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TECHNOLOGY
LABORATORY: HYDRAULICS AND
REVISION NO:
HYDROLOGY
EFFECTIVE DATE:
EXPERIMENT: BASIC HYDROLOGY
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
AMENDMENT
DATE:
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
EFFECTIVE DATE:
EXPERIMENT: BASIC HYDROLOGY
AMENDMENT
DATE:
I hereby declare that I have prepared this report with my own efforts. I also admit to not accept or
provide any assistance in preparing this report and anything that is in it is true.
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EXPERIMENT: BASIC HYDROLOGY
AMENDMENT
DATE:
1.0 OBJECTIVE
At the end of the course, students should be able to apply the knowledge and skills they have
learned to:
a. Understand the basic terms in hydrology.
b. Understand the concept of watershed area including time of concentration (tc) and outlet
or concentration point.
c. Understand the factors which influence the runoff.
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TECHNOLOGY
LABORATORY: HYDRAULICS AND
REVISION NO:
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EXPERIMENT: BASIC HYDROLOGY
AMENDMENT
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3.1 Runoff is generated by rainstorms and its occurrence and quantity are dependent on the
characteristics of the rainfall event, i.e. intensity, duration and distribution. The rainfall-
runoff process is extremely complex, making it difficult to model accurately. There are,
in addition, other important factors which influence the runoff generating process like
natural surface detention, soil infiltration characteristics and the drainage pattern formed
by natural flow paths. The soil type, vegetative cover and topography play as important
roles. Rainfall and runoff are very important hydrologic components because of their
direct relations with water resources quantity, flood, streamflow and design of dam and
hydraulic structure.
4.0 EQUIPMENTS
4.1 Basic hydrological instrument
4.2 Stop watch
4.3 Rain gauge
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LABORATORY: HYDRAULICS AND
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5.0 PROCEDURES
a) Case 1: Flat and sandy soils surface with 1:100 slope profile
The rail at side of the catchment area was adjusted to justify according the requirement
for case 1 (from upstream to downstream).
The steel ruler was used to measure the depth (mm) of the sandy soils.
The pump was switched on and the stop watch was started when the water level
reading equal to 0.
The water level every 30 seconds (during the rainfall) and the reading from the rain
gauge (mm) were recorded at the same time.
When the peak level achieved (after 6 water level readings with same values obtained),
switched off the pump to stop the rainfall. The time were recorded while stop of rainfall.
At the same time, the water level readings must be recorded for each 30 seconds until
the values reach nearly zero.
Table 6.1 was filled. The discharge (m3/s) were calculated by referring to the provided
graph attached to the equipment.
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TECHNOLOGY
LABORATORY: HYDRAULICS AND
REVISION NO:
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EXPERIMENT: BASIC HYDROLOGY
AMENDMENT
DATE:
Case 1
Time,
Rain gauge
t Water Level Discharge
reading
(s)
(cm) (mm) (liter/min) (m/s) (mm)
40 0 0 0 0 22
80 0.5 5 0.3 0.000005 22
120 2.5 25 8.8 0.000150 24
160 2.9 29 12.5 0.000210 24
200 3.1 31 15.0 0.000250 26
240 3.1 31 15.0 0.000250 26
280 3.1 31 15.0 0.000250 26
320 3.1 31 15.0 0.000250 24
360 3.1 31 15.0 0.000250 23
400 2.1 21 5.5 0.000092 0
440 1.6 16 2.8 0.000047 0
480 1.2 12 1.4 0.000023 0
520 1.2 12 1.4 0.000023 0
560 0.9 9 0.8 0.000013 0
600 0.8 8 0.7 0.000012 0
640 0.8 8 0.7 0.000012 0
680 0.8 8 0.7 0.000012 0
720 0.7 7 0.5 0.000008 0
760 0.7 7 0.5 0.000008 0
800 0.7 7 0.5 0.000008 0
840 0.6 6 0.4 0.000007 0
880 0.6 6 0.4 0.000007 0
920 0.6 6 0.4 0.000007 0
960 0.6 6 0.4 0.000007 0
1000 0.6 6 0.4 0.000007 0
1040 0.6 6 0.4 0.000007 0
Total 217
Example of calculation
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7.0 QUESTIONS
7.1 Plot the discharge (unit m3/s) versus time (second) graph separately from the above
values for each cases (case 1 and case 2).
Disharge, Q (m/s)
40 120 200 280 360 440 520 600 680 760 840 920 1000
0 80 160 240 320 400 480 560 640 720 800 880 960 1040
Time, t (s)
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Disharge, Q (m/s)
Time, t (s)
1
B= ( 0.000005 + 0.00015 ) (40) = 3.1 10 -3 m 3
2
1
C= ( 0.00015 + 0.00021 ) (40) = 7.2 10-3 m 3
2
1
D= ( 0.00021 + 0.00025 ) (40) = 9.2 10 -3 m 3
2
1
F= ( 0.00025 + 0.000092 ) (40) = 6.84 10-3 m 3
2
1
G= ( 0.000092 + 0.000047 ) (40) = 2.78 10 -3 m 3
2
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1
H= ( 0.000047 + 0.000023 ) (40) = 1.4 10 -3 m 3
2
1
J= ( 0.000023 + 0.000013 ) (40) = 7.2 10 -4 m 3
2
1
K= ( 0.000013 + 0.000012) (40) = 5 10-4 m 3
2
1
M= ( 0.000012 + 0.000008 ) (40) = 4 10 -4 m 3
2
1
O= ( 0.000008 + 0.000007 ) (40) = 3 10 -4 m 3
2
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EXPERIMENT: BASIC HYDROLOGY
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7.2 Provide a table for all the results obtained from (2).
Time concentration (s) 200 < t c < 360
Rainfall duration (s) 360
Peak discharge (m/s) 0.00025
Rainfall intensity (mm/s) 0.0722
Storage volume (m) 0.1579
7.3
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8.0 APPENDIX
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DATA ANALYSIS
Signature/Tandatangan: Signature / Tandatangan :
Name/Nama: DR. NOR HASLINA HASHIM Name / Nama : ASSOC. PROF. DR. ISHAK
Date/Tarikh
From the: experiment,
AUGUST 2016we can BABAinside the soil, they have a
see that water can absorb fast because
Date / Tarikh : AUGUST 2016
lot of void. Also from the experiment, we consider that the soil is dry, after plot a graph of infiltration
rate versus time. The process of infiltration is quite fast because they can easily absorbed water inside
the soil. So, the water rapidly absorbed inside the soil during the experiment was carried out.
The infiltration capacity of the soil depends on its texture and structure, as well as on the
antecedent soil moisture content. The initial capacity of a dry soil is high but, as the storm continues, it
Based on our results, the water level in the beginning of the experiment is increase rapidly with
just per second. In other words, it took several seconds just to achieve the peak level. However, the
water level that is continued to be record from the peak level as soon as the rainfall began to stop take
Up until several constant of water level reading, we decided to stop recording the data. The full
depiction of our results for this experiment can be seen more clearly with the graph included in the
report.
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DISCUSSION
Runoff is generated by rainstorms and its occurrence and quantity are dependent on the characteristics of
the rainfall event, i.e. intensity, duration and distribution. There are, in addition, other important factors
which influence the runoff generating process. The rainfall-runoff process is extremely complex, making it
difficult to model accurately. There are, in addition, other important factors which influence the runoff
generating process like natural surface detention, soil infiltration characteristics and the drainage pattern
formed by natural flow paths.
Soil type
The infiltration capacity is among others dependent on the porosity of a soil which determines the water
storage capacity and affects the resistance of water to flow into deeper layers. Porosity differs from one
soil type to the other. The highest infiltration capacities are observed in loose, sandy soils while heavy clay
or loamy soils have considerable smaller infiltration capacities. The infiltration capacity depends further
more on the moisture content prevailing in a soil at the onset of a rainstorm. The initial high capacity
decreases with time (provided the rain does not stop) until it reaches a constant value as the soil profile
becomes saturated.
Vegetation
The amount of rain lost to interception storage on the foliage depends on the kind of vegetation and its
growth stage. Values of interception are between 1 and 4 mm. A cereal crop, for example, has a smaller
storage capacity than a dense grass cover. More significant is the effect the vegetation has on the
infiltration capacity of the soil. A dense vegetation cover shields the soil from the raindrop impact and
reduces the crusting effect as described earlier. In addition, the root system as well as organic matter in the
soil will increase the soil porosity thus allowing more water to infiltrate. Vegetation also retards the
surface flow particularly on gentle slopes, giving the water more time to infiltrate and to evaporate. In
conclusion, an area densely covered with vegetation, yields less runoff than bare ground.
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Investigations on experimental runoff plots have shown that steep slope plots yield more runoff than
those with gentle slopes. In addition, it was observed that the quantity of runoff decreased with
increasing slope length. This is mainly due to lower flow velocities and subsequently a longer time of
concentration (defined as the time needed for a drop of water to reach the outlet of a catchment from
the most remote location in the catchment).This means that the water is exposed for a longer duration to
infiltration and evaporation before it reaches the measuring point. The same applies when catchment
areas of different sizes are compared. The runoff efficiency (volume of runoff per unit of area)
increases with the decreasing size of the catchment i.e. the larger the size of the catchment the larger the
time of concentration and the smaller the runoff efficiency.
Rainfall-runoff processes
Apart from recording and forecasting rainfall itself, the next most important problem is understand and
forecasting the runoff generated by the rainfall. This difficult problem has attracted enormous amounts
of attention and effort around the world. There are possibly as many models for calculating rainfall-
runoff, as there are people who have a direct interest in the subject. Runoff generation from rainfall
over a catchment can be assumed to depend on factors such as:
Atmospheric conditions over the catchment (wind speed, direction, temperature, humidity)
The surface cover (type, distribution, interception, take up, evapotranspiration)
Surface soil (type, permeability, porosity)
Terrain (slope, surface texture)
Geology (structure distribution, permeability, porosity, groundwater levels)Generally the
following processes are usually identified as taking place:
Evapotranspiration at the surface
Surface infiltration
Overland flow
Unsaturated zone flow
Saturated zone flow (groundwater)
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LABORATORY: HYDRAULICS AND
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Rainfall and runoff are very important hydrologic components because of their direct relations with
water resources quantity, flood, stream flow and design of dam and hydraulic structure. To convert
discharge volume in liter/min to m3/s, we use this formula:
Q , Liter 1 m3 min
min 1000 liter 60 s
Based on the graph discharge versus time, we get the bell shape graph. The value of discharge increase
when the time increases.
SUGGESTION& RECOMMENDATION
During the experiment some errors existed which a little bit affects the result of the test. Some of the
errors detected are:
1. Readings taken was not very accurate
2. The soil was still wet before the test started
3. Instrument drift
To avoid the errors some precaution steps can be used in order to achieve better results. The list of the
precaution steps are as follows:
1. Avoid parallax error when taking measurements by making sure the eye of the observer is
perpendicular to the scale.
2. Make sure that the readings were taken at the meniscus.
3. Make sure the soil is already dry, flattened and distributed all over the machine.
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CONCLUSION
As the conclusion of this experiment, we clearly understand the basic terms in hydrology which
is how to relate the relationship between the process of runoff and rainfall event. Based on the
experiment results, we can prove that when the rainfall increased, the runoff will also increases. The
result occurs after the runoff reached the time of maximum discharge.
It shows that the watershed is important to increase the infiltration of rainwater. In hydrology,
time of concentration is a concept to measure the response of a watershed to a rain event. It is defined
as the time needed for water to flow from the most remote point in a watershed to the watershed outlet.
In addition, runoff is one of the most important hydrology component because of it connection with the
water source quantity, flood and others hydraulic control structure. This occurs when the rate
of rainfall on a surface exceeds the rate at which water can infiltrate the ground.
From the experiment conducted, we can apply this to control the flood using the applications of
the basic hydrology system. Other than that, we can design a dam and drain by applying this
knowledge. Then, we also can determine all factors that effected runoff such as rain fall intensity, type
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REFERENCES
1. https://www.scribd.com/doc/174047240/BASIC-HYDROLOGY-INFILTRATION-TEST.
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_of_concentration