b ZAl+ X—ZMg+}H 10 Gold has only one naturally occurring isotope, "Au. CUNEXONCHIp d BNa+X o8Mg a tH If a piece of gold foil is irradiated with neutrons, neutron capture will occur and a radioactive isotope of gold will be produced. This radioisotope is a beta ‘emitter. Write an equation that describes the: a neutron absorption process b decay process, 8 Carbon-14 decays by beta emission to form nitrogen-I4, The equation for this is {C—> N+ fe+ ‘Ve Ikcan be seen that the carbon nucleus initially has six protons and eight neutrons. i {14 suctearphysics and racioaciviy |LS OF alo eel yevnnyneey inekdiberdherpy Alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays all originate from the same place—the nucleus of a radioisotope. Fach type of radiation has enough energy to dislodge electeons from the atoms and molecules that they smash into, This property is what makes radiation dangerous, but it also enables it to be detected. The properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation are distinctly different from each other. During early investigations of radioactivity, the emissions from a sample of radium were directed through 1a magnetic field. As shown in Figure 1.18, the emissions followed three distinct paths, suggesting that there were three different forms of radiation being emitted. Alpha particles [Alpha particles, 0, consist of two protons and tivo neutrons. Because ‘an alpha particle contains four nucleons, itis relatively heavy and slow moving. It is emitted from the nucleus at speeds of up to 20000 kms" (2.0 107 ms"), just less than 10% of the speed of light. Alpha particles have a double positive charge. This, combined with their relatively slow speed, makes them very easy to stop. They only travel a few centimetres in air before losing their energy, and will be completely absorbed by thin card. They have a poor penetrating ab 0.16 @ Bs oo 8 @ EDUIER the cetative spends of ipa, beta ana gamma ation (=) Aphapartces te the sloest ofthe reioactve emissions yplealy thy ace omited fm the mucous t upto {Wf the speed ofp. (b)Betaparticesae emitted om the mucleus at speeds upto 90% ofthe speed of ight. (] Goma adatin, being igh energy light, wavels atthe speed of ght (20x t0'm=" Beta partic Beta particles, 8, are fast-moving electrons, created when a neutron decays into three parls—a proton, an electron (the beta partie) and an antineutrino, Beta particles are much lighter than alpha particles, and so they leave the nucleus with far higher speeds—up to 90% of the speed of tight. (Chapter 1 Nuclear physies and radioactivity i. ' [EERE Wnenrasiaton fom radium passos ‘Wwoughamagnet fel he adation pts ‘upand takes he ferent paths. One path Isundefected the other two paths devi in ‘opposite drectonsandto different extents. his suggests that there ace three diferent forms af radaton beingemitted framraium. 7 Sy PRACTICAL ACTIVITY 2 SP roel of op scat ‘aluminiom lead [ERIE Gorama rays can pass through Fruman tissue and sheets of luminiu quite readily AS em hick heat fends needed tostop 97K ofthe gamma reysina eam, By comparizon alpha porteles are rat opab of pnevatngthvougha sheet of paper or beyond the sin of person,QUEL RY s a Beta particles are more. penetrating than alpha particles, being faster "oy pmacmean acme and with a smaller charge. They will ravel afew metres through air but, SC) altos out cheber typically, a sheet of aluminium about 1 mm thick will stop them. , Gama rays ‘Some types of radiation such 9 radio Gamma rays, % being electromagnetic radiation with a very high ae kapsepel epee frequency, have no rest mass and travel at the speed of light~-3.0% 108 ms fees paiovatg meatal aaa? or 200 000km s*. They have no electric charge. Their high energy and interact with atoms, naving enough uncharged nature make them a very penetrating form of radiation. Gamma energy to remove outershelt electrons | rays can travel an almost unlimited distance through air and even a few and oreaie ions Alpha particles, bata centimetres of lead or a metre of concrete would not completely absorb a Dalles and gamuna rays are ait i fonising 8000s eletromagnetic «(ea of gamma rays. radiation witha froqueney above i So sides aman srouauiel wid | The ionising abilities of alpha, beta and (ining ratation nerecs with human | gamma radiation favo, tte the fons that st produces | that are harmful and which leadto the | When an alpha particle travels through air, its slow speed and double ‘development of cancerous tumours, | positive charge cause it to interact with just about every atom that it aan on een encounters. The alpha particle dislodges electrons from many thousands of ‘microwaves, mfrared, visible ight and these atoms, tuzning them into ions. Each interaction slows it down a little, Ultevfole & ase nononising. We are andl eventually it will be able to pick up some loose electrons to become oxposed to elgificant amounts of suah. a helitim atom. This takes place within a centimetre or two in air. As a radiation eich day with ao serious ‘consequences, Non ionising radiation oes not have enough ononay to change the chemistry of the atome and molecules that mak up our body eli consequence, the air becomes quite fonised, and the alpha particles are said to have a high ionising ability. Since the alpha pasticles don’t get very far in the ai they have a poor penetrating ability. Beta particles have a negative charge and are repelled by the electron clouds ofthe atoms they interact with. This means that when a beta particle travels through matte, it experiences a large number of glancing collisions ae and loses less energy per collision than an alpha particle. As a result, beta =, particles do notionse as readily and will be more penetrating X-rays and gamma rays are ionising | Gama rays have no charge and move at the speed of light, and so are reaations Thay aro bo hgbenery | the moat highly penetsating form of radiation. Gamma rays interact eiromagne | attr infrequently, when they collide directly with a nucleus or electron. ‘roleased as high-energy photons), but gamma rays avo hghor onenga’Ta The low donsity of an atom makes this a relatively unlikely occurzence, ‘means thal gamina rays aro more highly Gamma rays pass through matter very easily—they have a very poor Penetrating than X-rays. Th defining ionising ability but a high penetrating abilit Aletinaton between Xeaye and gamma 8 lly Dut ahigh penetrating ability. rays 1s tho mothod of production. a | K-rays are created from eleciron The energy of c,, B and ¥ radiation transitions within the elootron aloud, | ‘horeas gemma raye are emitted ‘The energy of moving objects such as cars and tennis balls is measured from the nucil of radioactive atoms in joules. However, alpha, beta and gamma radiations have such small Gamma rays and X-rays have similar | amountsof energy thatthe joule is inappropriate. The energy of radioactive properties bat ezays are not the eeaull emissions is usually expressed in eletronvolts (eV). An electronvolt is the Hee eee if it were accelerated by a voltage of energy that an electron would gai 1 volt. csersanonearseoumneyent gantotoenyeg 16x 10-" Jie, LeV= 1.6 x 10-" J, 16 >< ruler physics andradioactvtyAlpha and beta particles are ejected from unstable nuclei with a wide range of energies. Alpha particles typically have energies of 5-10 million clectronvolts (5-10 MeV). This corresponds to speeds of about 16 000 km $", about 5-10% of the speed of light. Betn particles ace uswally ejected with energies up to a few million lectronvotis. For example, sodium-24 emits beta particles with a maximum energy of 14 Me¥. This is equivalent to 2.24 x 10° J. These particles are travelling at speeds quite close to the speed of light. Gamma rays normally have less than a million electronvolts of energy. ‘They may even haveenergy aslow as 100 WODelectronvolts, For example, the gamma rays emitted by the radioactive isotope gold-198 have a maximum energy of 412.000 eV (412 keV) or 66 x 10" J, Increasing the energy of a ‘gamma ray does not inerease its speed; it increases the frequency of the radiation. TE E ot Property ‘axparticle Bparticte yey Mass beavy light one Charge # 4 one “Typical enerey SMe ~ANev OA Mev Rengeinir fewer 1or2m ——_-manymetres Penetration in matter ~10-% mn afewmm igh Ionisingaitty high reasonable poor (SES Uranium-238 emits alpha particles wth a maximum onengy of 4.2 eV. 4 Explainwhya sample ofthisraiaisctopeoncased in plastics que sate toad yet, Inhaled as dst, would be considered very dangerous 1 caleulate the enerayof one ofthese alpha parties jules, 2 The apa panies have 2 por penetrating ty and so woul bearable 10 pass though he paste ang Haveve ithe daacive varia waa on dust parle au sine, the apo-eriing ule woul in dec contact ith ng tee ded thao price wu rage is ie b ave =azximter =a2xsone1 B10") 26710 Chapter 1 Nuclear physics and radioactivity Iexerotve torial ‘Momie Slabity = (Prusies file ‘The energy released during any nuclear reaction (inluding nectoaetve decay) is many times gestor than that released in ‘typical chemical reaction. For example ‘the chemical reaction of a sodium fon tapkuring an eloetron roloaces about 1 eV of energy. Bars o° 3 Na+ 1 ov Muolear reactions such as slpha, ‘beta and gamma desaye typically lease onegioe of the order of| mogaolectronvolts, MoY, Le. nuclear regotions release about @ milion times moro energy than chemical reactions,‘Smoke detectors Banh year, dozens of people in Australls dle as & result of \lomesti fires. Rvidance has shown that te installation of @ smoke detostor oan reduoe the rek of dying in & house fire by about 60%6. For tis ceason, nev houses are requlred to contain at least one smoke deteoton. Domestio smoke detectors contain a small radioactive source. Tho radiolsatope moot commonly used Is amoriclum 242, an artificial isotope which 4s proded in the cove of a nuclear reaston Amerielum-24 1 ‘omits alpha particles and Jow-enor@y gamma rays. The penetrating ability of tho alpha particles le eo poor that they are stopped by the cass of the detector. Some gamma rays ‘will eseape into the room, bat they have suoh low enersy ‘€-00 keV) that exposure to them Is insignificant won compared with he level of backround radiation, As wall as Uh, the detectors ara usually located tn the calling, some stance trom people, and this distance furthor reduges the Intensity of tho radiation, ‘A smoke detector contains a pate of oppoataly changed low-voltage metal electrodes. When the alpha pavticlos pase between these electrodes, they lonise the air molecules thal are present. These lons are then atzrected to tho electrodas. However, when smoke (or steam) Is prasent, tho lons attach ‘homeoives to the smoke particles. Tho flow of charges to the leotrodes reduces greatly boesure thece changed smoke Cor steam) particies are much blggor and so much less mebilo than the fonised air molecules, 1 i tia reduetion fa the flow of changes teaching the elsotrodes that tegors the alarm, Physies tn action Monitoring the thickness of sheet metal Beta partioles can be used to monitor the thikmass of rolled sheets of mots! and plastic during manufacture. A bots. particle souree is placed undor tho newly rolled sheet and a Aetector Is placed on the other side I the sheet is being made to thick, fewer beta particles wil penetrate and the detector count wil fal. This faformation fa instantaneously fed bacie to the rollers and the pressure Is increased until the correo: ‘reading is achleved, and hence the right thickness is attained. ‘ould pha particles or gasama rays be appropriate for thls task? Alpha particles have a very poor panwtrating nly, $9 none of them vould pass through the metal. Gamma ays vouslly have a high penetrating abllty and so a thin ‘metal sheet would not atop them. Worksrs would also need tobe shielded from gamma rediston. You can see that the penetrating properties of beta rays malo thom ideal for thls Job, The thlokness of photographie fllm and coatings on metal ‘surfaces ang elso monitored inthis way. AB] —18-—nuctearphysies and radioactivity contioibox bas Geigor ‘counter [IEE Me thickness ofa sheet of metal ismonitaredusing strain 90 isotope A team abet particiesis directed into ‘he otal and hase penetating the metal hast ae cauntedby a detector on ti othe sido. Tis count gives an indication ofthe thickness ofthemeta shee. The thicker the shes, helever the ountin any givn tine pviod.«© Alpha particles, are ejected with a speed of about 5-109 of the speed of light. Alpha particles have a double positive electrical charge and are relatively heavy. They are a highly tonising form of radiation, bout their penetzating ability is poor. «+ Beta particles have a single negative electrical change ‘and are muich lighter than alpha pasticles. They a2 a moderately ionising and penetrating form of radiation. 1 As part of an experiment, a scientist fires a beam of alpha, beta and gamma radiation at a brick. If the three radiation types are of equal energy, arrange them in order of: a increasing penetrating ability increasing ionising ability. 2 Which one of the following correctly explains how penetrating ability relates to the ionising ability of a radioactive emission? |A Emissions with more ionising ability have greater penetrating ability B Emissions with less ionising ability have more penetrating ability. C There is no relationship between the ionising. ‘lity and penetrating ability of a radioactive emission. 3 An external source of radiation is used to treat a brain tumour. Which type of radioactive emission is best suited for this treatment? Aradiographerinserts a radioactive wire ntoa breast cancer with the intention of destroying the cancerous ‘ells in close proximity to the wire. Should this wire bbe an alpha, beta or gamma emitter? Explain your reasoning. ‘Cancer patients being treated with an external source ‘of radiation have to wear lead aprons to protect their other tissue from exposure, Which forms of radiation js the lead apron shielding them from? 10 Gamma rays ate high-energy electromagnetic radiation and so have no electrical charge. They have a high peneitating ability, but a weak ionising, ability ‘The energy of alpha, beta and garama radiation is usually measured in electronvolts (€V). LeV= 16x10) Calculate the energy in joules of: a analpha particle with 88 MeV of energy bb abeta particle with 0.42 MeV of enerpy ¢ a.gamma ray with $00 keV of energy. [Alpha particles travelling through air ionise about ‘100-000 atoms each centimetre. Hach time they fonise ‘an atom, the alpha particles lose about 34 eV of energy. a How much energy will alpha particles loseas they pass through 1 cm of air? bb Calculate the approximate distance that an alpha particle with 8.6 MeV will travel in air before it loses all of its energy. Which one of the following has the greatest penetrating ability? ‘A Analpha particle with 5.3 MeV of energy B Abela particle with 1.2 MeV of energy C A gamma ray with700 keV of energy D A gamma ray with 0.81 MeV of energy Which radiation identified in question 8 will be the ‘most damaging to human tissue should irradiation occur? ‘A radioactive sample is emitting alpha, beta and gamma radiation into the ait. A Geiger counter held about 20 centimetres from the sample would be most Likely to detect A alpha, beta and gamma radiation. B gamma radiation only. C alpha radiation only. 1D beta and gamma radiation only. Chapter 1 Nuclear physics and radioactivityChapter 1 Nuclear physics and radioactivity 1.4 Atoms, isotopes and radioisotopes 1.420 protons, 5 neutrons, 45 nucleons 79 protons, 118 neutrons, 197 nucleons €92 protons, 143 neutrons, 235 nucleons 490 protons, 140 newtions, 230 nucleons 2.a27 protons, 33 neutrons b 94 protons, 145 neutrons 6 protons, 8 neutrons 3.A zadioisotope is an unstable isotope, At some time, it will spontaneously eject radiation in the form of alpha particles, beta particles or gamma rays from the nucleus, Three isotopes that are not radioisotopes could be any three stable isotopes, e.g, carbon-12, lead-206 and bismuth-209, 44Yes, a natural isotope can be radioactive, For example, every isotope of uranium is radioactive. 5 Polonium-210 and uranium-238, These have atomic numbers of &4 and 92 respectively; and every isotope beyond bismuth (Z = 83) in the periodic table is. radioactive, 6 a45.13x 10m? 113.25 10" kg m> b3.25 x 10" kg (325 million tonnes) €325 million cars d The density of normal matters far lower than the density of an atomic nucleus. 71.1%10? 8210m 9a There are no differences. b Kr has 5 more neutrons in its nucleus, 10 "AL 1.2 Radioactivity and how it is detected Jathe nucleus bthenucleus cthe nucleus 2 aisa helium nucleus, fis an election, yis slectromagnetic radiation, 3abetaparticle b proton calpha particle d neutron 4aZ=82,A=214 lead bZ=90,A=231, thorium ¢Z~89, A=228, actinium dZ~80, A ~ 198, mercury Sag bB cf da ey 6lithium7 Zaproton bneuiron eneutron d alpha particle 8.7 protons, 7 neutrons, I election, 1 antineutrino b Aneutron has decayed. ein->ip + fe +9 4 Kinetic energy carried by the beta particle, antineutrino and nitrogen-14 nuclews. 9.a8Ca, "Ca, Ca, Ca, %Ca,#Ca bone cbeta dK 8Ca+ $B, 8Ca is stable ©K153,Ca: 140 falpha-emitter BYP: BAC+ 0-928 + 40; bismuth-209 is stable 1aBAutjn>'SAu b Aus Ste + tp S76 Solutions, 1.3 Properties of alpha, beta and gamma radiation Lag By by Ba 2B 3 Gamna radiation is most suitable since its penetrating ability will enable it to reach the tumour. 4 Abeta emitter would be best suited because its penetrating ability would enable i to irradiate a small volume of tissue around the source. Alpha radiation, would not penetrate the tumour at al, andl gamma zadiation would pass out of the body irradiating some healthy cells along the way. Beta and gamma radiation. Alpha particles are soon absorbed by air, but beta and gamma radiation can travel through air for metres, GalAxIO"] b67x10"] €8.0x10-J 7a3AxIWeV b165cm 8b 9A 10D 1.4 Half-life and activity of radioisotopes 1C 2al0g b5g 25g dag 3a 400: 360: 300: 260: 200 180. 100, 50 o ‘Count rate (Bq) To 20 30 40 60 Tie (min) b-235 Bq ¢20min d50Bq 415min 505 6 192\tg 7a 10halt-lives b~240 000 years Sa uranium-235.b it has a much shorter halflife than ‘uranium-238 and so has decayed much more rapidly ince the formation of the Earth, 9.a From the activity graph, the time that the activity takes to halve from 800 Ba to 400 Bq is 10 minutes. This isthe halttife. 50 Bq 10a Over time, the radioisotopes transmute by a series (of decays to form lead-206, which is stable, The percentage of lead in the sample will increase over time. b Po has such a short half-life (160 ps) that when ™4Bi nuclei decay to™"Po, they almost instantaneously transmute to "Pb.