THREE PHASE VECTOR CONTROLLED

OPTIMISER

Seminar Report Submitted

for the partial fulfilment
of
Diploma in Engineering

ROHIT C KUMARATH
14031248

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

hhm jdt islam polytechnic college
May 2017
 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
HHM JDT ISLAM POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

Certificate

This is to certify that the seminar report entitled THREE PHASE

VECTOR CONTROLLED is a bonafide record of the seminar
presented by ROHIT C KUMARATH, Reg. No.14031248
towards the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of
Diploma in Electrical & Electronics Engineering under the Technical
Education Department Government of Kerala during the academic year
2016-2017.

Head of Department Staff in Charge

place ..................
date ...../...../........
Submitted for the semester examination held on ..................................
External Internal

i
 Acknowledgment

I express my sincere thanks to Miss. Sareena Abdual Rashed [Head of

the Electrical & Electronics, Department] Mr. Shabas & Mr. Aslam
[Staff in Charge] for their kind co-operation for presenting the
seminar. I also extent my sincere thanks to all other members of the
faculty of the Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department and
my friends for their co-operation and encouragement.

Sincerely
ROHIT C KUMARATH

ii
 Abstract
Voltage optimization is an energy saving technology that is installed
in series with the main electricity supply to systematically optimize,
regulate and clean the incoming power to bring the voltage supplied
into a building in line with what is required by equipment, machinery
and appliances.
This is a three phase vector addition / subtraction Voltage Optimizer
that can be used for buck-only or boost-only or buck-boost voltage
regulation with an accuracy of +/-1 %. The duty-cycle of the PWM
is controlled by the DSP which has a PWM resolution of 1ns step so
an accuracy of much better than 1% regulation can be obtained.
PWM is made between phase to phase instead of neutral to phase.
Because of this neutral is not required for the working of unit. And
the output has potential with existing neutral. Three phase load can
directly be connected across three wire output.
Contents

1 INTRODUCTION 2

2 THE BASICS 3

3 CHARACTERISTICS, CONTRUCTION
AND WORKING 4
3.1 Power topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2 Highlights of this design are: . . . . . . . . . 7
3.3 Active Clamping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.4 Bypass arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.5 Connection of 3-Phase Delta Load and single
phase load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

4 FEATURES 11

5 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES 13

6 ORDINARY VOLTAGE OPTIMIZER 16

6.1 Three phase auto transformer. . . . . . . . 17
6.2 Three phase stabilizer . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
6.3 Three phase servo stabilizer . . . . . . . . . 21
6.3.1 Three Phase Input & Three Phase
Output (Balanced Load) . . . . . . . 22

i
 6.3.2Three Phase Input & Three Phase
Output (Unbalanced Load) . . . . . 23
6.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
ORDINARY VOLTAGE OPTIMIZER . . . 24

7 SPECIALTIES OF THREE PHASE VEC-

TOR CONTROLLER 25

8 CIRCUITS THREE PHASE VECTOR

CONTROLLER 26

9 OVERVOLTAGE 28
9.1 Man-made sources of spikes . . . . . . . . . 30

10 HARMONICS 32
10.1 Partials, overtones, and harmonics . . . . . 34

11 COMPARISON OF VOLTAGE REDUC-

TION METHOD 37

12 APPLICATIONS 40

13 CONCLUSION 41

14 LIST OF REFERENCES 42

1
Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

New innovations in voltage optimization also allow for

the energy saved through this system to be diverted into
an energy saving system to be used when needed by con-
trolling the vector, this also be integrated into this for max-
imum benefits. A voltage optimization system should not
be viewed as an off the shelf solution and a be undertaken,
to ensure that the unit to be installed suits the require-
ments of the business, in order to maximize the benefits
and savings.

This is an SMPS type voltage optimizer for mains voltage

(AC input and AC output). This is a new delta PWM
switching topology where PWM is made directly in 3-Phase
AC-to-AC, without adding any harmonic distortion. In
this topology there is no need to convert the AC input
to DC and again convert it back to regulated AC output.
This simplifies the design, reduces the component count
and improves the efficiency and reliability. The power stage
is a delta 3-Phase IGBT chopper control.

2
Chapter 2

THE BASICS

The three phase three-wire input, three-wire output (delta

in delta out) Static voltage optimizer. The main advantage
of this development is it works without neutral. Because
the unit does not require neutral it is not dependent on the
availability or the quality of the neutral line. But single
phase loads can be connected from any of the phase output
to the existing neutral.

For three phase delta loads like three phase delta motor,
delta input transformer etc regulating the voltage with re-
spect to neutral and then feeding to delta is not reliable
because it will depend on the neutrals quality.

3
Chapter 3

CHARACTERISTICS,
CONTRUCTION AND WORKING

The three phase three-wire input, three-wire output (delta

in delta out) Static voltage optimizer. The main advantage
of this development is it works without neutral. Because
the unit does not require neutral it is not dependant on the
availability or the quality of the neutral line. But single
phase loads can be connected from any of the phase output
to the existing neutral. This is an IGBT based delta PWM
topology - 100A to 500A each phase.

PWM is made between phase to phase instead of neutral

to phase. Because of this neutral is not required for the
working of unit. And the output has potential with existing
neutral. Three phase load can directly be connected across
three wire output. And single phase load can be connected
from any one of the output to existing neutral.

4
 This is an SMPS type voltage optimizer for mains voltage
(AC input and AC output). This is a new delta PWM
switching topology where PWM is made directly in 3-Phase
AC-to-AC, without adding any harmonic distortion. In
this topology there is no need to convert the AC input
to DC and again convert it back to regulated AC output.
This simplifies the design, reduces the component count
and improves the efficiency and reliability. The power stage
is a delta 3-Phase IGBT chopper control. The chopping
frequency is around 20 KHz which ensures absolute silent
operation and pure sine wave output (does not produce
any waveform distortion). It has a special feature of Active
Clamping there is no switching at unclamped inductive load
which will cause high surge during turn-off.

5
3.1 Power topology

Power topology It is a two phase interleaved switching

circuit, each power stage switching in 180 degrees out of
phase. The switching frequency in each phase is 20 KHz
so the resultant switching frequency in the final output is
40KHz. Very low ripple current in input and output due to
interleaved switching. For three phase delta loads like three
phase delta motor, delta input transformer etc regulating
the voltage with respect to neutral and then feeding to delta
is not reliable because it will depend on the neutrals quality.
The balance in delta will change if there is any neutral open
or neutral floating / high impedance. Delta to delta voltage
optimization is the most reliable method as the regulation
of the output voltage is irrespective of the neutral. Neutral
floating / high impedance will not affect the regulation of
the voltage optimizer. In a four wire system, if the load is
non-linear there will be heavy neutral current. In case of
imbalanced loads also there will be a neutral current.

The 3-phase 3-wire system is the most efficient power

transmission method and more economical than 3-phase 4-
wire system or single-phase or two-phase systems at the
same voltage because it uses less conductor material to
transmit same electric power.

Additionally, if the system needs to be switched out of

circuit so the site is supplied with mains electricity sup-
ply the system can be incorporated with a Manual Bypass

6
switch. The system is highly reliable and safe as it is fully
electronic, there is no moving part which can cause damage
due to wear and tear or require regular maintenance. All
protections are inbuilt in the system to protect it in haz-
ardous conditions. Active clamping, IGBT de-saturation
protection and soft turn-off, Miller clamping to avoid shoot
through conduction in IGBT power stage, short circuit pro-
tection, lightning and surge protection, EMI /RFI filter are
all included in the system.

3.2 Highlights of this design are:

*Fully solid state, no moving parts thus less maintenance

*Due to specialty of the power topology 3 Phase 3-wire

system is possible. Can also use 4-wire if needed by simply
connecting the existing neutral to the load.

*PWM type voltage regulation results smooth variation

of the voltage and no need of voltage tappings.

*Tight regulated output +/-1 % or better. Saves more

energy than SCR controlled tap changing or fixed step-
down transformer type energy savers.

*High correction speed.

7
 *Only the difference power is processed through the sys-
tem resulting higher efficiency.

In a resistive or inductive load the wattage is directly

proportional to the voltage square. So if there is a 2% in-
crease in the voltage, the wattage is the square of that 2%
which amounts big. The losses due to poor regulation in
SCR control tap changing type of voltage stabilizer, fixed
transformer, servo stabilizer are higher than IGBT PWM
type of stabilizer. In an SCR control tap changing type
of voltage stabilizer, fixed transformer, servo stabilizer, the
best regulation possible is only 3% to 5%. If using these
methods we should achieve 2% tight regulation, 220 * 2%
= 4.4V, so for every 4.4V increment we have to use an
SCR tapping. This will result in huge number of SCRs
and this will lead to nuisance as for every 4.4V change in
the input the SCR should fire and the tap change to take
place. Moreover, with relays or SCRs the tap variation is
in steps whereas IGBT PWM is a smooth variation with
a resolution of 1ns steps. Though 0.25% regulation is pos-
sible we are regulating at 1.0% in order to avoid feed-back
oscillation.

3.3 Active Clamping

Active Clamping - One of the major challenges we face

in AC to AC PWM switching is the unclamped inductive
8
switching. This will lead to high energy loss because of the
spikes and huge snubber is required. In our design, there
is no unclamped switching because of Active Clamping so
snubber circuit is not required.
The DSP will sense the fly back voltage direction as well
as the incoming phase sequence and will periodically and
cyclically disable the PWM and turn on the IGBTs to
clamp the fly back voltage back to the incoming 3 phase line
so that efficiency will increase and the IGBT will operate
in spike free active clamped inductive switching.

3.4 Bypass arrangements

Bypass arrangements Internal bypass switch is already pro-

vided. This will give a bypass without any interruption in
the output. The system will activate the internal bypass
when there is any abnormal condition like excess tempera-
ture, excess load or any fault in the system.

9
3.5 Connection of 3-Phase Delta Load and single phase
load

10
Chapter 4

FEATURES

1. Only three half bridge IGBT modules required because

of 3 Phase delta PWM power topology.
2. Three phase three wire operation eliminates the neu-
tral connection Only three half bridge IGBT modules
required for the power stage
3. Direct AC-AC conversion without rectifying to DC im-
proves the efficiency, reliability and reduces the compo-
nents.
4. Rapid cycle by cycle correction of output. It can cor-
rect sudden fluctuation in the line voltage. For example
using a welding machine in the same line will cause sud-
den fluctuation in the line voltage which cannot be cor-
rected with conventional relay type and servo controlled
voltage stabilizers, where Static Voltage Optimizer can
correct it.
5. Output regulation of +/- 1% which is impossible in
conventional stabilizer.
6. No distortion in output waveform.
7. Overload cut off and short circuit cut off

11
 8. Over voltage and under voltage cut off.
9. Automatic bypass in case of hazard/ failure.
10. LCD for displaying all parameters.
11. The actual power, optimized power and saved power
displayed with date and time stamp.
12. Small transformer size (1/5
13. Compact size and light weight th of the capacity)
14. 20KHz PWM control resulting silent operation.
15. IGBT power stage. Highly reliable.
16. Fully solid state. No moving part, hence more life and
no maintenance.
17. Periodically the unit goes to fully uninterrupted bypass
for a short while and measures actual power consumed
by the load and comes back to voltage optimize mode,
measures the reduction in the power and calculates how
much energy is saved. This is measured using class 0.5
certified 3 phase energy meter. These parameters are
displayed in the LCD along with other parameters like
voltage, current, power factor, harmonics etc
18. System has built-in datalogger. All the parameters are
periodically saved to flash memory with date and time
stamp. The device is also having a wireless Zigbee com-
munication interface. A computer or other device can
wirelessly monitor or download the data and thereafter
upload to the Internet.

12
Chapter 5

ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGES

Advantage of three wire delta conversion Voltage opti-

mization without neutral has a unique advantage. Some-
times, if the input neutral is floating or of high impedance
at the time of load imbalance there will be a high drift
in voltages in the three phases with respect to the neutral
of the voltage optimizer; this will cause reliability issues
for the voltage optimizer. Due to the imbalanced load or
non-linear load, the voltage optimizer should handle high
neutral current so the voltage

optimizer should be designed in a way it should handle

such high currents. Our delta voltage optimizer does not
have any neutral so these concerns do not come into picture.

For three phase delta loads like three phase delta motor,
delta input transformer etc regulating the voltage with re-
spect to neutral and then feeding to delta is not reliable

13
because it will depend on the neutrals quality. The bal-
ance in delta will change if there is any neutral open or
neutral floating / high impedance. Delta to delta voltage
optimization is the most reliable method as the regulation
of the output voltage is irrespective of the neutral. Neutral
floating / high impedance will not affect the regulation of
the voltage optimizer.

In a four wire system, if the load is non-linear there will

be heavy neutral current. In case of imbalanced loads also
there will be a neutral current.

The 3-phase 3-wire system is the most efficient power

transmission method and more economical than 3-phase 4-
wire system or single-phase or two-phase systems at the
same voltage because it uses less conductor material to
transmit same electric power.

Positive environmental.
Reduce electricity charges
Saves valuable fuel
Save energy
Improve efficiency
Transformer required is less than 1/5th of its rating
Reduction in energy consumption (kWh)
14
 Reduction in carbon footprint (CO2)
Reduction in maximum demand (kVA)
Reduction in levels of voltage harmonics
Improvement in power factor
Improvement in power quality
Improvement in operation of electrical equipment
Improvement in lifetime of electrical equipment.

DISADVANTAGES

High initial cost when compared ordinary voltage op-

timizer.
Time taking long manufacturing
Long time for error correction is required.
Risky fault correction
Maximum capacity upto 300 Kva.

15
Chapter 6

ORDINARY VOLTAGE OPTIMIZER

The main drawback of the ordinary voltage optimizer is

that they limits the current only by optimizing the voltage
only and it dont control the vector and increases the profit
well like the three phase vector controlled voltage optimizer
and which is too bulky in size too.

Voltage optimization is an electrical energy saving tech-

nique which is mainly installed in series with the mains
electricity supply to provide a reduced supply voltage for
the sites equipment. Typically, voltage optimization can
improve power quality by balancing phase voltages and fil-
tering harmonics and transients from the supply, although
not always. Voltage optimizers are essentially transformer
used to deliver power at a reduced voltage from the raw
mains supply.

The term voltage optimization is frequently misused, as

the term implies some form of selective voltage reduction,
which will improve the energy consumption within a build-
ing, whereas generally these units consists of a transformer
within a box, offering no selectivity and dropping voltage

16
on all supplies, whether this would offer a commercial ben-
efit or not. Some VO units have been installed on high
frequency lighting circuits, offering little or no commercial
benefit; therefore one must be careful when the term is
used.

Most VO units are installed in commercial premises in

between the raw mains transformer and main low voltage
distribution board. However, this provides for no selectiv-
ity and in electrical engineering terms is considered a poor
solution. A full study should be undertaken by the facil-
ities manager and VO Company, to select which supplies
could benefit the owner by reducing the voltage and which
supplies would give no commercial benefit. This way the
owner only purchases a VO of the correct size and not one
thats for all supplies.

Installing a VO unit to optimize all supplies would give

a longer return on investment, a higher capital outlay and
makes little commercial sense.

6.1 Three phase auto transformer.

Unlike the previous voltage transformer which has two

electrically isolated windings called: the primary and the
secondary, an Autotransformer has only one single voltage
winding which is common to both sides.
17
 This single winding is tapped at various points along its
length to provide a percentage of the primary voltage sup-
ply across its secondary load. Then the autotransformer
has the usual magnetic core but only has one winding,
which is common to both the primary and secondary cir-
cuits.

18
 Therefore in an autotransformer the primary and sec-
ondary windings are linked together both electrically and
magnetically. The main advantage of this type of trans-
former design is that it can be made a lot cheaper for the
same VA rating, but the biggest disadvantage of an auto-
transformer is that it does not have the primary/secondary
winding isolation of a conventional double wound trans-
former.

The section of winding designated as the primary part

of the winding is connected to the AC power source with
the secondary being part of this primary winding. An au-
totransformer can also be used to step the supply voltage
up or down by reversing the connections. If the primary
is the total winding and is connected to a supply, and the
secondary circuit is connected across only a portion of the
winding, then the secondary voltage is stepped-down as
shown.

6.2 Three phase stabilizer

The Three Phase Stabilizers uses an advanced electronic

servo-motor concept to control a motorized variable trans-
former. Because of the motorization, there is a small delay
in voltage correction. However, output voltage accuracy is
usually

19
 1% with input voltage changes up to 50%. These ma-
chines are not affected unduly by power factor or frequency
variation. This type of technology tends to be extremely
effective when considering large three phase applications,
as it is able to maintain its accuracy of all three phases,
both line to line and line to neutral, irrespective of input
voltage

balance and load balance at any power factor. They

are also able to withstand large inrush currents, normally
experienced with inductive loads. However due to the me-
chanics of this type of stabilizer, periodic maintenance is
required.

20
6.3 Three phase servo stabilizer

This type of servo stabilizer consists of an AC synchronous

motor coupled with an Auto Transformer using gears. Now
depending upon the input fluctuation, the servo motors
adjusts the output of the Auto-transformer to provide a
stabilized output.

Servo stabilizer control the voltage variation and safe

equipment if it is single phase it stabilize 220-230V and for
three phase it stabilize 420- 440V. For carding, drawing,
damming, comber, spinning, causing and winding for move
here. Separate servo stabilizers are provided most of ma-
chine work on single phase and each machine single phase
supply for controlling system and for the panel board.

Autoronica uses embedded software in RISC microcon-

troller for the control circuitry. Its application is where
input supply & load output are single phase operated.

21
6.3.1 Three Phase Input & Three Phase Output (Balanced Load)

This type of servo stabilizer consists of an AC synchronous

motor coupled with three Auto Transformer using a shaft
& compatible gears. Now depending upon the input fluc-
tuation, the servo motors adjusts the output of the Auto-
transformer to provide a stabilized output. Autoronica uses
embedded software in RISC microcontroller for the control
circuitry.

Its application is where input supply is three phase &

output required at load is balanced in all 3 phases. Exam-
ples of such
22
 applications are:-

* 3 Phase Motor Applications

*CNC Machines

*Coloured Offset Printing Press

*Escalators& Elevators

6.3.2 Three Phase Input & Three Phase Output (Unbalanced Load)

This type of servo stabilizer consists of three independent

AC synchronous motors coupled with three Auto Trans-
former using a shaft & compatible gears. Now depend-
ing upon the input fluctuation, the servo motors adjusts
the output of the Auto-transformer to provide a stabilized
output. Autoronica uses embedded software in RISC mi-
crocontroller for the control circuitry of each phase. Its
application is where input supply is three phase & load is
unbalanced in all the phases. Examples of such

applications are:-

* Medical Equipments

*Industrial Loads
23
 * Lighting Load Applications

* Air Conditioning Plants

6.4 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES ORDI-

NARY VOLTAGE OPTIMIZER

ADVANTAGES ORDINARY VOLTAGE OPTIMIZER

Low cost
Easy manufacturing
Easy maintenance

DISADVANTAGES ORDINARY VOLTAGE OPTIMIZER

Dont limit the current in a great manner.

There may have spikes after the voltage optimization.
To avoid spikes we should want to use isolation trans-
former that would increase our cost.
Vector is not corrected

24
Chapter 7

SPECIALTIES OF THREE PHASE

VECTOR CONTROLLER

25
Chapter 8

CIRCUITS THREE PHASE VECTOR

CONTROLLER

26
27
Chapter 9

OVERVOLTAGE

Overvoltage refers to voltage higher than the voltage at

which equipment is designed to operate most effectively. It
causes a reduction in equipment lifetime and increases in
energy consumed with no improvement in performance.

A commentary on the Wiring Regulations BS7671 makes

the following statements in relation to overvoltage: A 230V
rated lamp used at 240 will achieve only 55% of its rated
life (referring to incandescent lamps) and A 230V linear ap-
pliance used on a 240V supply will take 4.3% more current
and will consume almost 9% more energy.

28
 Electronic and electrical devices are designed to operate
at a certain maximum supply voltage, and considerable
damage can be caused by voltage that is higher than that
for which the devices are rated.

For example, an electric light bulb has a wire in it that

at the given rated voltage will carry a current just large
enough for the wire to get very hot (giving off light and
heat), but not hot enough for it to melt. The amount of
current in a circuit depends on the voltage supplied: if the
voltage is too high, then the wire may melt and the light
bulb would have burned out real time. Similarly other
electrical devices may stop working, or may even burst into
flames if an overvoltage is delivered to the circuit. Vari-
ous technologies can be used to avoid overvoltage, but it
must be done so efficiently so that energy savings result-
ing from using the correct voltage are not offset by en-
ergy wasted within the device used to do so. Reliability is
29
also important, and there are potential problems inherent
in running full incoming power through electro-mechanical
devices such as servo-controlled variable autotransformers.

Under voltage refers to voltage lower than the voltage

at which equipment is designed to operate most effectively.
If the design of the VO does not take into consideration
voltage drop over distance to remote power users, then this
may lead to premature equipment failure, failure to start
up, increased temperature in the case of motor windings
and loss of service.

9.1 Man-made sources of spikes

Man-made sources of spikes are usually caused by electro-

magnetic induction when switching on or off inductive loads
(such as electric motors or electromagnets), or by switch-
ing heavy resistive AC loads when zero-crossing circuitry is
not used - anywhere a large change of current takes place.
One of the purposes of electromagnetic compatibility com-
pliance is to eliminate such sources.
An important potential source of dangerous overvoltage
is electronic warfare. There is intensive military research in
this field, whose goal is to produce various transient elec-
tromagnetic devices designed to generate electromagnetic
pulses that will disable an enemys electronic equipment.
A recent military development is that of the exploding ca-
pacitor designed to radiate a high voltage electromagnetic
pulse. Another intense source of an electromagnetic pulse

30
is a nuclear explosion.

The transient pulses can get into the equipment either

by power or data lines, or directly through space from a
strong electromagnetic field change - an electromagnetic
pulse (EMP). Filters are used to prevent spikes entering or
leaving the equipment through wires, and the devices cou-
pled electromagnetically to space (such as radio-frequency
pick-up coils in MRI scanners) are protected by shielding.

31
Chapter 10

HARMONICS

Harmonics are current and voltage waveforms at multiples

of the fundamental frequency of the 50 Hz (or 60 Hz) main
supply. Harmonics are caused by non-linear loads, which
include power supplies for computer equipment, variable
speed drives, and discharge lighting. Tripled harmonics
(odd multiples of the third harmonic) result when phase
voltages are not balanced in a three phase power systems
and add in the neutral, causing wasteful currents to flow.

The possible effects if the level of harmonics, known as

total harmonic distortion becomes too high include dam-
age to sensitive electronic equipment and reduction in the
efficiency of the HV transformer. The efficiency of electri-
cal loads can be improved by attenuating harmonics at the
supply, or by preventing their generation. Some voltage op-
timization devices also mitigate harmonics, reducing losses
associated with harmonic content on the electrical system.

32
 The term harmonic in its strictest sense describes any
member of the harmonic series. The term is employed
in various disciplines, including music and acoustics, elec-
tronic power transmission, radio technology, etc. It is typi-
cally applied to repeating signals, such as sinusoidal waves.
A harmonic of such a wave is a wave with a frequency that
is a positive integer multiple of the frequency of the original
wave, known as the fundamental frequency.

The original wave is also called 1st harmonic, the fol-

lowing harmonics are known as higher harmonics. As all
harmonics are periodic at the fundamental frequency, the
sum of harmonics is also periodic at that frequency. For
example, if the fundamental frequency is 50 Hz, a com-
mon AC power supply frequency, the frequencies of the
first three higher harmonics are 100 Hz (2nd harmonic),
150 Hz (3rd harmonic), 200 Hz (4th harmonic) and any
addition of waves with these frequencies is periodic at 50
33
Hz.

10.1 Partials, overtones, and harmonics

An overtone is any partial higher than the lowest partial in

a compound tone. The relative strengths and frequency re-
lationships of the component partials determine the timbre
of an instrument. The similarity between the terms over-
tone and partial sometimes leads to their being loosely used
interchangeably in a musical context, but they are counted
differently, leading to some possible confusion.

In the special case of instrumental timbres whose compo-

nent partials closely match a harmonic series (such as with
most strings and winds) rather than being inharmonic par-
tials (such as with most pitched percussion instruments), it
is also convenient to call the component partials harmon-
ics but not strictly correct (because harmonics are num-
bered the same even when missing, while partials and over-
tones are only counted when present). This chart demon-
strates how the three types of names (partial, overtone, and
harmonic) are counted (assuming that the harmonics are
present):

34
 In many musical instruments, it is possible to play the
upper harmonics without the fundamental note being present.
In a simple case (e.g., recorder) this has the effect of making
the note go up in pitch by an octave, but in more complex
cases many other pitch variations are obtained. In some
cases it also changes the timbre of the note. This is part
of the normal method of obtaining higher notes in wind
instruments, where it is called overblowing.

The extended technique of playing multiphonics also pro-

duces harmonics. On string instruments it is possible to
produce very pure sounding notes, called harmonics or fla-
geolets by string players, which have an eerie quality, as well
as being high in pitch. Harmonics may be used to check at
a unison the tuning of strings that are not tuned to the uni-
son. For example, lightly fingering the node found halfway
down the highest string of a cello produces the same pitch
35
as lightly fingering the node 13 of the way down the second
highest string. For the human voice see Overtone singing,
which uses harmonics.

While it is true that electronically produced periodic

tones (e.g. square waves or other non-sinusoidal waves)
have harmonics that are whole number multiples of the
fundamental frequency, practical instruments do not all
have this characteristic. For example, higher harmonics
of piano notes are not true harmonics but are overtones
and can be very sharp, i.e. a higher frequency than given
by a pure harmonic series. This is especially true of instru-
ments other than stringed or brass/woodwind ones, e.g.,
xylophone, drums, bells etc., where not all the overtones
have a simple whole number ratio with the fundamental
frequency.

36
Chapter 11

COMPARISON OF VOLTAGE
REDUCTION METHOD

High frequency operation of PWM converters allow reduc-

tion of the size and weight of their magnetic components.
However, at high switching frequency, switching losses and
EMI emissions become significant and must be reduced.
Take the PWM boost converter as an example. The diodes
passive switching characteristics cause large power spikes in
the main switch during the turn-on and turn-off intervals
by forcing the main switch to have simultaneous non-zero
current and voltage [15]. Furthermore, because of the re-
verse recovery of the diode during the main switch turn-on
interval, there is a shoot through of the output capacitor
to ground, causing a substantial current spike through the
diode and main switch. Another loss element associated
with the switch is the built up

charge in the device which dissipates in the switch dur-

ing turn-on. For MOSFETs, this drain to source charge is
substantial and contributes further to the switching losses.
These switch turn-on and turn-off losses increase linearly
with switching frequency and must be reduced in order to

37
take advantage of the high switching frequency PWM con-
verters. In recent years, many voltage-mode soft-switching
techniques have been proposed [2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12] and
show promising solutions to the switching and the shoot
through problems of high frequency PWM converters. These
methods enable the main switch to be turned on and off at
zero voltage. They are most notably helpful with MOSFET
devices because they reduce the substantial losses associ-
ated with turn-on of the MOSFET switch. Zero voltage
softswitching techniques have also been used with IGBTs
with improved performance [4,13,14].

38
 In this paper, a group of voltage-mode soft-switching con-
verters utilizing an auxiliary switch with an inductor were
selected to do an efficiency comparison. These methods in-
tend to improve the PWM efficiency by allowing the main
switch to be turned on and off with zero voltage and con-
trolling the diodes turn-off transient. Even though the
losses in the main switch are dramatically reduced, the
auxiliary circuits will add some additional losses to the
converter. Therefore, to improve the overall efficiency of
the converter, the losses in the auxiliary circuit must be
smaller than the energy savings from the soft-switching of
the main switch. Identification of the these losses within
the auxiliary circuit are crucial to engineering applications.

It is the aim of this paper to compare these soft-switching

techniques including the two improvement circuits devel-
oped at UCI. The advantages and disadvantages of each
method are identified and verified through experimental
tests. The overall efficiency of the methods are examined
with the consideration of the conduction and switching
losses present in the auxiliary and main circuit. Section
II describes the general theory behind the compared tech-
niques. Section III describes the five different methods.
Section IV discusses the experimental setup and procedure.
Section V shows the experimental comparison.

39
Chapter 12

APPLICATIONS

1. 3 Phase Motor Applications

2. CNC Machines
3. Coloured Offset Printing Press
4. Escalators& Elevators
5. Medical Equipments
6. Industrial Loads
7. Lighting Load Applications
8. Air Conditioning Plants
9. Places where power factor should be maintained
10. Scanning machine
11. Ultra sonic machine
12. computer lab

40
Chapter 13

CONCLUSION

THE THREE PHASE VECTOR CONTROLLED VOLT-

AGE OPTIMIZATION IS METH-OD WHICH COULD
SAVE OR OPTIMIZE THE VOLTAGE AND POWER
THE SAME TIME AND MAKE PROFIT TO CONSUMER
AT A GREAT LEVEL.

41
Chapter 14

LIST OF REFERENCES

http://www.medielectronics.com/
http://powerstar.com/what-is-voltage-optimisation/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltage optimisation
https://interferencetechnology.com/electromagnetic-interfe
sources-and-their-mo...

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