ACKNOWLEDGMENT

I am extremely grateful to Mr. J.B. Punia, Teacher

of Department of Physics for his able guidance and
useful suggestions, which helped me in completing
the project work, in time.
I would also like to thank all the teaching and non-
teaching staff of Chemistry department who helped
me directly or indirectly in the completion of this
project.
Finally, yet importantly, I would like to express my
heartfelt thanks to my beloved parents for their
blessings, my friends/classmates for their help and
wishes for the successful completion of this project.

Sheetal
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Physics project work on

PHTODTECTOR & LED AND THEIR USES
IN COMMUNICATION is a bonafide record of
work done by '............ NAME ..................
under my guidance and supervision.

(Physics Teacher)
 CONTENTS
1. Synopsis.
2.Principle Of Instruments.
3.Theory.
A.Why Use Leds As Sensors.
B. Drawbacks Of Leds As Light
Sensors.
C. Leds Detect Specific Colors Of
Light
4.Visible Light Photo-Detector Circuits.
A.Basic Phototransister Detector.
B. Basic CdS Photocell Detector.
C. Basic Photocell Detector.
5.LEDs as Light Sensors.
6. Burglar Alarm
7. Observation.
8.Result.
9.Discussion.
10.Bibliography.
 SYNOPSiS

In the project The Uses , The Drawbacks

and The Detection of specific color of
lights of LEDs and LDRs is shown.
The project also briefly explains the use
of various basic photo-detectors .
It tells the use of LEDs as light sensors
briefly.
 PRINCIPLE OF
INSTRUMENTS
1. Different types of LEDs.
2.Current limiting resistors for LEDs - Resistors
are used to limit current flow, to adjust signal levels, bias active
elements. The principle is also applied in the carbon microphone.
3.Multimeter - A multimeter is an electronic measuring
instrument that combines several measurement functions in one
unit.
4.Breadboard - A breadboard is a solder less device for
temporary prototype with electronics and test circuit designs.
5.Flash light.
6.Microcontroller - A microcontroller unit, or MCU, is a
specialized type of digital computer used to provide automatic
sequencing or control of a system.
 THEORY
A photodiode is a semiconductor device that
converts light into current. The current is
generated when photons are absorbed in the
photodiode. A small amount of current is also
produced when no light is present. Photodiodes may
contain optical filters, built-in lenses, and may have
large or small surface areas. Photodiodes usually
have a slower response time as its surface area
increases. The common, traditional solar cell used
to generate electric solar power is a large area
photodiode.
Photodiodes are similar to regular semiconductor
diodes except that they may be either exposed (to
detect vacuum UV or X-rays) or packaged with a
window or optical fiber connection to allow light to
reach the sensitive part of the device. Many
diodes designed for use specifically as a
photodiode use a PIN junction rather than a pn
junction, to increase the speed of response. A
photodiode is designed to operate in reverse bias.
Why Use LEDs As Sensors?
Silicon photodiodes are widely available and
inexpensive. So why use LEDs as light sensors?
LEDs detect a narrow band of wavelengths,

which is why I call them spectrally selective

photodiodes. A silicon photodiode has a very
broad spectral response, about 400nm (violet)
to 1,000nm (invisible near-IR), and requires an
expensive filter for detecting a specific
wavelength.
The sensitivity of most LEDs is very stable

over time. So are silicon photodiodes but

filters have limited life.
LEDs can both emit and detect light. This

means an optical data link can be established

with only a single LED at each end, since
separate transmitting and receiving LEDs
arent needed.
LEDs are even more inexpensive and widely

available than photodiodes.

Drawbacks of LEDs As Light Sensors:
No sensor is perfect.
LEDs are not as sensitive to light as most

silicon photodiodes.
LEDs are sensitive to temperature. This can

pose a problem for outdoor sensors. One

solution is to mount a temperature sensor
close to the LED so a correction signal can be
applied in real time or when the data are
processed.
Some LEDs Ive tested do gradually lose their

sensitivity.

LEDs Detect Specific Colors of Light

The typical human eye responds to light with
wavelengths from around 400nm (violet) to about
700nm (red). LEDs detect a much narrower band
of light, having a peak sensitivity at a wavelength
slightly shorter than the peak wavelength they
emit.
Figure A shows the spectral response of 7 blue,
green, red, and near-infrared LEDs that replace
the usual silicon photodiodes and filters in my
modified Multi-Filter Rotating Shadowband
Radiometer, used for solar spectroscopy.
Blue and most green LEDs are made from gallium
nitride (GaN). The brightest red LEDs are made
from aluminum gallium arsenide (AlGaAs). The LEDs
used in near-infrared remote controllers are also
AlGaAs devices; their peak emission is about
880nm and peak detection around 820nm.
Older remote controllers used gallium arsenide
compensated with silicon (GaAsSi). These LEDs
emit at about 940nm, which makes them ideal for
detecting water vapor, but theyve become very
difficult to find.
In my experience, the sensitivity of red super-
bright and AlGaAs LEDs and similar near-IR LEDS
is very stable over many years of use. Green LEDS
made from gallium phosphide (GaP) are also very
stable. However, a blue LED made from GaN has
declined in sensitivity more than any LED I have
used.
This does not apply to white LEDs, which are blue-
emitting LEDs coated with a phosphor that glows
yellow and red when stimulated by blue from the
LED. The merging of the blue, yellow, and red
provides white light. While a white LED can detect
blue light, a blue LED is a much better choice.
 Visible Light Photo-Detector
Circuits
Basic Phototransistor Detector
In this circuit, when the light falling on the
phototransistor (Q1) is blocked, its conductance
will decrease and the voltage across Q1 will rise.
When the voltage rises above 1/2 of the supply
voltage the output of the comparator will turn ON
and the LED will be lit.
The only critical part of this circuit is the value of
resistor R1 which in most cases can be 470K ohms
but may have to be increase if the room is dark or
decreased if the room is well lit.
Increasing the value of R1 will cause the
sensitivity of the sensor to decrease. This may be
necessary when the light falling on the cell is not
very strong or shadows can affect the
phototransistor.
There are a number of phototransistors sizes and
case styles. The smaller cases will be easier to hide
but connecting wires may be more difficult.
 Basic CdS Photocell Detector
In this circuit, when the light falling on the
photocell (PC 1) is blocked, its resistance will
increase and the voltage across PC 1 will rise. When
the voltage rises above 1/2 of the supply voltage
the output of the comparator will turn ON and the
LED will be lit.

Basic Photocell Detector

Due to wide variations in CdS photocells it is
usually best to install the cell and then measure its
resistance under normal lighting conditions. A
resistor with a value that is approximately 3 to 5
times the measured resistance of the cell is then
selected for R1. For example; If the cell
resistance is measured at 400 ohms then a 1200 to
2200 ohms resistor would be used.
Increasing the value of R1 will cause the
sensitivity of the sensor to decrease. This may be
necessary when the light falling on the cell is not
very strong or shadows can affect the photocell.
This circuit can be adapted for use in dark areas
by placing a small light above the photocell.
LEDs as light sensor
Step 1: What You Will Need
Random assortment of LEDs
Current limiting resistors for LEDs
Multimeter
Breadboard
Bright flashlight
Microcontroller

Step 2: How Does it Work?

LED as light sensor:
"A LED is simply a diode that has been doped specifically
for efficient light emission and has been packaged in a
transparent case. Therefore, if inserted into a circuit in
the same way as a photodiode, which is essentially the
same thing, the LED will perform the same function."

Photodiode:
"A photodiode is a type of photo-detector capable of
converting light into either current or voltage, depending
upon the mode of operation."

Step 3: Sensing
All you have to do is to attach the multimeter to read the
voltage coming off the LED, that's it! Try pointing the
LED at different light sources and see how the reading
changes

Burglar Alarm
The circuit illustrated here is used as Burglar alarm. LDR
is kept at such a place that when thief enters our house
then a shadow will fall on the LDR. A small beam of light
source is also needed to supply continuous signal to LDR.
For best Light source we can use Laser diode which will
work for few km. For home use Infra Red LEDs will be
good and will be tricky to thief and works with same
efficiency at night.

This circuit uses a popular timer I.C which is 555. I.C 555
is connected as comparator with pin 6 connected with
positive supply, the output goes high-1 when the trigger
pin 2 is at lower than 1/3 level of the supply voltage,
conversely the output goes low-0 when it is above 1/3. So
small change in voltage of pin 2 is enough to change the
output state of pin 3 from 1 to 0 and 0 to 1. The output
has only two states high and low and cannot remain in any
intermediate stage. It is power by 9V battery for
portable use. The circuit is economical in power
consumption. Pin 4,6& 8 is connected to the positive
supply and pin 1 is grounded.
To detect the present robber we have used LDR and a
source of light.
LDR is a special type of resistance whose value depends
on the brightness of the light, which is falling on it. It
has a resistance of about 1 megaohms when in total
darkness, but a resistance of only about 2-5k ohms when
brightly illuminated. It responds to a large part of the
light spectrum.
The source of light and LDR is so adjusted with a
reflector that light will directly fall on the LDR, but
when robber enters inside then it will block the beam of
light and LDR will be under darkness.
We have made a potential divider circuit with LDR and
100 K variable resistance connected in series. Voltage is
directly proportional to conductance so more voltage we
will get by this divider when LDR is getting light and low
voltage in darkness. Sensitiveness can be adjusted by
variable resistance. Divided voltage is given to pin 2nd of
555. As soon as LDR gets dark the voltage of the pin 2
drops 1/3 of the supply voltage and pin 3 gets high and
Buzzer Beeps.
In this Demo we have used ordinary LED.

Circuit Diagram of Burglar Alarm

LED = Light Emitting Diode

LDR = Light Dependent Resistance
IC = Integrated Circuit

Components:-
1) 9V battery with snap
2)LDR
3)Variable resistance 100K ohms
4)Resistance 470 ohms
5)LED
6)IC 555
7)Switch
 OBSERVATIONS
When light falls on the LDR then the LED will
start to glow.
When light doesnt fall on the LDR , the LED
will NOT glow.

RESULT
The the circuit gives a high voltage when the
LDR is in high light & a low voltage when the
LDR is in the shade.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY
1. WEBSITES :
www.wikipedia.org
www.google.com
www.ask.com
www.home.cogeco.ca
www.answers.yahoo.com

2.BOOKS :
Comprehensive Practical Manual for class
XII
Pradeeps New Course Physics

NCERT Class XII