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Another mode of energy transfer that is relevant for astronomy is the heat-
ing due to cosmic rays, which are energetic elementary particles (mainly
protons) that have been accelerated to relativistic speeds by shocks from su-
pernova etc. In what follows, we will treat cosmic ray heating as a component
of radiative heating.
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Energy equation: The Lagrangian derivate of the energy density is given
by
dE E d d~u d d
= + ~u + +
dt dt dt dt dt
which simply follows from applying the chain rule to E = 12 u2 + + .
d~u d~u
~u = ~u = ~u (P + )
dt dt
3rd term: Using the expression for the substantial (Lagrangian) deriva-
tive we have that
d
= + ~u
dt t
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Combining all the above, and using that
dE E
= + ~u E
dt t
we finally obtain the energy equation for an inviscid fluid:
E
+ [(E + P )~u] = L +
t t
where we have defined the net heating rate per unit volume
dQ
L C H
dt
where C and H are the volumetric cooling and heating rates, respectively,
which express heat transfer due to the emission and/or absorption of radia-
tion (and cosmic rays).
Note that the external (gravitational) potential only enters with a partial
time-derivative. Hence, only when the external potential varies with time,
does it have an impact on the evolution of the total energy density of fluid
elements. If the potential is steady (i.e., /t = 0, then the presence of
the gravitational potential can cause the convertion of kinetic energy into
potential energy (and vice versa), but it does not change the total energy
density. Changes in the energy of individual fluid elements due to a time-
variable gravitational potential is called violent relaxation, and is the main
relaxation mechanisms for collisionless systems.
1 2
Using that E = 2
u + + , the energy equation can also be written as:
2 2
u u
+ + + uk + P jk uj = L uk
t 2 xk 2 xk
In deriving the above form of the energy equation we have used that
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uk
= (~u)
t t xk t
= ~u ~u
t
= + ~u ~u == ~u
t
where, in the final step, we have used the continuity equation. One of the
advantages of this index-form, is that it is easier to incorporate the effects of
viscosity. By replacing P ij with the stress tensor ij = P ij +ij , and
adding a term describing conduction, we obtain the fully general energy
equation for a viscous fluid:
2
u
+ =
t 2
2
u
+ uk + (P jk jk ) uj + Fcond,k L uk
xk 2 xk
2
u
The 2 + uk term on the rhs describes advection, the P jk uj term
describes the work done, the jk uj term describes viscous dissipation
(i.e., the convertion of ordered bulk motion into disordered random motion),
Fcond,k is the conduction flux in the k-direction, L describes the change in
(internal) energy due to the absorption or emission of radiation (or cosmic
rays), and the last term on the rhs describes the change of energy due to
motion in a gravitational potential.
Conduction: to first order in the ratio of the mean free path l of the particles
and the length scale L of the physical system, the conduction heat flux
can be written as
F~cond = K T
where K is called the thermal conductivity and has units of erg s1 cm1 K1 .
It is roughly given by K 32 kB n vth l, where vth T 1/2 is the thermal (micro-
scopic) velocity of the particles. Using that the mean free path l = (n )1 ,
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with the collision cross section, we thus see that K T 1/2 /. As expected,
conduction increases with temperature (particles move faster) and decreases
with increasing cross section (particles move less far).
nhvk Qi = h(uk + wk )(u2 + 2ui wi + w 2 )i
2
2
= hu uk + 2ui uk wi + w 2 uk + u2 wk + 2ui wi wk + w 2 wk i
2
2
u uk + uk hw 2i + 2ui hwi wk i + hw 2wk i
=
2
u2
= uk + uk + ui hwi wk i + Fcond,k
2
Here we have defined the conductivity
1
Fcond,k hwk w 2i = hwk i
2
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This makes it clear that conduction describes how internal energy is dispersed
due to the random motion of the fluid particles. Using that hwi wk i = ik =
P ik ik , the second term of the master moment equation becomes
2
u
[nhvk Qi] = uk + uk + (P ik ik ) + Fcond,k
xk xk 2
Finally, for the third term we use that
Q m v 2
= = mvk
vk 2 vk
To understand the last step, note that in Cartesian coordinates v 2 = vx2 +
vy2 + vz2 . Hence, we have that
Q
n = hvk i = uk
xk vk xk xk
Combining the three terms in the master moment equation, we finally obtain
the following energy equation:
2
u
+ =
t 2
2
u
+ uk + (P jk jk ) uj + Fcond,k uk
xk 2 xk
which is exactly the same as that derived above, except for the L term,
which is absent from the derivation based on the Boltzmann equation, since
the later does not include the effects of radiation.
The final task of this lecture on the energy equation is to derive an equation
that describes the evolution of the internal energy. This is obtained by
subtracting ui times the Navier-Stokes equation in conservative, Eulerian
form from the energy equation derived above.
The Navier-Stokes equation in Eulerian index form is
ui ui 1 ik
+ uk =
t xk xk xi
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Using the continuity equation, this can be rewritten in the so-called con-
servation form as
ui
+ [ui uk ik ] =
t xk xi
Next we multiply this equation with ui . Using that
u2
2 2
ui ui u u ui
ui = ui = + ui
t t t t 2 t 2 t
2 2 2
u u u ui
= + + ui
t 2 2 t 2 t t
2
u u2
= +
t 2 2 t
u2
2
u ui
ui = uk + uk ui uk
xk xk 2 xk 2 xk
2 2 2
u u u uk ui
= uk + uk + ui uk
xk 2 2 xk 2 xk xk
2 2
u u uk
= uk +
xk 2 2 xk
Combining the above two terms, and using the continuity equation to ex-
pose of the two terms containing the factor u2 /2, the Navier-Stokes equation
in conservation form multiplied by ui becomes
2 2
u u ik
+ uk = ui ui
t 2 xk 2 xk xi
Subtracting this from the energy equation ultimately yields the internal
energy equation in Eulerian index form:
uk Fcond,k
() + (uk ) = P +V L
t xk xk xk
where
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ui
V ik
xk
is the rate of viscous dissipation which describes the rate at which the
work done against viscous forces is irreversibly converted into internal en-
ergy. In words, the internal energy equation states that the internal energy
at some fixed location in space changes due to advection, (described by
the uk /xk term), due to the work done (described by the P (uk /xk )
term), due to radiation (described by the L term), due to conduction
(described by the Fcond,k /xk term) and due to viscous dissipation (de-
scribed by the V term). The latter term describes the rate at which heat is
added to the internal energy budget via viscous conversion of ordered energy
in differential fluid motions to disordered energy in random particle motions.
Finally, we mention that the Lagrangian vector form of the internal energy
equation is given by
d
= P ~u F~cond L + V
dt
Note that in this Lagrangian form, there is no term describing advection;
after all, we are moving with the fluid.
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