Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
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PHYSICAL
EDUCATION FOR
QUEENSLAND
Cr ystal Hede | K ate Rus sell | Ron Weather by
Hede, Crystal.
Senior physical education for Queensland / Crystal Hede, Kate Russell, Ron Weatherby
978 019 557386 2 (pbk.)
Includes index.
For secondary school age.
Health education (Secondary) -- Queensland.
Physical education and training -- Study and teaching (Secondary) -- Queensland.
Physical tness -- Study and teaching (Secondary) -- Queensland.
Russell, Kate.
Weatherby, Ron.
613.043309943
Disclaimer
Indigenous Australians and Torres Strait Islanders are advised that this publication may in-
clude images or names of people now deceased.
Contents iii
Figueroas framework
The new senior physical education syllabus has introduced Figueroas framework as a tool to
examine sport in society. The chapters in Focus Area C have sections that specically detail how
sport in society can be related to Figueroas framework, and examine access and equity in sport.
Contents v
Acknowledgements vii
PHYSICAL
SKILLS
The human bodys ability to process information and program muscles and limbs to move in
particular ways is one important part of how skills are acquired.
For professional athletes, successfully acquiring skills is how they make a living; however, in a
competitive market, practising a skill repeatedly to improve is not always enough. Learning skills
has become a science in itself. Now, to reach the top of their game, athletes need to understand
and consider the nature of skills, the physics of movement and the athletes own physical attributes
and psychology.
The following chapters delve into the science of learning skills that will assist you to develop and
rene physical skills and maximise your sporting potential.
Focus questions
How does acquiring skills affect performance?
What effect can psychological factors have on
performances?
How do biomechanical factors inuence
performance?
COMING UP
Motor learning page 4
1
Motor
learning
Motor skills
Motor skills, which are the primary focus in physical
education studies, can be classied in several
1003
ways. To classify skills is to group them by the
characteristics they have in common. Classifying
skills can lead to a greater understanding of the
nature of skills and how they can best be practised
and learned.
Motor skills may be classied according to:
the precision of the movementne or gross
the stability of the environmentopen or closed
their beginning and end pointsdiscrete,
continuous or serial
Fine and gross motor skills Figure 1.1 Fine motor skills use small groups of
Motor skills can be classed as ne (using small muscles to perform delicate movements.
muscle groups to perform them) or gross (using
large muscle groups to perform them).
1004
Examples of ne motor skills include:
performing a backhand ick serve in badminton
putting a spin on the ball when bowling
throwing darts.
Examples of gross motor skills include:
running a race
throwing a discus
serving a tennis ball.
Can you think of a skill you have performed that
combines the muscular efforts of the whole body?
Figure 1.2 Gross motor skills use large groups of
muscles to perform large or whole-body movements.
Discrete, continuous
and serial motor
1007 skills
Skills can also be classied
into three groupsdiscrete,
continuous and serial
according to where they begin
and end.
If a skill has a clearly dened
starting and nishing point,
the skill is said to be a discrete
motor skill. Examples of
discrete motor skills include
throwing a ball and diving.
If the start or end point of
a skill is unspecied, the skill
is a continuous motor skill.
Swimming and running are
examples of continuous motor
skills. They are classied as
continuous motor skills because
the beginning and end points are
determined by the player, not by
the task itself.
A serial motor skill is when
a series of discrete motor skills is
put together. Examples of serial
motor skills include performing
a dance routine, bowling a
cricket ball and performing
a layup in basketball. In each
example, a specic series of
movements must be performed
in a specic order for the task to
Figure 1.5 Pole vaulting requires the use of serial motor skills. be performed properly.
ACQUIRE
1008_HED_QPE_mod3.indd 1 26/09/10 9:44 PM
1 Define motor skills.
2 Summarise the main differences between open and closed motor skills.
3 Define discrete, continuous and serial motor skills, and give an example of each.
4 Classify the following sports as closed or open, gross or fine, and discrete, continuous or
serial.
a surfing
as per CM email
b playing snooker or billiards
c throwing a javelin
d high jump
e taking a penalty stroke in hockey
f goal-keeping in soccer
g aerial skiing.
Fine Gross
Open Closed
1009
Continuous Discrete
2 Closed skills are just simple skills. Do you agree or disagree with this statement? Justify
1009_HED_QPE_mod.indd 1 26/09/10 9:41 PM
your response with examples from the sport you are currently studying.
1042
Thinking skills
When learning, motor skills are
often rst experienced in isolation.
For example, a soccer ball will be
stationary on the ground, and
beginners will be asked to run in
and kick it at a goal. This type of
learning builds motor skills, but it
does not help a player understand
when to kick a ball in a game,
which direction it should go or
how hard it should be kicked.
Motor skills will not be
effective unless they are applied
to the game. For example,
a tennis forehand might be
performed with precision but be
hit straight back to a player at the
net; the skill has been performed
correctly, but a poor choice of
direction allows the opponent to
win the point. To play a better
shot and win the point, the tennis
player needs to have practised
and developed decision-making
skills and the tactical aspects of
the sport.
Decision-making
skills
During a game, players often need
to assess their own strengths and
weaknesses, their opponents
strengths and weaknesses, and
the situation of the game. They
Figure 1.7 Sport is not just physical. Thinking skills are needed to
assess these factors and decide make good decisions and play at your best.
how to react.
In many games, as the pressure to score or to prevent the opposition from scoring mounts, poor decisions
are made. In rugby league, for example, a player may try to throw a long pass to a winger in the hope that the
winger will score a try, but this increases the risk of an intercept. In defence, a player may rush up to try to
tackle a player, leaving a gap in the defensive line for the opposition to run through. Specic training for these
situations will help players to make better decisions when they need to.
Coaches can sometimes explain the best way to react to certain situations in a game, but providing
opportunities to practise regularly in a game-like setting is essential if players and teams are to be able to
make good decisions and quickly apply them during a game.
Figure 1.8 Tactics, like decision-making skills, are best learned in a game-like setting.
PRACTICAL
Tactics
Identify a basic tactic associated with a sport of your choice. Design two modified games, as
follows, that will assist learning the tactic you have identified:
1 a simple modified game for a beginner
2 a complex modified game for an advanced player.
ACQUIRE
1 List the important features of the cognitive, associative and autonomous stages of learning.
2 How does feedback given to learners change between the cognitive and autonomous
stages?
3 Determine how modified sports, such as kanga cricket, make it easier for beginners to
learn skills.
4 Is it typical to spend longer in the cognitive or associative stage of learning? Will everyone
eventually reach the autonomous stage?
5 Suggest why a person who is at the cognitive stage of learning and who has limited
experience may take longer to progress to the associative stage of learning than a person
who has experienced success with similar sports or skills.
PRACTICAL
The stages of learning
Individually, or in small groups, every day practise a new skill, such as juggling or throwing
with your non-preferred hand at a target. Keep a daily record of your results and comments
(including feelings, frustrations, problems and insights). Over five days, record data for twenty
trials per day.
1 Briefly describe the skill and scoring procedure.
2 Construct a graph of the average scores for each day.
3 Identify which of the three stages of learning you reached.
4 Explain how you moved from one stage to the next.
5 Identify what would be needed for you to progress further.
6 Identify the attributes of a player who has reached the autonomous stage in this skill.
7 Identify the problems, issues and feelings that you experienced at each stage.
8 Compare your results with the online videos.
Factors affecting
learning
Each human is unique, and a learners
progress through the three learning
stages depends on the individuals
unique characteristics and background,
including physical, social and emotional
factors.
Physical characteristics such as
height, weight and body composition
can predispose learners to acquire skills
at a faster or slower rate than others.
For example, a tall person will nd the
volleyball skills of blocking and spiking
much easier to learn, while a shorter
person might nd other positions on
the volleyball court, such as libero,
easier to perfect. Sports that need
large amounts of power, such as discus,
shot-put and boxing, are best suited to
players who are heavier and who have
a high percentage of muscle. Dancers,
gymnasts and synchronised swimmers
generally perform better with a slighter
frame.
Many physical characteristics are
inherited and out of the control of
athletes. Inherited factors affecting
skill acquisition include gender, height,
muscle-bre composition, information-
processing capacity and aptitude. These
can be described as the athletes natural
ability. Other physical characteristics,
such as body weight and muscle
strength, can be modied through Figure 1.12 Height is a hereditary factor that can determine
healthy diet and exercise. how easily and well an athlete can learn a sport.
Training and previous experience with skills also affect an athletes performance. After training or practice
sessions, an athletes ability to perform usually improves. Prior experience with the task (or with a similar
task) will also affect performance. For example, someone who has learned the skills of netball might nd it
easier to learn basketball, which requires similar skills, than another person who learned swimming, which
requires very different skills. A good example of the transfer of skills from one sport to another is when
athletes are able to change relatively easily between rugby union and rugby league, without any obvious
decrease in performance.
Can you think of a sport that has skills similar to the one you are currently studying? Have you had any
previous experience in that sport?
ACQUIRE
1 Identify pairs of sports (such as hockey and cricket) where prior experience in one might
allow a transfer of skills to the other and improve how quickly the second sport is learned.
2 Explain how natural ability assists good performance.
3 Outline the role that personality plays in determining athletic ability and learning.
4 Identify the characteristics of a learner that would have the greatest effect on:
a increasing performance
b decreasing performance.
NEWS
Hewitt ready to come out swinging
Rafael Nadal respects Lleyton Hewitt was 19. It was a Ivo Karlovic and a straight-sets
Hewitt. It stems from the turning point in his career. (64, 63, 61) demolition of
Davis Cup nal between Australias then Davis Cup Kazakhstans Andrey Golubev.
Australia and Spain in 2000. captain, John Newcombe, is yet Nadal has marched to 30
Inside a seething arena named to see a player fight as hard as successive wins in Paris in his
Palau Sant Jordi in Barcelona, Hewitt did over those three days attempt to break Bjorn Borgs
Hewitt scrapped and clawed his in Barcelona. benchmark of four straight
way through two thunderous Hewitt went on to achieve victories at the most physically
singles matches on clay while a the herculean feat of beating and mentally demanding event
14-year-old kid, having carried Pete Sampras at Flushing on tour.
the Spanish ag into the opening Meadows to win the US Open, Nadals career is flying in a
ceremony, sat courtside with his get his hands on the holiest of way the 14-year-old at Palau
jaw to the oor in awe. The kid holies, the Wimbledon trophy, Sant Jordi wouldnt have dared
was Nadal. and become the youngest world dream, while Hewitt is hanging
Hewitt has no recollection of No.1 in history. on for grim life, returning from
Nadal being there, but the current Nadal was only a blip on hip surgery, refusing to concede
world No. 1 watched every point the radar when Hewitt became hes washed up, desperate to
as Hewitt fought his way past king but hes seen first-hand one stick it to all those who believe
Albert Costa in ve sets on day invaluable character trait they hes become a journeyman
one. An injured Pat Rafter quit sharegrit. incapable of winning another
his singles against Juan Carlos Two of the best fighters in major.
Ferrero, Sandon Stolle and Mark sport will slug it out in the third He [Nadal] is the man to
Woodforde lost the doubles, and round of the French Open at beat here, and he has been for
then Hewitt went down to Ferrero Roland Garros today. Hewitt the last four or five years now,
in four gruelling sets for Spain to is coming off a gruelling five- Hewitt said in Paris. So Ill go
win their rst Davis Cup. setter against Croatian giant out there and play my game,
and hopefully I can have one of I have to play well to have especially want everyone to love
my best matches. chances to win. I try and him, just respect him. Like Nadal
Nadal humbled Russian improve every day because does.
Teimuraz Gabashvili 61, 64, next round is going to be Their head-to-head record is
62 to reach his 300 winloss difficult. Lleyton Hewitt is a big 44 but Hewitt is winless since
ratio at Roland Garros, a record opponent. Queens three years ago. There
in the Open era. Already he Perhaps Hewitt has one more is no way of underestimating
sounded combative about his big major in him. Perhaps he can the enormity of the task, for
showdown with Hewitt. When become a modern-day Jimmy playing Nadal on clay is the
reporters started gushing about Connors, the ferocious American toughest assignment of all. But
his winning streak, he replied: who played like an animal in the all through his recovery from hip
So what? Happy for this record, latter stages of his career, most surgery, this is what Hewitt was
but important thing is have memorably storming into the craving, getting back in the ring
good result, play my best tennis semi-finals of the 1991 US Open with the heavyweights.
and try to be there the second on an unstoppable wave of pure Of course, Hewitt might be
Sunday, no? adrenaline. pounded into submission. But
Always its a very tough Hewitt has a bit of the Jimmy theres a good chance he will
match to play against Lleyton. Connors in him. He doesnt come out swinging.
1018
Figure 1.14 Lleyton Hewitt is a good example of someone who exhibits the personality traits needed by
successful athletes.
Measure of performance
1019 a-d
Measure of performance
Figure 1.15 Four types of learning curves show different patterns of learning.
ACQUIRE
Explain the four main types of learning curves.
Practice
Practice is essential to learning. Perfect practice
makes perfect performance.
Practice methods
An astute coach or teacher organises training that
is appropriate to the task and the athlete, and
ensures that the training remains interesting and
challenging. How a skill is practised will determine
how that skill is acquired and performed. As
sports and learners vary, there is no set routine for
practice or performance. Therefore, it is essential to
understand the applications, uses and limits of each
practice method.
Types of practice include:
speed and accuracy
massed and distributed
whole and part.
The need for speed and/or accuracy varies depending on the sport or activity. When a skill is
predominantly about speed, such as for sprinting, practice will often focus on increasing speed. When
accuracy is needed, it is better to focus practice on accuracy. Even if attention is directed solely to accuracy
during practice, speed will gradually improve. If attention is directed solely to speed, however, accuracy tends
to diminish. Generally, beginners should concentrate on accuracy and then increase speed.
Which is more important in your current sport: speed or accuracy?
Input
During the input stage, the bodys sensesespecially sight, touch and hearinggather information from the
environment. The human body also unconsciously senses its own position, movement and balance, which is
known as proprioception. Receptors in the body, such as muscles, tendons and joints, relay information back
to the brain about the bodys position.
For example, in cricket, batters use their sight and hearing to receive external information about the
bowlers grip on the ball, the elders positions, and the balls speed, spin and ight path. Internal senses are
also used to determine a batters stance, grip on the bat and position in front of the wicket.
A players ability to detect cues in the environment depends on each cues intensity, the length of time
the cue is present, the amount of noise or distractions, the players senses, and the players experience.
Some cues are more subtle than others; a cues intensity varies depending on factors such as the size or
colour of the ball being used.
The longer a cue is present, the easier it is to detect. For example, a bowler who can bowl at
149 kilometres per hour reduces the time the batter has to detect the balls direction and spin.
Noise is a term used to describe irrelevant information that might be distracting. Cricket batters use a
white screen to reduce the distractions from the crowd. The screen blocks out the crowds colour and
movement, which might catch the eye of a cricketer who is trying to focus on batting. It allows the batter
to better see the ball to determine its direction and spin.
What types of noise might cause distractions in your sport?
Figure 1.22 A batter has only a fraction of a second to process information and decide how to hit the ball.
Some players have sharper senses than others, especially of sight and hearing. Peripheral vision and
depth perception are important tools in many sports, and hearing is used to provide early information to
players. Tennis players often use the sound of a ball hitting their opponents racquets to judge the speed
or spin of a ball. John McEnroe used to string his racquet more loosely than other players racquets to try
to disguise the sound of his shot.
Experienced players will detect cues that novice athletes do not. These players know what cues they
should be looking for; therefore, they can detect them more easily.
How do athletes in other sports try to disguise their intentions?
Processing
During the processing stagewhich is sometimes referred to as the decision-making stagethe information
received externally from the senses and internally from the body is interpreted and organised. A decision is
then made about how to respond, and appropriate movements are coordinated. Reaction time, memory
and previous experience are also critical to the processing stage.
Much of the effectiveness of the nal performance is determined in the processing stage.
Perception
There is a distinction between sensory functioning (seeing the red trafc light) and perception (recognising
that red means stop). The rst part of the processing stage is interpreting and organising the information that
was gathered during the input stage.
Reaction time
The time it takes to interpret environmental cues, decide and respond is known as the reaction time. In
volleyball, for example, a libero players reaction time might be the time it takes from when the player
detects the signs of an attack until he or she moves in the direction of the attacking ball. In the information-
processing model, it is the time it takes to complete the processing stage.
Reaction time is something that can be improved with training, but an understanding of factors affecting
reaction time is necessary. Research has shown that men generally have a slightly faster reaction time than
women. Reaction time also generally improves until the age of about 30, after which most peoples reaction
time begins to gradually decline.
Reaction time is shorter when the cue is made easier to detect and interpret. The greatest effect on
reaction time, however, is the number of choices; when there is more than one cue and more than one
possible response, reaction time slows as the brain attempts to sort through the information to make the
right decision.
Memory
Memory is important for storing and processing information. It plays a signicant role in a players ability to
make correct decisions.
The three types of memory are:
short-term sensory memory, which allows players to scan the environment and remember briey what
has been seen
short-term memory, which is the working information store. It keeps a small amount of information for
up to 60 seconds before either discarding it or transferring it to the long-term store
long-term memory, which stores information passed on from the short-term memory. Storage in long-
term memory occurs when information is rehearsed or used often, and information is more likely to be
transferred to long-term memory if a person experiences something rst hand.
What are some ways that you can ensure you transfer information to your long-term memory?
During the processing stage, long-term memory allows people to make decisions based on experience. It
allows people to recall experiences and compare them with new situations and information. When a person
has no experience of a situation, the brain will take longer to process information and make a decision. This
is particularly noticeable in team sports such as basketball, where many signals are being received from a
variety of sources and the options are abundant. This can make the learning of such sports very difcult,
especially where practice is focused on skill development instead of game play.
Short-term sensory
memory set on supply of illo 1027 TS
Output
The next stage of the information-processing model is the output stage. For sports and other physical
activities, the output is usually a physical response or reaction. Once the player processes the information
(input) and decides how to react (processing), the brain directs the body to move in response (output).
The response time is the total time it takes to sense and process the information and to complete
the movement. Skilled players have faster response times than beginners, which can be attributed to the
difference in their ability to detect cues, process information and move efciently.
Feedback
Feedback provides players with an understanding of whether the skill was performed correctly or incorrectly.
How many times have you stood on the sidelines and heard remarks similar to the following?
Hey, Bill, youre as slow as a wet week.
You couldnt even catch a cold.
Hey, Ref., its a good game. Why dont you watch it?
My grandmother can tackle harder than that!
All of these negative remarks belittle the player or ofcial, and diminish the respect between the speaker
and the person the comment is directed to. Compare them with the following:
Bad luck, Sarah. Just give it a little more air next time.
Good goal, Bok. Now hustle back into position.
Nice pass, Helen. Youre getting better every training session.
Sources of feedback
Feedback can come from internal
or external sources. Feedback
from sources within the athlete
is called internal or intrinsic
feedback. Feedback from
external sources is called external
Figure 1.24 Positive feedback helps motivate players to perform well. or extrinsic feedback.
Internal feedback
Internal feedback is information received naturally from the athletes senses. For example, when passing a
basketball, athletes are aware of their own legs, shoulders, arms and ngers moving through the air. They
are aware of the ball leaving their ngers, and can see and hear it being caught by a teammate. In this way,
athletes perceive information about the performance without using equipment or other people.
External feedback
External feedback is information that is provided from sources outside the player. External feedback might be
the coachs voice, the scoreboard, a video replay or the cheer of the crowd.
External feedback supplements the players internal feedback and is particularly important for beginners,
who may not yet be able to detect errors in their performance.
Two important forms of external feedback are:
knowledge of results (KR)
knowledge of performance (KP).
KR is feedback that is
provided externally after
an action is completed. It is
based on the outcome of the
performancethe results. This
type of feedback is particularly
helpful when learning a new
skill, as it allows learners to
correct an action the next
time, to gain condence
when the attempt is totally or
partially correct, and to remain
motivated to try again. A score
in gymnastics, a coachs reaction
to the teams performance, or
a basketball falling through the
hoop during a free throw are all
Figure 1.25 Coaches provide external feedback.
examples of KR.
KP is feedback that concerns
the execution of the movement
1029 or how it looked rather than
its success. For example, a
gymnastics coach might explain
to a gymnast that she had
a good body shape during a
movement or that her feet came
apart. This type of feedback
relates to the movement
and not to the score that the
gymnast will receive.
Timing of feedback
An athlete might receive
feedback before, during or after
a performance, and the timing
of feedback is very important.
Concurrent feedback is
Figure 1.26 Arrows in a target provide clear knowledge of results feedback received during a
(KR)feedback.
performance. Some types of
concurrent feedback share similarities with the input stage of the information-processing model as the
bodys sensesespecially sight, touch and hearinggather information from the environment. Examples
of concurrent feedback include the feel of a ball as it hits a table tennis bat and the sight of the goalkeeper
moving to the left before a penalty stroke. Concurrent feedback occurs during performance, so athletes can
respond to concurrent feedback at the time.
For some beginners, some types of concurrent feedback, such as a coach shouting encouragement from
the sidelines, can hinder learning as the feedback can break their concentration.
Figure 1.27 The feeling of the ball as it hits a table tennis bat is an example ofconcurrent feedback.
Delayed feedback is what most people normally think of when they talk about feedback. Delayed
feedback is provided after the performance and is received too late to affect the players actions. For
example, players jumping to head a ball in soccer cannot react to concurrent feedback and change their
bodys position in the air when the ball is just above their head. An example of delayed feedback in this
situation might be a coachs advice after the game about how to head the ball better next time. Another
example might be the successful goal that later results from the players actionsdelayed feedback that they
headed the ball well.
Do you make any adjustments to your play during your performances?
PRACTICAL
Feedback
1 Divide the class into three groups to perform this simple throwing activity. You will also
need supervisors, recorders and subjects. The task is to throw a ball at a bullseye that has
various scoring sections (a bin or crate could also work). The ball is to be thrown ten times,
and subjects receive limited feedback as follows:
Group 1 receives internal KP only.
Subjects perform ten throws blindfolded. Subjects are given no external feedback and
must use only internal feedback to judge the success of each throw.
Group 2 receives internal KP and some external KR.
Subjects perform ten throws blindfolded. Subjects are given the score after each throw.
Group 3 receives KP and KR.
Subjects perform ten throws without the blindfold. Subjects are given the score after
each throw.
2 Record all the results. Graph the average results for each group. Then, complete the
following:
a Describe the group averages and the trends observed in the activity.
b Identify any improvement in performance noted across the ten trials.
c Discuss the influence of KR and KP on performance.
d Outline why groups 1 and 2 needed to be blindfolded.
EXTENSION
Interview a skilled athlete to learn more about the characteristics of skilled players.
1 Investigate what motivates the athlete to train and perform in his or her chosen sport.
2 Identify the characteristics and skills that the athlete believes to be essential for success.
3 Discover how the athlete has developed these skills and characteristics.
Figure 1.29 For some sports, goals are a type of objective assessment.
Interpreting performance
measures
While it is important to measure performance, it
is equally as important to be able to interpret the
results. Simply giving athletes a score gives them no
information about the quality of their performance.
Often results are interpreted by comparing an
athletes results with those of other athletes
and with established norms. Norm-referenced
tests, criterion-referenced tests, rating scales and
Figure 1.31 When assessing gymnasts, judges
percentile rankings are some of the tools that allow make subjective judgements based on established
performance to be interpreted, evaluated and ranked. criteria.
ACQUIRE
1 Explain the difference between subjective and objective assessment.
2 a Name two sports where results are objectively scored or assessed.
b Name two sports where results are subjectively scored or assessed.
c In what ways might the sport you are currently studying be assessed in both objective
and subjective ways?
EXTENSION
1 Do some research to identify examples of each of the following:
a norm-referenced tests and criterion-referenced tests
b rating scales
c percentile rankings.
2 Describe what each is measuring.
3 Explain how each measure works.
4 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each type.
Objective
To measure skill in passing and recovering the ball while moving
Equipment
Standard inated basketball, stopwatch, smooth wall surface, marking tape
Procedure
Six squares are marked on the wall and a restraining line is marked on the oor 2.4 metres from the wall.
Three, 30-second trials are administered, with the rst trial considered practice and the last two timed. The
player, holding a ball, stands behind the restraining line and faces target A. On the command Go, the player
chest-passes at target A, recovers the rebound, and moves opposite target B. From behind the restraining line,
the player chest-passes at target B. This pattern continues until target F, where two chest-passes are executed.
Then, the player moves to the left, passes at target E, and continues to move left, passing at each target in
turn.
Scoring
Each pass that hits the desired target counts as two points. Each pass hitting the wall but missing the target
counts as one point. The sum of the two trials is the nal score.
Source: American Alliance for Health, Physical Education, Recreation and Dance (AAHPERD), 1984
1036 AF
increase to ll
as per JP
6.6m
60
cm
60 60 60 60 60 60
cm A cm cm C cm cm E cm
m
4
2.
B D F
90 cm
90 cm
90 cm
1.5 m
1.5 m
1.5 m
Start Tester
Figure 1.33 The AAHPERD basketball test for passing marks six targets on a wall and is used to test
accuracy and speed.
ACQUIRE
In your own words, explain the difference between a valid test and a reliable test.
3 autonomous stagewhen the skill becomes 5 Outline the key differences between the
automatic. performance of skilled players and beginners.
The most suitable type of practice can be 7 Outline the role of feedback in skill acquisition.
determined by the stage of learning, the 8 Identify technology that can be used to improve
complexity of the skill and the physical effort the feedback given to an athlete.
required. 9 Choose an elite player in any sport, and describe
The information-processing model explains how the characteristics that athlete displays as a
players select information from the environment, skilled player.
analyse it and respond. 10 Explain how USA Diving has tried to make the
Feedback, both internal and external, is essential judging of diving more objective.
for improvement. The type and timing of
feedback needed by individuals changes as their Click to explore the USA Diving website.
abilities develop.
11 Design valid and reliable skills tests that assess a
A players performance can be assessed using
range of skills in a team sport of your choice.
objective or subjective assessment.
In all sporting pursuits, the mind is a powerful tool, and it has the ability to make or
break an athlete. As a result, sports psychology is widely accepted as an essential
part of any athletes training. You will see in this chapter how psychology can be
used as a tool to both diagnose and remedy weaknesses in an athletes performance.
2018
Common sports
psychology
problems
This section looks at some of the
common psychological concerns faced
by athletes. Strategies to overcome
these concerns are looked at later, from
page 55.
Anxiety
Athletes commonly experience anxiety,
which is feeling uneasy, worried or
apprehensive.
Anxiety is a heightened emotional
state that can cause psychological and
physical discomfort. A psychological
response to anxiety might include fear
(of failing or of being judged), worry,
tension, nervousness or apprehension;
a physical response might be trouble
sleeping. People can also experience
physiological responses to anxiety, such
as a change of heart rate or breathing,
or an increase in perspiration. These
responses are brought about by humans
ght or ight instinct. The physiological
changes seen in anxiety are preparing
Figure 2.2 Anxiety will be felt by a basketball player before an the body to ght or to ee in the face of
important free throw. danger.
Some anxiety is a perfectly normal response to everyday problems, and a small amount of anxiety can be
a benecial and motivating inuence; for example, anxiety about an important game in a few weeks might
cause you to train extra hard in preparation. However, anxiety can sometimes become a problem. When
anxious, athletes might:
feel threatened
be unable to think clearly
seize up
be unable to perform to previous standards or expectations.
It is important for athletes to use relaxation strategies when they feel anxiety beginning to become a
problem.
Can you think of a sporting situation that has caused you to feel anxious? Would everyone in your class
respond similarly in the same situation?
EXTENSION
1 Complete the questionnaire for a sport competition anxiety test (SCAT).
2 Analyse the questions being asked. Consider why they have asked these questions.
3 What do your results say about your anxiety levels?
Personality traits
Personality traits are a critical factor in athletic performance. As discussed in Chapter 1, personality traits such
as keenness, condence, competitiveness and aggression inuence an athletes chances of success. In recent
years, attention has been focused on identifying the specic personality traits that enable athletes to function
well, as individuals or in teams.
Anxiety is not the only psychological factor affected by personality traits and personality type. For example,
one critical factor in success is the athletes aspirationtheir ambition to succeed. Not all people have
personalities that are well suited to ambition; for some people, striving to achieve ambitions only causes high
levels of anxiety.
Different personality types experience sports psychology problems, such as poor motivation, under- and
over-arousal, and anxiety, differently. Personality traits can also determine how athletes respond to the
techniques that are used to overcome these psychological issues.
Stress
Stress is the non-specic response that the body makes to demands placed on it. Stress can be good or
bad, but the physiological reactions in the body are basically the same. When athletes compete, they might
experience too much stress (hyperstress) or too little stress (hypostress), good stress (eustress) or bad
stress (distress).
Have you ever experienced eustressgood stress? In what form did you experience it, and how did it affect
your performance?
Stress is very closely linked to anxiety and, like anxiety, stress can come from internal or external sources,
which might or might not be under the direct control of the player. Some of the sources of stress on players
are listed in Table 2.1. Because individuals vary, what one person nds stressful, another might not.
Can you think of a time when you experienced stress that was related to state anxiety?
Under- or over-arousal
One meaning of the word arouse is to stir into action. When used in sports psychology and sports
performance, arousal refers to an athletes readiness to perform.
Arousalthe physical and psychological state in which an athlete is able to take actionis linked to
the release of hormones, such as adrenaline and noradrenaline, and the body sending signals through the
nervous system.
Like anxiety, arousal is linked to humans ght or ight instinct. As an athlete is aroused and prepares for
action, the body undergoes physiological changessuch as an increase in heart rate, breathing, perspiration,
brain activity and metabolic rate. Blood is diverted from the gut to the muscles, as the body prepares to
use its muscles for action (which causes the feeling of having butteries in your stomach). For this reason,
above-average levels of arousal are essential for peak performance in activities requiring physical strength,
endurance or speed.
Although arousal is not the only factor to affect performance, sports psychologists have linked levels of
arousal to performance. An athlete who is not at all aroused would be deeply asleep; someone who is too
aroused can become anxious. In between is an optimal level of arousalexcitementthat allows athletes to
perform at their best.
The rst theory to try to explain the relationship between arousal and performance was Clark Hulls
1943 drive theory. Drive theory assumed a direct relationship between arousal and sports performance (see
Figure 2.4). The more aroused athletes were, the better they were able to perform. This theory did not allow
for over-arousal leading to anxiety, and was only applicable to simple motor tasks, not complex ones.
Performance
of the theory refers to the shape of the line formed
when performance is plotted against arousal and
anxiety on a graph (see Figure 2.4). This theory takes
Drive theory
into account the complexity of the task and the
athletes stage of learning. As a result, different skills
and sports have different optimum levels of arousal. Low
Very low Very high
To achieve optimal arousal, athletes can use Arousal /anxiety
techniques for relaxation, motivation and goal Figure 2.4 Inverted-U hypothesis and drive theory
setting, which are discussed later in the chapter. are used to explain optimal arousal.
High High
Performance
golf volleyball football weightlifting Beginning tennis player
tennis player
Low Low
Low High Low High
(a) Application of the inverted arousal U hypothesis (b) Application of the inverted arousal U hypothesis
in athletic events to tennis players at varying levels of skill
Figure 2.5 The inverted-U hypothesis can be applied to allow for the complexity of the task and the athletes
stage of learning.
ACQUIRE
1 Explain how anxiety and arousal differ physiologically and psychologically.
2 Identify the limits of the inverted-U theory.
3 Compare the differences in performance between an under-aroused athlete and an
over-aroused athlete.
EXTENSION
A number of other theories predict a relationship between performance and arousal.
Research some other theories. How do they differ from the drive theory and inverted-U
hypothesis? In what ways are they similar?
Attention
To understand distractions, it is
necessary to understand the nature of
attention and concentration.
Attention involves taking control
of the mind and, with clarity, focusing
the sensessuch as sight and hearing
on what is important. It might mean
withdrawing concentration from
one thing to focus on another. Terms
commonly used when describing
attention include alertness, focus and Figure 2.6 Focusing attention is important when performing
concentration. under pressure.
Dimensions of attention
In 1976, Robert Nideffer identied two different dimensions of attention: width and direction. The width
dimension refers to the amount of information from the environment that an athlete tries to perceive, which
can be broad (a lot) or narrow (a little). The direction dimension looks at how athletes can focus either on
stimuli from sources that are internal (their own thoughts and cues) or on those that are external (such as
environmental cues and their opponent). According to Nideffer, four types of attention are therefore possible,
as shown in Figure 2.7.
The dimension or type of attention required varies depending on the type of sport and the stage of the
game. For example, a broadexternal attention focus is often a requirement in open-skill team sports. In
target sports such as archery, a typical attention focus would be narrowexternal. In many activities, being
able to shift between the dimensions of attention is important.
2007 TS Direction
External
Internal
Figure 2.7 Athletes demonstrate different characteristics across the dimensions of attention.
Direction
External
2008 TS
AWARE FOCUSED
Figure 2.8
Nideffers model
STRATEGIC SYSTEMATIC can be used
to analyse the
Internal
different types of
attention required
Source: American Coaching Effectiveness Program, Sport Psychology Workbook, by different skills
Human Kinetics: Champaign, Illinois and activities.
Figure 2.9 Motivation keeps athletes striving for How would you rate your motivation to improve in
success. the sport you are currently studying?
Figure 2.10 Positive motivation, or the drive to succeed, and team cohesion are essential for strong
performance.
Any feedbackinternal or externalreceived by players during the feedback phase will reect the earlier
problems and can perpetuate any feelings of anxiety they may have had. Players who are already lacking
condence may then nd it more difcult to perform well in future. They may also lose their motivation to
continue, unless they are particularly determined or persistent.
Strategies to control poor information processing are often techniques to manage anxiety, stress, arousal
and concentration.
2011 TS
Task cohesion
shared goals
Leadership
effective coach and team
captain
Team cohesion Communication
open exchange of opinions
and suggestions
Better performance
Figure 2.11 Team cohesion is built on factors that include task cohesion and social cohesion.
ACQUIRE
1 How can athletes motivation affect their performance?
2 How can problems experienced during the input and processing stages of the information-
processing model affect the output stage?
3 Describe the two types of team cohesion.
Mental rehearsal
Mental rehearsal is when an athlete practises in his or her mind the physical skills that the athlete wishes to
perform. In this process, there is no visible physical movement; the athlete imagines the performance and
rehearses the activity in his or her mind to try to prepare the mind and body for competition.
Mental rehearsal is particularly used to manage and reduce negative emotions such as anxiety. A key
feature of mental rehearsal is that it can often replicate the feelings of anxiety individuals will experience
during the performance while allowing them to visualise success. This provides athletes with a positive frame
of mind for competition and prepares them for the pressure they could experience.
Have you tried using mental rehearsal before a performance? If so, what difference did it make?
This ability to picture a performance, or aspects of it, is a skill that can improve performance. Mental
rehearsal has been found to be effective when acquiring new sports skills and when performing well-
learned skills. Many studies have found that a combination of mental and physical practice results in better
performances than mental or physical practice alone.
Mental rehearsal allows athletes to:
practise old skills
learn new skills
experience success
train in any conditions
concentrate and refocus
prepare for training or competition
nd motivation
gain condence
develop coping strategies
control anxiety and arousal.
It is believed that mental rehearsal works because imagining an action creates electrical activity in the
muscles involved in the movement, even though they do not visibly move. Mental rehearsal also allows the
brain to work out problems, propose solutions and make decisions. It strengthens the neural connections
between the brain and the muscles, which are needed to create the movement. Good mental rehearsal works
because athletes not only see the image, they also feel it.
Visualisation
Visualisation is one mental rehearsal technique that involves creating a mental picture of just one aspect
of a performance or skill. It often happens immediately before performance. It is different from mental
rehearsal, which involves rehearsing a whole performance.
The mental picture created through visualisation might be an internal picture (the athlete imagines what
it looks like from the athletes perspective as the performance unfolds) or an external picture (the athlete
imagines the crowds perspective of the performance).
It is also possible to visualise a picture of something other than the performance, such as the environment
at the event, a safe and secure place, or the moment of victory.
For example, high-divers might picture themselves leaving the diving board in a certain way. It will
improve the divers condence because in their mind the dive has begun successfully. High jumpers may use
visualisation to focus on clearing the bar or correctly planting the take-off foot before the jump.
Anything can be visualised, but not all people nd it easy to visualise. First, the person must believe
that the strategy is effective. Second, it is a skill that requires time, patience and practiceit might require
practice every day.
Clear, vivid visualisation can assist athletes to:
switch on or switch off (become aroused or relaxed)
see and experience success
refocus (before or during an event)
practise and perfect skills
motivate themselves
prepare for a performance.
56 \\\\\ Focus area ALearning physical skills
PRACTICAL
Mental rehearsal
1 Perform this group task as a class.
a Propose a suitable practical experiment, such as the example below, to test the effects
of mental rehearsal on athletic performance.
b Carry out the experiment, recording the scores.
c When your experiment is complete, tabulate and graph the results.
d Discuss any differences in the results.
Example of a suitable experimentbasketball free throws
Three groups perform a number of basketball free-throw trials. The first group uses
physical practice only; the second group uses mental practice only; and the third group
uses a combination of physical and mental practice.
Group 1 (physical practice) performs twenty free throws in a row.
Group 2 (mental practice) mentally rehearses free-throw shooting for 5 minutes, and
then shoots twenty free throws.
Group 3 (mental and physical combination) mentally rehearses for 5 minutes, and
then shoots ten free throws. The group then does another 5-minute mental rehearsal
session, followed by the final ten free throws.
2 Assess your own visualisation skills by completing the following task.
Select a specific skill or activity in a sport you play. With no one else present, imagine
yourself performing the skill or activity at the place where you usually perform it. Close
your eyes and, for 23 minutes, try to see yourself at this place. Hear the sounds, feel the
body movements and be aware of how you feel. On a scale of 15 (with 1 being very poor
and 5 being very good), assess how well you did each of the following:
a saw yourself performing the activity
b heard the sounds of performing the activity
c felt yourself performing the activity
d were aware of your mood
e were able to control your image.
Relaxation
techniques
Relaxation techniques are
often used by athletes to calm
themselves, thereby decreasing
anxiety and controlling
over-arousal. An astute and
experienced player will be able
to relax in stressful situations
and to respond with control and
calmness, without being under-
aroused.
When athletes are relaxed
they are better able to put their
performances in training and
competition into perspective.
They will be less worried about
the results and will be better able
to focus on the performance.
This will make them less anxious
and more motivated, which
ultimately will improve their
performance.
Relaxation can be useful
Figure 2.13 Relaxation techniques help athletes feel less anxious and before, during or after an event
more motivated.
and usually precedes mental
rehearsal. As with mental rehearsal and visualisation, it must be practised so that it becomes a natural
response. The techniques should be performed regularly and frequentlytwo or three times per day in the
beginning, and then as necessary.
Relaxation techniques usually have one or more of the following characteristics:
procedures for tensing and then relaxing muscles
a focus on breathing
a focus on feelings of heaviness and warmth
visualisation.
For most relaxation techniques, the person needs to sit comfortably or lie down. Four other factors are
also necessary for relaxation:
a quiet environment
a positive attitude
low muscle tension
a relaxation device or technique.
The many relaxation devices and techniques include progressive relaxation, meditation, biofeedback and
hypnosis. Each technique is slightly different, but they all produce essentially the same result: calmer, more
relaxed players who feel positive about the next bout of exercise.
Meditation
Meditation involves totally concentrating on a word, phrase or imageoften called a mantra. Concentrating
on one thing frees the mind from other distracting thoughts that might cause stress. Meditation gives the
body time to relax and recuperate after stress or physical activity.
Biofeedback
Biofeedback uses instruments that measure changes in bodily functions. The instruments give athletes better
control of changes to their bodies because they make them aware that the changes have occurred. The
instruments can measure changes in
skin temperature, sweating, heart rate,
breathing, muscle activity and brain
waves.
For example, a heart rate monitor
alerts a person to a fast heart rate,
and the person then concentrates
on lowering the heart rate by using
relaxation techniques. Players can use
the instruments in training to develop
skills to control feelings of anxiety or
arousal. The same strategies can be
applied in the competitive environment
to relax.
Biofeedback is a very effective
relaxation tool. The main drawback is
the expense of the equipment.
Hypnosis 2013
Hypnosis is the creation of a sleep-like
condition with the help of another
person. It is used to induce a state of
deep relaxation and has some similarities Figure 2.14 Meditation involves total concentration and can
to meditation. relievestress.
PRACTICAL
Relaxation techniques
1 Conduct the following relaxation activity in your
class. The activity should be done in a quiet place
with gentle, relaxing music playing softly in the
background.
a Lie comfortably on your back and close your eyes.
b Deeply relax all the muscles in your body,
beginning with your toes and progressing up to
your face. Make all your muscles feel very heavy
and totally relaxed.
c Breathe through your nose and become aware
of your breathing. As you breathe out, say the
word one silently to yourself. Every time that you
breathe out, say one. Continue for 10minutes.
d When you have finished, open your eyes slowly
and lie still for a few more minutes.
When would you complete a relaxation task such as
this? If you had to play a competitive match now, how
would you feel? How would the relaxation activity
affect your performance? Figure 2.15 Lydia Lassila used mental
rehearsal and relaxation techniques to
2 Read the case study below, and then answer the win a gold medal at the 2010 Vancouver
questions that follow. Olympics.
Case study
John had been in this situation a hundred times before. It is the nal, and he is on the free-throw line.
The scores are equal, with one shot to come and 15 seconds on the clock. Suddenly, everything freezes.
He hears the crowd and sees the opposition. The hoop is far too small for what appears to be the beach
ball that he is now holding. Everything is hazy. He cannot feel his hands. He has 10 seconds to make the
match-winning shot.
a Explain the physiological and psychological responses taking place in Johns body.
b Identify what might have caused this situation.
c Suggest some techniques that John could use to make this shot successful.
Constructive coaching
Often, during practice or competition, players will hear
someone, often a coach, say to them, Keep your eyes on the
ball, Watch the ball into your hands or If its not in the strike
zone, dont swing. Such comments are intended to make the
player focus attention on the task at hand.
Routines
Many athletes take a moment to perform routines before closed skills, such as serves, free kicks and pitches,
to increase their concentration. For example, a rugby union goal-kicker might nd that his usual pre-kick
routine of taking ve steps back, taking two steps to the side, looking at the posts, looking at the ball, tapping
the right boot twice on the ground and then putting the foot beside the ball will improve his concentration.
Performing small routines or tasks periodically can also help athletes to maintain or regain their
concentration. For example, a tennis player might adjust the racquet strings between points; a badminton
player might walk to the back of the court and touch the base line before returning to serve at the T; and a
volleyball player might bounce the ball several times before rolling it back to the opponent.
Such routines can help because they give athletes a few moments to gather their thoughts and because
their bodies recognise the rehearsed movement pattern and know instinctively what to do next.
One routine that can be applied to most sporting situations is the six-step routine.
1 Consider your tactics and strategy.
2 Check your equipment.
3 Take a deep breath and release any tension.
4 Build a positive mental image.
5 Focus.
6 Go for it!
Case studyroutine
Have you ever played a game where nothing can go wrong? Everything you try works to perfection: the ball
seems to come to you in slow motion; you have time to execute the play just as you imagined; and your
physical responses are condent. Athletes call this being in the zone.
Some athletes are able to consistently achieve this mental state. Very few professional basketball players have
been able to shoot more than fty consecutive free throws during their careers. But Tom Amberry shoots free
throws at a gym near his home in Seal Beach, California, and often sinks 500 in a row. Some days he simply
cannot miss. On 15 November 1993, aged 71, he shot 2750 consecutive free throws.
Instead of worrying about whether the ball will go through the hoop, Amberry shifts his attention. He checks
to make sure his shoulders and feet are properly lined up. Then, he bounces the ball exactly three times, never
taking his eyes off the balls black ination hole. He makes sure his ngers line up on the ball the same way
before each shot. Finally, he looks at the basket and shoots. His trick is to use a routine to remove conscious
control of the shot and let instincts take over.
Click to download practical worksheets and detailed instructions for the six-step routine
and to learn more about Amberrys methods.
ACQUIRE
1 Using a sporting example, explain the difference between relevant and irrelevant cues.
2 What can athletes do to increase their concentration when feeling distracted?
3 How do routines help athletes improve their concentration?
4 Explain the differences between associative and dissociative strategies.
Social reinforcement
One type of external motivating force is social reinforcement. Social reinforcement is any type of
recognition or disapproval that occurs in front of others, such as teammates, parents or spectators.
An example of positive social reinforcement is recognition and approval from the coach in front of
teammates. Negative social reinforcement would be disapproval and rebuke in front of teammates.
Both positive and negative social reinforcement motivate players to do better next time in order to either
earn the recognition or avoid the disapproval; however, mismanaging social reinforcement can cause anxiety
in some athletes.
ACQUIRE
1 Define motivation.
2 Explain the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.
3 Describe, in your own words, social reinforcement.
2 Investigate the type of motivation used by one professional athlete of your choice.
Feedback
Feedback from a well-respected coach or teacher can signicantly boost an athletes motivation. Whether on
a team or in a physical education class, all athletes need feedback on their performance to help them feel a
sense of worth.
Feedback is often linked to skill development; it is well known that to acquire new skills, feedback on
technique and performance is needed. Feedback not only teaches athletes new skills but also gives them
motivation to keep achieving small goals.
It is important, however, to ensure that any feedback given is constructive and mostly positive. Athletes
who constantly hear negative feedback can lose condence and motivation.
Music
We often see athletes warming up while listening to their iPods and
other MP3 players. Research over the years has shown a denite link
between music and regulating arousal.
Musics tempo has an effect on athletes movements. If athletes
listen to a fast-tempo song, they are more likely to move quickly in
response to the beat of the song. Under-aroused athletes wishing to
increase their arousal should listen to music with a fast tempo. Over-
aroused athletes can also manage their arousal with music. Research
has shown that by listening to relaxing music with a slow tempo, over-
anxious and over-aroused athletes can reduce their arousal levels.
Music is also believed to reduce perceived exertion during exercise
because athletes attention is diverted by the music. This enables
athletes to train harder and longer.
It is not only professional athletes who can benet from using
music to regulate arousal. High school students have also reported
Figure 2.18 Listening to up-
changes in their effort and performance in lunchtime or class matches
beat music improves arousal and when up-tempo music is played loudly both before and during the
motivation. match.
Pep talks
Motivational talks, commonly
known as pep talks, by a coach,
teacher, teammate or parent
are a popular way of increasing
athletes motivation and arousal.
Pep talks only work, however,
if the athlete is receptive to the
person delivering the speech
the athlete must respect or
admire the person giving the talk.
Pep talks often use personal
2024 or team challenges, stories,
poems, silence, reasoning and
voice inection to encourage and
Figure 2.19 Public notices, such as posters, can be used to inspire
and motivate athletes. spur on players.
Public notices
Public notices, bulletin boards and posters are visual displays that can be used to inspire and motivate
athletes in a way that is similar to pep talks. Placed in prominent places, such as change rooms or training
areas, they can be used to convey positive, motivating thoughts and ideas. Phrases such as experience tells
you what to do; condence allows you to do it and the difference between try and triumph is just a little
umph can be effective.
In professional sports, this sort of psyching-up strategy is often seen in advertising campaigns that spur
on both athletes and their fans.
Self-activation
Lethargy can be reversed by the mental and physical actions of the athletes themselves. It is common to see
athletes preparing for a big match by talking to themselves and psyching themselves up. Often their self-
activation, or self-talk, is accompanied by actions, such as slapping their thighs.
Tennis player Lleyton Hewitt has a well-known self-activation strategy. His convincing Come on! (yelled
while pointing to his forehead) is effective at increasing his arousal during crucial points in his matches. It is
also seen to possibly increase the anxiety and desperation his opponents feel after losing a point.
Pre-competition workouts
Warm-ups before competition are a vital part of achieving optimal arousal. A player who walks onto a
court cold does not just risk injury but also increases the chance of not being psychologically ready for
the match.
Arousal has been linked to adrenaline, and adrenaline is linked to physical activityso it can be said that
physical activity before competition provides athletes with the adrenaline they need for optimal arousal.
Furthermore, in team sports a high-quality warm-up can amplify the team effect, whereby the increasing
arousal levels of teammates boost an individual athletes energy and arousal. For example, in volleyball a
typical warm-up includes a spiking session by both teams. In this session, if a player on the team performs a
particularly good or intimidating spike, the rest of the team will respond and use it as a precursor to boosting
their performance.
Case study
Sarah is a very talented hockey player and has received a scholarship to the Australian Institute of Sport.
To retain her scholarship, Sarah must train hard during the off-season to improve her strength and aerobic
tness. Her coach has also suggested that she plays in a summer league to maintain her skills. Since her
return at the start of the year, Sarah has played quite well, but she has not lived up to expectations. She
seems lazy and uninterested at practice, and her school work also has deteriorated.
2 Think about your current level motivation in your chosen sport. Choose one strategy to help
improve or maintain your motivation. Justify how and why it will work for you.
Short-term goals
Short-term goals are goals that can be achieved over a short period of time. Short-term goals should be
realistic, appropriate and provide immediate performance feedback. They can be set for a single training
session or for days (or weeks) ahead.
Some examples of short-term goals are:
I will train four times per week for the next six weeks.
I will increase weights by 10 per cent every three weeks.
I will work on defence at training tonight.
I will get six rebounds in the game today.
I will mentally rehearse a difcult task at least once each day.
Short-term goals are often stepping stones on the path to achieving long-term goals. Smaller, short-term
goals are used to break up larger, long-term goals into more manageable parts.
Long-term goals
Long-term goals focus on what might be possible in a few months, in one year or even in four years. Long-term
goals often represent the end-point of training.
Some examples of long-term goals are:
I will secure a top-ve position at the competition.
I will represent Australia at the next Olympic Games.
I will achieve an A for physical education this term.
I will receive the most valuable player award at the end of the season.
What long-term goals have you set for yourself?
Successful goal-setting
A number of useful principles can aid both coach and athlete to set effective goals.
Make goals specic, not general.
Set deadlines, write down the goals and set priorities.
ACQUIRE
1 Why is it important to set goals?
2 Distinguish between outcomes-oriented goals and performance-oriented goals.
3 Why are short-term goals useful in achieving long-term goals?
EXTENSION
1 Choose a famous sportsperson and gather information about that persons psychological
preparation for competition. Research the persons:
motivation
goals
psychological skills.
2 Compare your athlete with a classmates chosen athlete.
What similarities and differences are evident?
Why are these evident?
How do each athletes psychological skills affect his or her performance?
Models of coaching
Three different styles of coaching are commonly adopted by sports coaches.
1 Cooperative style
The cooperative style of coaching is the most commonly used style. A cooperative coach shares the
decision-making responsibilities among all members of the group, which allows individual team members
to feel important.
When using this style, care must be taken to ensure that decisions are always the best for the team and do
not only reect the opinions of the team members with the strongest voices.
This style is also called liberal style or teacher style.
2 Autocratic style
In an autocratic style of coaching a coach has total power over the groups decisions. This coaching style
is also known as the command style or dictator style of coaching.
This style is effective when athletes are novices and rely on the experience of the coach to guide and
instruct them. As athletes become more experienced, autocratic coaches may need to consider the
opinions of the athletes more.
3 Democratic style
Using the democratic style of coaching, coaches encourage athletes to lead their own training sessions
and only intervene when they feel it is necessary. The democratic style is also known as the babysitting
style or submissive style.
For this style to be effective, the athletes need to be highly motivated to achieve goals and work hard.
Coaches using this style must be aware of the capabilities of the athletes under their care and ensure that
athletes maintain a high standard in their training.
3
Applying
biomechanics
to sport
3067
What is
biomechanics?
Biomechanics is the study of the
body as a machine. This study
of the body looks at the internal
and external forces that act on
the body, and the movements
that these forces produce.
By grasping biomechanical
concepts, we can program this
machine, our body, to move
with precision. Furthermore, this
vital study enables us to correct
technical errors, reduce injury
and understand the importance
of equipment design.
Motion
Motion is an inherent part of all sports. The athlete
and the ball or other implement are required to
constantly change their position. The nature of
these changes in position depends on many factors.
3004
Measurement Definition
Distance The length of the path along which a body travels. (Measured in metres or kilometres.)
Displacement The length between the starting and end points as the crow flies. (Measured in metres or
kilometres, often with compass direction.)
Acceleration The rate at which an objects speed changes over time. (Measured in metres per
secondsquared.)
change in velocity
acceleration
time elapsed
final velocity initial velocity
acceleration
time elapsed
Momentum The mass of the body multiplied by its velocity. (Measured in kilogram metres per second.)
momentum mass velocity
PRACTICAL
Acceleration and velocity
Measure the velocity and acceleration of a person sprinting 100 metres.
Equipment
eleven markers, such as orange traffic cones
ten stopwatches
starting whistle
30072
Procedure
Start Finish
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100m
1 Measure a 100-metre straight line, marking the start line, finish line and 10-metre
intervals.
2 Place a person with a stopwatch at each 10-metre interval and at the finish line.
3 On go, everyone starts their stopwatches. They stop the stopwatches at the moment
thesprinter runs past their cone.
4 Copy the table and complete it to record the results.
Tasks
1 Graph the results for velocity and acceleration.
2 Identify the point at which the sprinter had the:
a greatest velocity
b least velocity
c greatest acceleration
d greatest deceleration.
Give reasons for each of the above.
3 Discuss the variations in the sprinters velocity and acceleration over the 100 metres.
4 Explain the effects these variations could have on the sprinters overall performance in a
100-metre sprint race.
Time
Velocity
Acceleration
Source: P Nicolson and R Whitely, Australian Physical Education Master Series, Eduguide, Victoria
Base of support
The base of support is the area by which the body is supported. For example, when you stand with your legs
apart, the area under and between your feet is your base of support. If you hang from a parallel bar, your
base of support is the area between the outer limits of your hands.
The larger the area of the base of support is, the greater the stability. For example, when doing the
stork stand balance test, people are asked to balance on just the ball of one foot. With such a small base of
support, it is difcult to maintain balance.
Have you ever done the stork stand balance test? Did you find it challenging?
It is important to note, however, that a body may be stable in one direction but not in another. For this
reason, it is essential to consider the orientation of the base of support relative to the force being applied.
For example, a wrestler wanting to prevent being pushed back will brace himself by placing his feet in a wide
stanceone foot behind the other. Just having a wide stance with his feet side by side would not prevent the
wrestler from losing balance backwards.
removed footer as
lost in AW pls
conrm ok
3009
Figure 3.8 The centre of gravity is an imaginary point around which a body or object is balanced.
Centre of gravity
Figure 3.9 A bodys centre of gravity can shift, depending on the bodys movement and position.
Line of gravity
The line of gravity can be
represented by drawing a straight
line from the centre of gravity to
the ground.
An object is most stable when
the line of gravity falls through
the centre of the base of support.
This is because it increases
the distance that the centre of
gravity can be moved before
balance is compromised.
Moving the line of gravity
towards the edge of the base
of support reduces a bodys
stability. The further off-centre
from the base of support the
centre of gravity is, the less
Figure 3.11 A rugby player will lower his centre of gravity to increase stable the body.
his stability.
30141 30142
Line of gravity
Relatively low
centre of gravity/
large base
line/gravity
High
centre of gravity/
small base
line/gravity line/gravity
High
a A high centre of b A low centre of
centre of gravity/ gravity above the gravity above the
small base base of support base of support
less stable more stable
c A low centre of
gravity, but the line
High of gravity is close
centre of gravity/ to base of supports
very small base edgeleast stable
Least
line/gravity
Figure 3.13 Stability is determined by the centre of Figure 3.14 Stability is affected by the position
gravity and the base of support. of the line of gravity and the height of the centre of
gravity in relation to the base of support.
Source: G Schembri, Introductory gymnastics, Australian
Gymnastic Federation, Melbourne 1983
ACQUIRE
1 Explain the difference between static and dynamic balance.
2 Describe how athletes base of support and line of gravity affect their balance and stability.
Tasks
1 Explain, referring to balance and stability, which starting position was fastest and why.
2 Describe the effect of the:
height of the centre of gravity on balance and stability
area of the base of support on balance and stability
alignment of the line of gravity on balance and stability.
3 Discuss how the performance of a sprinter or wrestler is affected by the base of support
and changes to the line of gravity.
3019
Least stable Most stable
Copy the continuum and on it mark the relative stability of each of the six positions.
4 In pairs, have one partner try to push the other off balance when in the following positions.
Ensure that the push is always from the side.
standing on tiptoes with arms above the head
standing normally
standing with knees bent
standing with feet wide apart, side by side
standing with feet wide apart, one in front of the other
kneeling, with hands also on the floor (on all fours)
Force
Line of
Magnitude
Force is anything that causes or has action
the potential to cause the movement,
diversion or slowing of the object on
which it acts. In simple terms, a force
can be a push, a pull, a blow, a collision, Point of application
gravity or friction (when two surfaces
rub together).
Whether an object or body is at Direction
Measuring force
Force is measured in a unit called a newton, after Sir Isaac Newton who recognised three laws of motion
(which are explained on page 77).
To speed up, change the direction of or slow down an object, force needs to be applied. The amount of force
(F) required depends on how heavy the object is (its massm) and the desired rate of acceleration (a). This
relationship can be expressed as:
Force mass acceleration
(F ma)
A newton (N), which is the unit commonly used to measure force, is equal to the amount of force from
1 kilogram of mass and 1 metre per second squared of acceleration.
1N (1 kg) (1 m/s)
3021
Force production
Force production is the combined result of several factors, including the summation of force, momentum and
impulse.
Most sports require an athlete to be able to generate and control forces. For sports where success is
determined by achieving a maximum distance, it is necessary for the athletes to produce as much force as
possible, such as in a volleyball spike or baseball pitch. While it is not always necessary for the force produced
to be the maximum possible, certain principles can be used to produce the appropriate amount of force for
the skill being performed.
In your sport, can you differentiate between the skills that require maximum force and those that require
control and accuracy?
Summation of force
We already know from Newtons second law of
motion that the greater the force applied to an
object is, the greater the acceleration. But how Hand
do we create the force to produce this rapid
acceleration? To obtain maximum force, it is
Forearm
Velocity
To explain how the principle of summation of force works, lets look at the example of a long jumper. The
summation of force principle explains that the force produced during the movement of one body segment
(for example, the lower leg) will be added to the force produced by the next body segment (the thigh), and
the next (trunk, chest and arms), and so on. Long jumpers are able to propel themselves further through the
air by using the combined force of many parts of their bodies: legs, trunk, shoulders and arms.
When a player uses just a few body parts, the force produced will be less than when a player uses many
body parts. This is why the best techniques for throwing, kicking and striking use more than just the obvious
body part that nishes the action.
Also important for force production is the sequence in which parts of the body are used. For best results,
movement begins with the larger, slower body parts and nishes with the smaller, faster body parts.
30241 30242
30243 30244
Figure 3.20 Volleyball spikes can be broken down into four stages: the approach, the take-off, the flight and
the hit.
Figure 3.21 The summation of forces generated by all parts of the body allows long jumpers to propel
themselves further through the air.
ACQUIRE
1 Define force.
2 In your own words, explain the difference between weight and mass.
3 List the six main types of contact forces.
4 a Why is stabilisation an important factor in force summation?
b Explain why the order and timing of body parts is crucial in maximising force
summation.
Procedure
1 Throwing a tennis ball
Measure the distance that the ball is thrown under the following conditions:
a sitting against a wall, legs straight out in front, using only your throwing arm (ensure
your back stays against the wall throughout the throw)
spacing b sitting on the ground away from the wall, legs straight out in front, using only your torso
to pad and arms
c standing with feet shoulder-width apart, facing forward
d standing side-on with feet shoulder-width apart
e with no restrictions (may run or take a crow hop).
Record your findings in a table.
2 Doing a standing long jump
Measure the distance that is jumped under the following conditions.
a jumping off one leg (arms fixed by your sides)
b jumping off two legs (arms fixed by your sides)
c jumping off two legs, using arms freely
d with no restrictions (using both legs, both arms and a run-up)
Record your findings in a table.
Tasks
1 Describe the process that you used to achieve the best distance in the tennis ball exercise.
2 Describe the process that you used to achieve the best distance in the long jump exercise.
3 Discuss the factors that influenced the summation of forces in each of the two activities.
Momentum
The summation of forces allows more momentum to be produced. When a body (or object) is in motion,
whether it is a sprinter running along a track or a bowling ball rolling down an alley, it has a certain mass
and a certain velocity. The product of these is known as the momentum: the quantity of motion the body
possesses.
Differences in momentum are brought about by variations in mass and velocity. For example, if two
people who are tenpin bowling have exactly the same technique and release the ball with the same velocity,
the one bowling the heavier ball is likely to get a better result. This is because the heavier ball, having a
greater momentum, will cause the pins to y around more, knocking down other pins. Similarly, a heavier
racquet in tennis will have greater momentum than a lighter one moving at the same velocity and produce
more force when it hits the ball.
When you sprint, how many steps does it take you to come to a complete stop? How does this compare with
your classmates or competitors? Why?
Transfer of momentum
Newtons rst law of motion explains that once
a body is in motion, it will tend to stay in motion
unless acted on by another force. The principle of
the transfer of momentum states that momentum
cannot be lostit is just transferred from one object
to another.
In many sports, it is necessary for momentum to
be transferred to another object or body part. The
greater the momentum an object has, the greater its
effect on other objects it collides with.
For example, in striking sports such as tennis,
Figure 3.22 Changing velocity affects a players momentum.
softball and golf, a player will gather as much
momentum as necessary during the swing by
summating forces and then transfer this momentum to the ball being struck. In other activities such as long
jump and high jump, momentum gained in the run-up is transferred to the jump, which allows a greater
distance to be achieved.
Have you ever played pool? Why is it that when the white ball strikes another ball straight on, the white ball
stops moving while the ball that was struck moves forward?
For momentum to be efciently transferred from one object or body part to another, stabilisation
must rst occur. If the object or body part is not stable, then some of the momentum will be transferred to
movements other than those intended.
For example, in tennis it is common for athletes to brace (tense up) their muscles just before the impact
of a forehand. Stopping the rotation of the body by bracing causes a whip-like effect on the armall the
momentum gained in the trunk rotation is sent into the arm for a powerful swing. Not all of the momentum
will be transferred to the ball as the players racquet will continue to follow through after the ball is struck.
However, a full follow-through ensures that at the point of contact the velocity of the swing is high and not
decelerating to a stop.
In volleyball, players completing a spike will take one large, accelerated approach step before propelling
themselves vertically into the air. If players are not completely stable before the jump, they will not be able
to effectively transfer the horizontal momentum of the run-up to the vertical movement.
How high can you jump during a volleyball spike? What could you do to increase your height?
ACQUIRE
1 Define momentum.
2 a Explain the concept of impulse in your own words.
b Explain how an increase in impulse can benefit performance.
PRACTICAL
Momentum
1 a Perform a standing long jump and a long jump with a measured run-up. For each,
measure the distance travelled.
b Explain the reasons for the different distances.
2 a Using a tee-ball bat, ball and stand, hit a ball off the stand with and without force.
b Compare the differences in the force applied and the distance the ball travels.
3 a Run a 5-metre sprint at less than your best pace, pulling up as quickly at the finish line
as possible. Repeat, but this time run at your top speed.
b Compare your ability to stop in both cases. Suggest reasons for the differences based
on your understanding of momentum.
4 Video and analyse the footage of a contact football game.
a Describe what happens to the velocity of a player when tackled.
b Compare the mass of the players running the ball and executing tackles, and suggest
why some players are more successful than others in the game.
5 Using a trampoline, spring high into the air. Describe what happens when:
a you keep your body straight and upright and your arms above your head
b you keep your body straight, but your arms are swung forward and down
c your arms stay above your head, but your legs are swung forward and up.
Source (task 5): P Nicholson and R Whiteley, Australian Physical Education Masters Series, Eduguide, Victoria.
Figure 3.23 To slow a fast-moving ball, cricketers must absorb the force of the ball by moving their arm back
as they make the catch.
Absorbing force
3026 In addition to applying force, the human
body also absorbs force. When we land
from a height, the momentum of the
body causes the knees, ankles and hip
joints to ex. The muscles of these leg
joints give during landing to cushion the
impact. The same is true when catching
a ball that is heavy or thrown very
hardthe muscles contract and give.
In most sports, the momentum
gained during a catch, landing or impact
can often be redirected into the next
movement. For example, a softball
player can take a catch then make a
quick throw to effect a double play.
Do you ever have balls rebound out
Figure 3.24 When catching a ball, the muscles (along with the
of your hand when you think you have
soft glove) absorb the force of the impact.
caught them? What causes this?
Accuracy
Often force production is not necessarily just about producing the most force possible. For some skills, such
as bowling in lawn bowls, and shooting a goal in basketball, accuracy is critical for success. A player must,
therefore, be able to control both the amount and direction of force produced.
Direction can be controlled in a number of ways. For example, increasing accuracy in a volleyball dig may
involve smoothing out the platform created by the forearms. This can be done by straightening the arms at
the elbows and bending the wrists backwards. The at platform reduces the likelihood of the ball rebounding
off the arms at an incorrect angle. When attempting to shoot a goal in netball, a straight-back linear arm
movement followed by a straight follow-through can increase the accuracy of the shot. In striking sports
such as baseball and tennis, attening the arc can improve accuracy.
Think about your accuracy in your current sport. What can you do to gain greater control?
Rotary forces
Concentric and eccentric forces
Concentric force can be described as force that is applied along an imaginary line that passes through an
objects centre of gravity. A concentric force will result in the object travelling along a direct path in the
direction of applied force. This is known as translation: where all parts of an object in motion are moving
with the same velocity and in the same direction.
When force is not applied along the line of 3028 TS
centre of gravity, the object will turn. Force that
is not applied along the line of centre of gravity is
known as eccentric force. Eccentric forces produce
rotation.
Rotational forcetorque
A force that produces a rotating or twisting motion Translation Rotation
movement, will be generated when more force is Figure 3.27 Concentric and eccentric forces cause
applied further from the centre of an object. objects to move along a straight path or turn.
Rotational momentum
We already know that momentum is the quantity of
motion an object has, which depends on its velocity
and mass. Momentum explains why heavy objects
that are travelling quickly will be harder to stop than Figure 3.28 An ice skater uses the distribution of
light objects moving slowly. weight to control the rate of rotation.
APPLY AND
EVALUATE
Explain how the
conservation of rotational
momentum can be applied
to the following:
1 ice skating
2 hammer throwing Figure 3.29 Rotational momentum can be transferred from one axis
3 hitting a forehand in of rotation to another.
tennis
4 performing a vault (tucked versus layout position).
ACQUIRE
What is the difference
between centripetal and
centrifugal force?
APPLY AND
EVALUATE
Describe how centripetal
and/or centrifugal forces
could be appliedto:
1 performing a giant
swing on a high bar in
gymnastics
2 using a golf club that is
too long
Figure 3.30 Centripetal force causes objects to move towards the axis
3 swinging a softball bat of rotation; centrifugal force causes objects to move away from the axis
that is too heavy of rotation.
Levers
We use levers every day. Objects such as scissors, nutcrackers, wheelbarrows and nail clippers all work
because of levers.
Levers are also frequently used in sport. The human body contains many levers made up of bones and
muscle. Our arms, legs and ngers are all levers. These levers allow the body to move and generate force.
Many types of sporting equipment are also levers, such as bats and racquets, which allow us to hit objects
faster and further.
In sport it is necessary to understand the mechanics of levers; understanding how they work allows
athletes to optimise efciency in movement.
Every lever has a point at which force (or power) Weight or load
(offering resistance)
is applied, a point of resistance and a fulcrum (or
axis), but the three different types of levers, all of
which play a role in sport and physical activity,
work slightly differently. Fulcrum
3035 AF
Chalk line
Figure 3.33 In this activity, students demonstrate the motion of a lever by moving around a fulcrum.
PRACTICAL
Levers
On a hard-paved area, five students stand next to each other in a straight line with their left
hand on the next persons shoulder. (See Figure 3.33.) The person standing furthest left will
be the fulcrum of the lever.
Draw a straight chalk line behind the heels of the group. Then, extend the straight line an
equal length on the opposite side of the person acting as thefulcrum.
While the fulcrum remains in the same place, the other four members of the group, still
linked by their left arms, walk around the fulcrum until they reach the extended chalk line
and are facing the opposite direction. The person acting as the fulcrum will rotate on the spot.
As the group walks, four other students mark each member of the groups path in chalk.
1 Time how long it takes for them to move 180 degrees.
2 Using a piece of rope, measure the total distance each student travelled.
3 Determine the speed of each student, using the following formula:
distance
speed
time taken
a Which student travelled faster?
b If there were a sixth student, would they have travelled faster again?
The principle of leverage means that when using levers in sports to produce force, it is often best to
maximise the length of the lever being used and to strike the object at the end of the lever. For example, in
cricket, bowlers will generate more speed on the ball if they use a straight arm; a straight arm lengthens the
lever. In a tennis serve, too, a fully stretched arm will ensure the racquet head is moving at its top speed at
the moment of impact.
As with most force production, however, it is necessary to balance force with accuracy. There is a limit
to the optimal lever length as increasing the levers length too much can create handling errors. A softball
player would not use a 4-metre-long bat, and tennis racquets are usually less than a metre long. Some
pls conrm
Figure 3.34 Using a bat or racquet increases the length of the lever that is your forearm.
Sweet spots
In sports that use racquets, bats and clubs, you will often hear discussion of the sweet spot. A sweet spot is
the ideal point on the equipment with which to hit the ball to maximise accuracy and force.
The sweet spot is the point that, when struck, causes no backwards nor forwards rotation of the bat.
Sweet spots are also the point at which vibration and jarring are minimised. They are often near the centre of
equipment.
Have you ever felt the effects of hitting a ball outside the sweet spot? What did it feel like?
Hitting the ball with the sweet spot has to be balanced with the effects of leverage. For ideal leverage, the
ball should be hit with the end of the bat (lever). However, if a ball is hit with the end, the tip of the bat will
rotate backwards, driving the handle forwards out of the batters hand. If the ball is struck close to the handle,
the tip will rotate forwards, causing the bat handle to push into the batters hands.
3038
Minimal vibration
Sweet spot
Figure 3.36 The sweet spot is the point on equipment such as bats and racquets where vibration is
minimal.
Projectile motion
A projectile is any object that is launched, hurled or thrown,
such as a bullet shot from a gun or a tennis ball hit by a racquet.
The path of a projectile is called its trajectory.
When we think of projectiles in sport, we usually think
of objects that have been thrown or hit, such as balls and
javelins. However, the human body can also be a projectile
think of gymnasts launching themselves from a beat board or
swimmers mid-dive.
3040
Angle of release
All projectiles have two types
of velocity: horizontal velocity
and vertical velocity. Once the
projectile has been released,
its horizontal velocity does not
change; it will continue to move
in a horizontal line until it is
overcome by the vertical forces
of gravity. The combination of
horizontal and vertical velocity
results in a ight path in the
shape of a parabolic curve.
Assuming that a tennis ball
is thrown at the same speed, the
following things would happen,
depending on the balls angle of
release.
If the ball was thrown straight
up into the air, it would stay
in ight for a long time but
travel only a short distance.
If the ball was thrown low
(relatively parallel to the
ground), it would travel
further from the point of
release, but its ight time
would be short.
The optimal trajectory is a
result of an even combination of
forward (horizontal) and upward
Height of release
(vertical) ight. In theory this
equates to an optimal angle of
Figure 3.38 A projectiles flight is affected by its angle of
release, height of release and speed of release. release of 45 degrees.
3043
Figure 3.39
45
The optimal
angle of release
of a projectile
is just less than
45degrees.
Height of release
The height of release refers to the height at which an object is released relative to its landing point. If the
angle of release and the velocity remain constant, a projectile thrown from a greater height of release will
travel further than one thrown from a lower height of release.
For example, if a tall athlete and a short athlete release a discus at the same speed and angle, the taller
athlete will be releasing the discus at a higher release point. In theory, this would mean that the projectile
thrown by a taller athlete would have more time in the air and that a taller athlete would be able to throw
further than a shorter athlete.
Do you think you have a height advantage when throwing?
3044
Figure 3.40
Projectiles thrown
from a height will
travel further.
The height at which a projectile is released also has implications for the optimum angle of release.
When the height of release is equal to the height of landing, the optimum angle of release is 45 degrees.
This occurs in soccer, when the ball is kicked from the ground and lands on the ground.
When the height of release is greater than the height of landing, as in a hammer throw, the optimum
angle of release is less than 45 degrees.
When the height of release is less than the height of landing, as in a bunker shot in golf, the optimum
angle of release is more than 45 degrees.
3046
3047
Figure 3.41 When a soccer ball is Figure 3.43 The height of release is sometimes lower than the
kicked, the height of release is equal to height of landing.
the height of landing.
Speed of release
Once a projectile has been released, its horizontal velocity remains constant for the duration of its ight.
In sports that require projectiles to be thrown a great distance, athletes try to generate as much velocity as
possible by releasing the projectile with the greatest possible amount of force.
Not all sports, however, need distance; in some, accuracy is more important. In those sports, the
speed of release decreases and more emphasis is placed on perfecting the angle and height. For example,
basketball players attempting a free throw would slow down their throwing action, placing all their focus
on techniques to improve accuracy. If the same players had to beat the shot clock from well before the
3-point line, their throwing action would speed up as their need for maximum force outweighs their need
for precision.
Decreased velocity
3048 AF
Spinning
object
Increased
velocity Direction of
travel of
fluid or air
(e.g. wind)
ACQUIRE
1 List the factors that affect the flight of a projectile.
2 a In theory, what is the optimal angle of release to maximise distance?
b Give one reason why this angle might change in practice.
PRACTICAL
Applying force
Watch video footage or demonstrations of the topspin serve in tennis and a variety of
spin bowling techniques. Then, practise the techniques in small groups and rate their
effectiveness. Discuss your findings as a group.
Dimples
Shallow
Correct
Deep
None 3076 1/4 ls
Ed: AF art
coming in tiny
and not to grid
Fluid mechanics
Fluid mechanics refers to forces
that operate in water and air.
This section will only look at the Gravity (weight)
forces operating in water. These
forces affect how well we can
move through the water, either in Propulsion Resistance
a vessel or as a swimmer.
The forces of uid mechanics
include buoyancy, propulsion
and resistance. Efcient
swimmers are able to alter
their technique in a way that
minimises opposing forces to
gain maximum propulsion.
Buoyancy
Buoyancy
An objects buoyancy determines
whether or not it will oat.
Buoyancy, in turn, depends on Figure 3.47 The forces of fluid mechanics influence a swimmers
motion.
the objects density.
Density is different from mass or weight in that it refers to an objects ratio of mass relative to its
volume. A shot-put and a rubber ball can be the same size (take up the same volume) but because the
shot-put is heavier for the same volume, it has a higher density than the ball. Density explains why, if we
threw the shot-put and the rubber ball into a pool, the shot-put would sink to the bottom, but the rubber
ball would oat.
Specic gravity, also known as relative density, is the ratio used to compare the density of an object
with the density of water. Water has a specic gravity value of one; anything with a specic gravity less than
one will oat when placed in water; anything placed in water that has a specic gravity more than one will
sink when placed in water.
People are not purpose-built for water. Although our bodies are made up of high proportions of low-
density air, fat and water, the density of our bodies is uneven. Also, dense muscle and bone have specic
gravity values of 1.52.0 and have a negative effect on buoyancy. Therefore, when we try to oat, we are
buoyed up by our chest and core, but sink at the legs due to their high percentage of muscle and bone.
A person with a higher proportion of body fat will oat more easily than a heavily muscled person.
Archimedes principle
Buoyancy was rst understood by Archimedes in the third century. Archimedes principle states that a body
d that is partially or totally immersed in a uid will be buoyed up by a force that is equal to the weight of the
uid that is displaced by the body.
Put simply, the buoyancy force of an object is the same as the weight of the water it displaces. Again, using
the example of the shot-put, a mens shot-put weighs about 7.3 kilograms, but would only displace about
500600 grams of water from the pool; therefore, it would sink.
Centre of buoyancy
The centre of buoyancy is related to volume and
displacement. The centre of buoyancy of an object
is at the geometric centre of the submerged volume
of the object. Ball filled
with air
In swimmers, the centre of buoyancy can
change depending on the position and movement Water
of a swimmers body, particularly the legs, and
how much of the body is submerged. Synchronised Ball filled
swimmers, for example, take advantage of the with sand
opposing forces of centre of buoyancy and centre
of gravity to generate subtle and elegant rotation in Figure 3.48 Objects the same size can have
very different densities.
the water, simply by moving their limbs.
The position in which a body oats in water depends on where the centre of gravity (downward force)
and centre of buoyancy (upward force) are situated at any given time. As these two forces work in opposite
directions, the body will rotate and only come to rest when the centre of gravity and centre of buoyancy are
vertically aligned.
The centre of gravity and the centre of buoyancy are not always in the same place. When a swimmer lies
horizontally in water, the centre of buoyancy is located closer to the head than the centre of gravity. This is
because the chest is lled with air, making it the least dense area of the body, and because the legs are the
densest area of the body, with high proportions of heavy muscle and bone.
3054
Centre of buoyancy
3053
Cent
Centre
re o
off gr
grav
avit
ityy
Centre of
gravity
Torque
Buoyancy
Centre of
buoyancy Centre of buoyancy
Gravity
Centre
t off gravit
ity
Figure 3.49 Buoyancy and Figure 3.50 The centre of buoyancy can change depending on the
gravity are two opposing forces. bodys position in the water.
Propulsion
Propulsion refers to the force that drives an object or body forward.
In most sports, forward motion is achieved by athletes pushing against a solid surface. For example,
sprinters push their feet against the solid ground to propel themselves forwards. Water, however, provides no
such solid surface. Swimmers, therefore, need to somehow pull or push themselves against the resistance of
the water.
Two types of forces are at work when swimmers propel themselves through water: lift and drag. For all
swimming strokes, both forces come into play at different points in the pulling, pushing and sideways sweeping
actions of swimming.
Bernoullis principle
3055
Bernoullis principle explains that as Lift
the velocity of a uid or gas increases, Combined force
its pressure decreases, and vice versa.
Bernoullis principle is usually used to
explain how the wings of aeroplanes
work, but it can also be applied to sports Drag
such as swimming.
In an aeroplane wing the air has to travel
further across the curved top of the wing Fast flow (low pressure)
than it does underneath the wing. The
slower ow of the air beneath the wing
creates an area of higher pressure. The Lift
Combined force
difference in pressure above and below
the wing is what creates the wings
lift. A curved swimmers hand moving
through water can have a similar effect.
Drag
Bernoullis principle explains how water
pressure will decrease as the speed of the
owing water increases. Furthermore,
Fast flow (low pressure)
water naturally moves from high- to low-
pressure zones. Figure 3.51 Bernoullis principle is used to explain lift.
Lift
Lift is the force that allows swimmers to move themselves forward in the water. Bernoullis principle helps to
explain liftthe difference in water pressure on opposing sides of a part of the body (such as the swimmers
hand) acts to propel it forward.
For example, when a swimmers hands move in a sideways sweeping motion through the water, the ow
over the curved knuckle side of the hand is much faster than on the palm side of the hand, as the knuckle
side has a much larger surface area. The difference in the speed of the travelling water on the two sides of
the hand creates high- and low-pressure systems. A swimmer can manipulate the angle at which they face
the curved side of their hand to change the direction of the lift force.
Another example of lift is
when performing an eggbeater
kick in water polo. Lift force is
created as the legs circle under
the water, creating pressure
differences between the top and
bottom of the leg and foot. The
lift force acts to push the athlete
upwards. Similarly, synchronised
swimmers are able to support High velocity flow
themselves in the water with Low velocity flow
the continuous sculling action
of their hands. The ow of water
over the hands creates a lift force
that pushes the swimmer to the Figure 3.52 The eggbeater kick is often used in water polo to create
surface. lift.
Drag
We usually understand drag as the resistance
3066
to movement that acts on a body or object as it
moves through a uidwater or air. It is the force
that opposes movement. Drag is sometimes simply Combined
called uid resistance. Fluids have an inertiaa force
Fluid resistance
Swimming is a relatively unnatural action for humans; our body shape, body density and surface (skin) make
us inefcient swimmers when compared with water animals.
Our ability to propel ourselves through the water is signicantly reduced by three types of resistance:
skin resistance, turbulence resistance and wave resistance. Before looking at these concepts, it is
important to become familiar with the following terms:
water displacementthe shifting or spreading of water in order for an object to move through it
laminar owsmooth-owing water of a low pressure
eddieswater that is moving in a different direction from the main current, usually in a circular
whirlpool motion
streamliningthe act of making the body as thin as possible, reducing the amount of surface area
displacing the water
How do you streamline your body when swimming? How do you lift your head when you have to breathe?
What phases of your stroke could be better streamlined?
Skin resistance
When a swimmer moves through the water, the uid that comes in direct contact with their body forms
what is called a boundary layer. This layer of uid grips on tightly and interacts with the next layer of water,
and so on, creating a frictional force that resists forward movement. There is very little that humans can do
to reduce skin resistance other than keep their skin smooth and wear tight-tting swimwear.
Turbulence resistance
Undisturbed water has a laminar ow, which is disrupted when a swimmer moves through it. As this occurs,
a high-pressure zone develops in front of the swimmer where some of the water accumulates. In addition to
this build-up at the front, some of the displaced water slips past the swimmer, crashing into the space the
swimmer has just left and creating a low-pressure wake full of eddies behind the swimmer. As water ows
from high- to low-pressure zones, the pressure differential causes a suction effect, which resists forward
motion.
Turbulence resistance is often referred to as prole drag, because swimmers proles (shape in the
water) determine the amount of turbulence they create. If a swimmer is streamlinedwith their hands,
shoulders, hips, knees and feet aligneda relatively small amount of water will be displaced; this, in turn,
Figure 3.54
To minimise
turbulence and
resistance,
good swimmers
streamline their
bodies in the
water.
3064
Figure 3.55
A bigger profile
in the water
displaces more
water and
results in greater
resistance.
Wave resistance
When a swimmer moves through the water, waves build up in front of them, creating a high-pressure swell
that exerts a resistance. This wave is often referred to as a wall of water that acts to block the swimmers
path.
The faster a swimmer travels through the water, the larger the wave generated and the greater the
resistance. With speed, the second factor that increases the size of the wave formed is the amount of water
being displaced. It is essential, therefore, to use streamlining techniques to displace less water when moving
at high speed.
ACQUIRE
1 What determines whether an object will float or not?
2 Why does a shot-put sink when thrown in a pool when a rubber ball floats?
3 What does Bernoullis principle explain?
4 What forces are at work when a swimmer moves through the water?
5 What is drag also known as?
6 List reasons why humans are inefficient swimmers when compared with water animals.
3077
According to Mason, that reducing drag, increasing turning, are being attributed to the new
was precisely the problem sprinting and start times, and technology, has just begun as
with prototypes of the new enhancing oxygen ow, so-called other leading countries prepare to
supersuit. After testing the fabric, venous return. hold their Olympic trials.
running computer simulations While uncertain of the suits Thompson does not credit the
and trialling the suits with impact on venous return, Mason fast times to the new swimsuits
mannequins pulled through said the suit denitely affected despite thirteen world records
the water, Speedo asked the something vitally important in six weeks since they were
Australian Institute of Sport to attitude. launched.
put them on human swimmers.
Psychologically, a swimmer We are having great
We discovered problems, has on something new, he said. performances here (at the
he said. Australian Olympic Team
Theyre performing with
If (the suit) restricted something different and they Swimming Trials) and, in Europe,
movement around the shoulders, believe that something will give we saw a lot of world records
reducing drag, it also reduced the them an advantage. broken over the last six days,
ability to increase propulsion. Thompson said.
As a sponsor of Australias
Its also no good being so swim team, Speedo has provided I think its a great
tight, it takes two hours to get about 120 Olympic hopefuls with performance of swimming and
into ... these are the trade-offs. this advantage. The remaining I think we have more to look
Thats why it takes so long to stock is on sale to the public for forward to ... this is the Olympic
develop (a suit). $800 each. year and thats what we expect.
But the results, Speedo Australias head swimming
claims, offer a winning edge over coach, Alan Thompson, believes Source: Leigh Dayton and Nicole
previous high-performance suits, the spate of world records, which Jeffery, The Australian, 26March 2008
Have you ever competed in a swimming race? Would it be fair if some competitors could afford high-tech
swimsuits and others could not?
Athletics
Volleyball Softball Swimming Golf Tennis Gymnastics
Track Throws Jumps
Motion Linear (rectilinear)
motion
9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Curvilinear motion 9 9
Velocity and speed 9 9 9 9 9
Acceleration 9 9 9 9 9
Newtons first law
of motioninertia
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Newtons second
law of motion 9 9 9 9 9
acceleration
Newtons third law
of motionaction 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
and reaction
Balance and Base of support
stability
9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Centre of gravity 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Force Force production 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Summation of
forces
9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Momentum 9 9 9 9 9
Transfer of
momentum
9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Impulse 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9
Absorbing force 9 9 9
Accuracy 9 9 9 9 9
Rotary forces Concentric and
eccentric forces
9 9 9 9 9 9
Rotational
momentum
9 9 9 9 9
Conservation
of rotational 9
momentum
Centripetal and
centrifugal forces
9 9 9 9
Levers 9 9 9 9 9 9
Sweet spot 9 9 9
Projectile Angle of release
motion
9 9 9
Height of release 9 9 9
Speed of release 9 9 9
Fluid resistance
(air)
9 9 9 9 9
Magnus effect 9 9 9 9
Fluid Buoyancy
mechanics
9
Centre of buoyancy 9
Propulsion 9
Fluid resistance
(water)
9
Note that most biomechanical principles relate to most sports. This table shows only the most relevant and strongest links.
Task 2
Sports psychology and
accountability in team
Word limit: 8001000 words sports
Genre: Essay
Word limit: 600800 words
Preamble Preamble
The rate of learning can be plotted as a learning curve. Every time your team played a match in the round-robin
In your study you will create your own learning curve graph, tournament this term, statistics were recorded for a variety
plotting your performance in several skills. You will then of skills. These statistics were collated and you were ranked
evaluate the graph and use it as the basis of a report. based on percentages. At the end of the competition, the
player with the best aggregate ranking received a reward and
Learning requirements public recognition.
To successfully complete this task you will need to:
Learning requirements
participate in the physical activity currently being studied
To successfully complete this task you will need to:
identify your stage of learning in that activity
set short-term and progress goals for the unit. Your short-
create a learning curve graph to record your learning
term goals should be what you wish to achieve by the
evaluate your learning curve, reecting on what it means end of the unit. Progress goals should detail each weeks
about your progress. desired improvements
participate in a round-robin competition
Click to access learning curve templates.
keep a match journal, in which you discuss performance
strengths and weaknesses, and the effectiveness of any
Task sports psychology methods used during each match
Evaluate your personal learning curve graph and use your record individuals statistics from every match,
ndings to write a report in which you justify your self- documenting the success rate of fundamental skills as a
assigned stage of learning. In your report, use your ndings percentage.
to recommend appropriate practice methods (including the
display match statistics so that students are accountable
timing and frequency of training sessions) that will help you
for their performance
to progress in the activity.
rank students based on overall percentages.
Additional information
Task
You will need to use appropriate headings and
subheadings in your report. Justify which sports psychology method was most effective
to improve your performance. Use publicly displayed
All tables, graphs and other images referred to in the body
statistics and journal entries to support your justication.
of your report are to be placed in an appendix.
You will need to provide a reference list and correctly use Additional information
in-text referencing to acknowledge the sources of your You will need to bring in your journal entries, statistics
information. sheets and rankings from the round-robin tournament.
Task 3
Biomechanical analysis
Genre: Speech and PowerPoint
presentation (multimodal)
Time limit: 6 minutes
Preamble
If you can understand how biomechanical concepts
interrelate and govern physical activity, you will be better
able to analyse your performance and adapt it to improve.
You will video your performance and analyse it to determine
what modications need to be made to your technique.
Learning requirements
To successfully complete this task you will need to:
arrange video recording of the physical activity you are
currently studying
analyse the video footage, using motion-analysis
software, if available
edit the footage (in class).
Task
Evaluate the video footage taken of your performance in your
current physical activity and identify one major weakness in
your technique. Select two biomechanical principles to justify
why this is a weakness. Recommend a drill that would help
to remedy the problem. Explain your ndings in a speech,
accompanied by a PowerPoint presentation.
Additional information
Both video footage and stills should be used and referred
to during your speech to support your conclusions. Edit
footage to include both normal-speed and slow-motion
footage to support your points.
Any video footage and stills used should be embedded in
PowerPoint slides.
Use palm cards when presenting your speech.
Focus questions
How do we get energy for movement?
What energy systems contribute to physical activities?
What are the effects of training?
How are training programs designed?
How are injuries treated and managed?
COMING UP
The bodys response to physical activity page 124
122 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
RUS_QSPE_3pp.indb 123
b
28/09/10 9:41 AM
4002
4
The bodys
response to
physical activity
Energy 4040
Adenosine triphosphate
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is an energy-rich chemical compound that is found in the bodys cells. It is
almost always the source of energy for the reactions that take place in the bodyespecially for the muscle
contractions that lead to movement.
As shown in Figure 4.2, ATP is made up of a smaller compound (adenosine) and three chained
phosphate (P) groups (hence the name tri-phosphate). The nal phosphate group is held on to the chain
with a high-energy bond.
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are broken down by the body into glucose. The glucose is then stored in the muscles and
liver as glycogen, which is a ready source of energy. Chemical reactions involving the breakdown of glucose
(glycolysis) or glycogen (glycogenolysis) then produce ATP.
Simple carbohydrates (sugars) can provide energy, but the best sources come from complex
carbohydrates, such as grains, cereals, breads, legumes and vegetables.
One gram of carbohydrate yields approximately 16 kilojoules of energy when broken down.
Fats
Triglyceride, which is found in fatty foods, is the digested form of fat needed for energy production. Fat is
stored as triglyceride in both adipose tissue (fatty tissue) and the muscles. As exercise begins, triglycerides
are broken down into fatty acids and glycerola process known as lipolysis.
Free fatty acids are the primary energy source when fat is used for energy, which is usually during
prolonged lower-intensity work. The body uses the fatty acids to produce ATP and continues to break down
the adipose triglycerides if exercise is prolonged at a low intensity. Free fatty acids produce the greatest
amount of ATP, but they have disadvantages: it takes many more chemical reactions and much more oxygen
to split them to resynthesise ATP.
One gram of fat yields approximately 37 kilojoules of energy when broken down.
126 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Proteins
After digestion and absorption, Fats and simple carbohydrates (sugars)
proteins are broken down into
amino acids. Under normal
conditions, protein is not used
to produce ATP. During extreme
conditions (for example, Protein
starvation or prolonged exercise),
protein will be used as a fuel
source to produce ATP. Protein
is used only when stores of fats
and carbohydrates have been Complex
exhausted. carbohydrates
Energy systems
ATP does not exist in the muscles and tissues in an abundant supply waiting for activity to occur. In fact,
the small amount of ATP that is present provides only enough energy for a few seconds of intense activity.
The body does not produce ATP continuously, so it must be replenished and recycled in a process known as
resynthesis. The process of resynthesis rebuilds ATP from ADP using one of three energy systems:
the alactacid system (also called the phosphagen or ATPPC system) 4006 TS L1/4
the lactic acid system (also called the anaerobic glycolysis system)
the aerobic system (also
Anaerobic systems Aerobic systems
called the oxygen or oxidative
(without oxygen) (with oxygen)
system).
The major difference
Alactacid system
among the systems is that the
alactacid and lactic acid systems
resynthesise ATP anaerobically
(without oxygen present),
Energy Aerobic systems
whereas the aerobic system
resynthesises ATP aerobically
(with oxygen present).
Which energy system is used by Lactic acid system
the body depends on:
how long the activity will take
Figure 4.5 ATP is manufactured or resynthesised using three energy
the intensity of the activity. systems.
Alactacid system
The alactacid system, also known as the ATPPC system, is used by the body to produce ATP quickly. High-
intensity activities lasting for less than 10 seconds use this system as the primary source of energy. Such
activities include throwing a shot-put, running a 100-metre sprint, making a jump shot and kicking a football.
This process is best described by the principle of coupled reactions, which means that the results of
one reaction are used to drive another reaction. One reaction causes ATP to break down and become ADP,
releasing phosphate and energy in the process. As ATP is being broken down in the muscle, another high-
energy substancephosphocreatine (PC)is also being broken down. The breakdown of PC produces
phosphate and energy. The energy from this reaction is used to join ADP and free phosphate molecules to
produce ATP.
The amount of PC in muscles is limited. After about 510 seconds of strenuous work, it runs out and
another of the three energy systems has to be activated. Although the stores of PC are quickly used up, they
are also quickly restored within 2 minutes of resting. This allows for activity to be repeated in intense, short
bursts, without immediate exhaustion.
The alactacid system represents the most readily available source of ATP for use by the muscles because:
it does not depend on a long series of chemical reactions
it does not depend on oxygen being transported to the muscles
both ATP and PC are stored in muscle tissue.
ATP
ADP
ATP breaks
down to form
Phosphocreatine ADP
(PC) and energy
PC breaks down,
releasing energy
128 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Aerobic system
The alactacid system and the
lactic acid system produce ATP
without the need for oxygen
in the chemical reactions. In
contrast, the aerobic system of Lactic acid
energy production is known as
such because it uses oxygen; Figure 4.9 The lactic acid system involves a series of chemical
aerobic means with air. reactions that break down glucose to release lactic acid.
In certain types of exercise, oxygen is made available to the muscles to use in the chemical reactions
that resynthesise ATP. These reactions take place in specialised structures within the muscles, cells called
mitochondria. Although these reactions cannot take place until sufcient oxygen is in the bloodstream, they
are able to generate more abundant supplies of ATP than either anaerobic systemsometimes ten times
more. For this reason, the aerobic system is the most efcient energy system.
The aerobic system allows the body to use carbohydrates, fats and proteins as the fuel to produce ATP.
Carbohydrates are broken down in a process called aerobic glycolysis. Carbohydrates are the preferred
fuel as their breakdown requires the least amount of oxygen.
The breakdown of fats (oxidisation) requires signicantly more oxygen to produce the same amount of
ATP than the breakdown of carbohydrates. Fats are the preferred fuel only during low-intensity exercise,
when the supply of oxygen is high relative to demand.
Protein will usually be used as an energy store only in extreme situationswhen the previous two stores
have been depleted.
The different ways that the aerobic system uses these fuels in the body explains why athletes
carbohydrate load long-distance events. They are trying to provide their bodies with enough fuel. As the
activity continues, however, carbohydrate stores can become depleted, and fats become the major fuel
source.
The by-products of the aerobic system are carbon dioxide, water and heat, all of which can easily be
eliminated by the body.
130 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Anaerobic
Lactic acid system Glucose and Up to 3 minutes Build-up of Rapid but limited
glycogen lactic acid in the
muscles
Aerobic
Aerobic system Carbohydrates, Indefinite at low Depletion of fuel Slow but unlimited
glucose and intensities sources
glycogen, fats and
protein
Glucose
Glucose
Time
10 30 2 5 80
Seconds Minutes
Source: BJ Sharkey, Coaches Guide to Sport Physiology, Human Kinetics, Champaign, Illinois, 1986
Figure 4.10 The duration of activity determines the main energy system used.
132 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Click for further case studies on how energy systemscontribute to individual sports.
134 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
APPLY
1 Predict and justify, using Table 4.3 and Figure 4.10, the predominant energy systems for the
following activities: 200-metre swimming, snowboarding, rugby league and lawn bowls.
2 Describe the use of the energy systems in a 1500-metre running event.
4020 L 1/3 AT
Efcient aerobic
system
Mitochondria-rich
Efcient cardiovascular muscles
system
Figure 4.14 A high proportion of muscle cells, which are rich in mitochondria, allows athletes to produce
more ATP aerobically.
Capillary network on
Pharynx
surface of alveolus Pulmonary 4016 A/B
capillaries
Trachea Larynx L 1/2
Primary
bronchus
Lung
Bronchioles
Alveolus
Figure 4.15 Gases transfer between the lungs and the bloodstream through capillaries surrounding the
alveoli.
136 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Steady state
At the beginning of any form of exercise or when
the intensity of exercise increases, the working
muscles are placed under an immediate increase
Right in stress and require a rapid increase in ATP. As
ventricle anaerobic forms of energy will only keep an athlete
going for a few seconds or minutes, the muscles
Left ventricle require a rapid increase in oxygen. To meet these
needs, the cardiorespiratory system begins to work
harder.
Figure 4.17 The heart delivers oxygenated blood
tothe working muscles.
VO2 max
An individuals highest possible oxygen consumption during exercise is known as the volume of maximum
oxygen (VO2 max). It is measured by determining the maximum amount (in millilitres) of oxygen that can
be used in one minute per kilogram of body weight. This measurement is used as it helps to determine an
athletes ability to use oxygen to produce energy.
Universities and research centres such as the Australian Institute of Sport have specialised laboratory
equipment for exact VO2 max measurement. These usually require athletes to exercise, often on a treadmill,
to increase their heart rate and respiration, while their oxygen use is measured. When such equipment is
unavailable, VO2 max prediction tests are used as a guide to determine tness.
The bodys ability to deliver and use oxygen is the main factor determining VO2 max. The
cardiorespiratory systems ability to deliver oxygen is believed to be the most important factor; even the
best-trained muscle cannot use oxygen that is not delivered. However, if oxygen-rich blood is delivered to
poorly trained muscles, VO2 max will be lower.
Other factors determining an individuals VO2 max include:
Genes
Athletes genes, which establish the physical attributes they inherit from their parents, play a signicant
role in determining their VO2 max level. Although genetic inheritance is important, effective training can
still help athletes to improve their VO2 max.
Age
Athletes age affects their VO2 max. For most people, VO2 max decreases from the age of about 20 years.
Gender
Men and women have signicant physical differences in body size, muscle size and blood volume. These
differences explain why a mans VO2 max is on average 20 per cent higher than a womans.
4022 TS L1/4
Oxygen consumption
VO2 max
Exercise intensity
Figure 4.18 Athletes VO2 max is their highest possible oxygen consumption during exercise.
138 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
VO2 max
Men Women
Basketball 4060 4360
ACQUIRE
1 Define VO2 max.
2 Outline the role it plays in sports
performance.
Aerobic
meaning that lactic acid is formed and removed 80 training
zone
continuously. The basic argument against the term Anaerobic
training
anaerobic threshold is that there is uncertainty 70
threshold
as to whether the rise in blood lactic acid is due to
lack of oxygen in the muscles or is a result of other 60
causes. These other causes have been measured and Aerobic
50 training
are valid for describing the inection point.
threshold
They include:
accelerated glycolysis (that is, the conversion
of glucose and glycogen to pyruvic acid in the 50 60 70 80 90 100
lactic acid system) V02 max (%)
increased use of fast-twitch muscle bres Figure 4.21 Aerobic and anaerobic training
(more fast-twitch activity leads to more lactic thresholds indicate the maximum effect possible
without an increase in lactic acid.
acid production)
reduced rate of lactic acid removal (that is, lactic acid is produced and removed from the body, but when
production exceeds the rate of disappearance, lactic acid accumulates in the blood).
It is possible that any one of the above, or a combination of factors (including lack of oxygen), might
explain the LT or OBLA.
It is useful for athletes and coaches to know the inection point at which LT/OBLA occurs. This
information can help to place athletes in specic endurance events. It is a better indicator of aerobic
endurance performance than VO2 max is, and it can determine training intensities for optimal improvements
in aerobic endurance. The major limitations of using LT to improve performance are:
It is difcult to measure.
140 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Calculating your heart rate is essential as it can tell you if you are getting the most out of your exercise. By
determining the percentage of your maximum heart rate that you are working at, you can pinpoint whether
you are in the correct training zone.
Procedure
1 Find your carotid pulse. Your carotid artery is located on your neck, just under your jaw line.
2 Count your pulse for 15 seconds. It easiest if you have a stopwatch to record the time while you
count. Otherwise, it is a good idea to work with a friend.
3 Multiply your result by four. You have now calculated your beats per minute (BPM).
4 Calculate your estimated maximum
heart rate (MHR). The general rule
is that your MHR is 220 minus your
age. Therefore, a 17-year-old would
have an estimated MHR of
220 17 203 BPM.
5 Calculate your current BPM as a
percentage of your MHR using the
formula
BPM
100 %
MHR
For example, for a 17-year-old
working at 140 BPM, the percentage
would be:
140
100 68.9%
203
At 68% of MHR, this athlete would
be working within the aerobic
Figure 4.22 Your carotid artery is located on your neck, just
training zone. under your jaw.
Muscle fibres
Fatigue can occur when the muscle lacks oxygen due to insufcient blood ow or when it is unable to
contract. For example, an injury could result in early fatigue.
142 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Energy systems
Each of the energy systems has its own process of
fatigue.
In the alactacid system, fatigue occurs as the
bodys store of ATP and PC is depleted.
In the lactic acid system, the burning sensation
caused by a build-up of lactic acid can cause
fatigue.
In the aerobic system, fatigue can occur when
the body uses up its supply of fuel derived from
carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
Recovery
Recovery processes are designed to restore the
body to its pre-exercise state. The time taken to
fully recover will depend on the type, intensity and
duration of the activity, recovery techniques and the
athletes accumulated oxygen decit. There are two
types of recovery: rest and active.
Rest recovery
Rest recovery is a period of no movement. Rest
recovery is sometimes employed during sessions
where an athlete has to complete many high-
Figure 4.24 Active recovery helps athletes to
recover after strenuous exercise. intesity repetitions of short duration.
Active recovery
In general, after an all-out exhaustive effort, an active recovery is recommended to restore ATPPC stores
and to remove lactic acid. Active recovery is more benecial than rest recovery in most cases because of its
ability to quickly reduce muscle lactate levels. So, what is an active recovery?
Active recovery includes performing light tasks, such as slow running, walking, stretching and minor
games. Consuming complex carbohydrates after activity also helps to replenish muscle and liver glycogen
stores.
Even athletes who do not exercise to exhaustion should still use active recovery techniques and replenish
food and uids.
Oxygen deficit
Have you noticed that at the end of a run you seem to be breathing in more air than you were during
the actual run? Does your breathing return to its normal resting levels straight away? Most people have
experienced this shortness of breath. With knowledge of energy systems, these physiological changes can be
explained.
144 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
At the start of physical activity, the alactacid and lactic acid (anaerobic) energy systems supply the
body with energy; however, this comes at a cost. The lactic acid energy system accumulates lactic acid that
has to be broken down. Both systems break down ATP to produce energy. Breaking down lactic acid and
resynthesising depleted PCboth consequences of the anaerobic systemrequire oxygen. So, even though
anaerobic energy systems do not need oxygen to produce energy, the body does need extra oxygen during
recovery.
We know from experience that our bodily functions do not return to normal immediately after exercise.
Heart rate, body temperature and breathing all remain elevated after exercise. This is especially true after
very intense exercise, when the body requires quite a while to return to resting levels.
The elevated physiological effects of exercise that continue after exercise has stoppedsuch as rapid
heart rate and heavy breathingallow the body temperature to return to normal, assist in removing lactic
acid, and help replenish ATPPC and glycogen stores. Importantly, the rapid heart rate and heavy breathing
deliver more oxygen to the body.
The difference between the amount of oxygen the body uses when truly at rest and the amount of
oxygen used when exercise has just stopped is called the oxygen decit. Oxygen decit is also referred to as
oxygen debt, recovery oxygen and excess post-exercise oxygen consumption (EPOC).
4025 L 1/3
Have you ever been short of breath after exercise? What did it feel like? At what level of intensity were you
AF
working?
V02
02 deficit Alactacid/fast
3 component
2
EPOC
Lactacid/slow
component
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Time (minutes)
Figure 4.25 Oxygen deficit, or EPOC, is the difference between the amount of oxygen the body uses when at
rest and just afterexercise.
Source: B Davis et al., Physical Education and the Study of Sport, Mosby, Edinburgh, 2005
ACQUIRE
1 Explain the difference between rest recovery and active recovery.
2 Describe oxygen deficit in your own words.
3 If anaerobic energy production does not require oxygen, what is the function of heavy
breathing immediately after anaerobic exercise?
146 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Stroke volume
Stroke volume is the amount of blood that leaves the left ventricle each time the heart beats. The ability
of the heart to push oxygen-rich blood into the arteries and towards working muscles is the biggest factor
affecting aerobic-based performance. The more blood that the heart can push out, the more work individuals
will be able to do; they will be able to exercise longer and faster.
Stroke volume is determined by a number of factors associated with the heart, including the:
size of the ventricles
thickness of the ventricle walls
ow of blood through the veins back to the heart
volume of blood in the body.
Aerobic training has a positive effect on stroke volume and, therefore, on an individuals potential to
perform aerobically. Training causes the physical size of the heart and ventricles to increase. Additionally,
the walls of the ventricles will become thicker and stronger. These two factors allow more blood to enter the
heart as it is now bigger, and the stronger walls allow much more of the blood to be ejected each time a beat
occurs.
When combined with an increase in blood volume, lower blood pressure and an improved ability to move
blood through the veins back to the heart, a rise of 25 per cent in stroke volume can be achieved through
aerobic training. That is, if stroke volume was 70 millilitres per beat before aerobic training program, it could
be increased to 87.5 millilitres after. This increased stroke volume leads to higher cardiac output, more blood
(and therefore more oxygen) going to working muscles, and improved performance in endurance events.
The effects of training on stroke volume are then evident regardless of whether exercise is being
undertaken. Stroke volume increases at rest too, which causes the resting heart rate to fall while cardiac
output remains steady. During sub-maximal exercise, stroke volume will have increased, resulting in a lower
heart rate (again, cardiac output will remain steady). During maximal exercise, the increased stroke volume
will lead to a large increase in cardiac output and improved performance.
148 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
90 19
Millilitres per beat
ACQUIRE
Referring to Table 4.7.
1 Explain why the trained persons heart rate is lower than that of the untrained person.
2 Why is the trained persons volume of blood at maximal work greater than that of the
untrained person?
Table 4.7An example of the difference in cardiac output for trained and untrained 17-year-olds
markup: right
image?
Oxygen uptake and lung capacity
jogging?
The ability of the body to move oxygen into the
bloodstream and remove carbon dioxide from
it is not determined only by the heart and its
functioning. The size of the lungs and the ability
of the blood to absorb and carry the oxygen to
the working muscles are also important aspects of
performance.
Oxygen uptake
Oxygen uptake is the amount of oxygen absorbed
into the bloodstream during exercise. If more
oxygen reaches working muscles, they will be able
to work for longer at a higher level. Improving this
capacity is one of the goals of aerobic training.
Oxygen uptake is measured in litres per minute.
Over many years, exercise physiologists (those
who study the effects of exercise on the body)
have determined how much oxygen is required to
perform various activities. By using standard tests,
you can work out your maximum oxygen uptake.
As explained on page 138, an individuals highest
possible oxygen consumption during exercise is
known as the volume of maximum oxygen (VO2
max). The higher your VO2 max, the better your
aerobic system is functioning.
Figure 4.29 Jogging is a type of sub-maximal
Before training an individual may have a VO2
exercise.
max of 2.5 litres per minute. After training this
gure may rise to 3.2 litres per minute. Once again, the rise in the ability to deliver oxygen to the working
muscles causes the improvement in performance after training.
Oxygen uptake improves following a training program for a number of reasons. These include the factors
already discussed (such as improved stroke volume and cardiac output) as well as greater lung capacity and
higher haemoglobin levels within the blood. All these capacities, when combined, allow the increased ow of
oxygen-rich blood to working muscles.
Lung capacity
Lung capacity is the amount of air that can move in and out of the lungs during a breath. Many measures
can be made of lung function, including tidal volume and vital capacity. The basic principle that needs to be
understood is that when more air can be inhaled and exhaled during exercise, more oxygen can be absorbed
into the bloodstream. More oxygen leads to improved performance during aerobic work.
A number of adaptations associated with lung function occur as a result of aerobic training. Three of these
are described below.
1 The number of breaths that can be taken during maximal exercise can be increased. As the muscles
around the lungs become larger and stronger, they can work faster. Maximal breathing rates can increase
from 40 to 50 breaths per second as tness develops.
150 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Source: FI Katch and WD McArdle, Nutrition, Weight Control and Exercise, 3rd edn, Lea & Febiger, Philadelphia,1988
Click for information on how to calculate your heart rate, or refer to page 141.
Haemoglobin level
Haemoglobin is a protein found within red blood cells. Its main
function is to absorb oxygen at the lungs and carry this oxygen
to the working muscles via the bloodstream. The make-up of
haemoglobin allows it to absorb oxygen quickly and efciently
transport it through the body. It also plays a less important role
in the removal of carbon dioxide from working muscles.
During training, cells within the body become short of
oxygen. One of the ways the body adapts to this is to produce
more red blood cells and haemoglobin to meet the oxygen
needs of the cells. While it is not a large increase, it does
improve individuals abilities to absorb and deliver oxygen to
working muscles and, therefore, their performance in aerobic
activities.
Many athletes try to boost their haemoglobin level
through altitude training. Places that are higher above sea
level have less oxygen in the air. As a result, people at high
altitude breathe in less oxygen with each breath. This causes
their bodies to produce more haemoglobin so that any oxygen
breathed can be absorbed. The same effect has been achieved
by some athletes by spending time in special chambers or tents
Figure 4.30 Haemoglobin is found in that limit the supply of oxygen.
red blood cells.
Figure 4.31 Training at high altitudes encourages the body to produce more haemoglobin.
152 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Figure 4.32 Lifting heavy weights builds muscle mass (muscle hypertrophy); frequently lifting light weights
tones muscles.
Muscle hypertrophy
Hypertrophy simply means an increase in size, and muscle hypertrophy is the increase in the diameter of
a muscle: bulking up. This occurs as a result of strength or resistance training and, unlike the adaptations
discussed above, not as a result of aerobic training.
Muscle bres enlarge after training for a number of reasons,
including the production of more myobrils (the contractile
part of the muscle). The bres also enlarge due to the increased
stores of glycogen and the energy-supplying compounds of ATP
and phosphocreatine (PC).
Muscle hypertrophy will occur if an athlete lifts medium
to heavy weights during training, such as training for strength,
power or lean body mass. Lifting heavier weights will cause
the muscles to undergo a signicant amount of stress. This 4029 S 1/4
enlarges them so that the next time they work they are better
prepared for the task; that is, they have adapted. As with other
adaptations that occur as a result of training, hypertrophy takes
time to develop, and the reverse (muscle atrophy) will happen
when training ceases.
Muscle endurance training (frequently lifting light weights)
will assist in reducing the level of fat around the muscle. This
will lead to muscle denition but not muscle hypertrophy.
After a resistance training program, muscles are capable
of contracting with a greater force as more myobrils are
contributing to the contraction. This will improve performance
in strength-related and power-related sports, such as throwing Figure 4.33 Muscle hypertrophy is a
and sprinting. result of bodybuilding.
Figure 4.34 Long jump requires the development of fast-twitch muscle fibres.
154 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
159%
5
The
fundamentals
of fitness
Figure 5.2 Cardiorespiratory and muscular endurance are important in activities such as the Tour de
France, where the same muscle group is involved in repetitive movements over a long time.
ACQUIRE
1 Define the term fitness.
158 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Reaction time The time that it takes to respond Ruler reaction time test
to a stimulus Computer reaction time test
160 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Age 17
5069 <new>
ACQUIRE
1 Identify six benefits of being physically fit.
2 Outline the health-related components of physical fitness.
3 Describe how performance can improve through training for the skill-related components
of physical fitness.
162 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Cardiorespiratory endurance
Multistage fitness test (beep test)
Aim
To measure cardiorespiratory endurance
Equipment
multistage tness test (beep test) CD
CD player/recorder
at 20-metre running surface
Procedure
In the multistage tness or beep test, participants run between two points that are 20 metres apart. They
must time each run between the two points so that they hit the line and turn on the beep. Each completed
20-metre run is one shuttle.
As the test continues, the beeps get closer together, so the 20 metres must be run faster. There are 21 levels,
with variations in the number of shuttles to be completed at each level. Three consecutive beeps sound
between each level.
1 Follow all instructions on the CD and enclosed material.
2 Accurately measure a 20-metre distance, and mark both ends.
3 Begin the test by running the 20 metres after the rst three consecutive beeps.
4 Try to time each runavoid running too quickly and having to wait for the next beep.
5 Continue until you have missed two shuttlesthat is, you have not run the 20 metres by the time the
beep sounds.
6 The score is the last completed level and shuttle.
Results
Match the score with the corresponding maximum oxygen uptake on Table 5.3. The higher the VO2 max, the
greater the cardiorespiratory endurance.
An individuals VO2 max can be predicted by using their heart rate measurement during exercise recovery.
Source: J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, Physical Fitness Assessment in Exercise and Sport Science,
2nd edn, Leelar Biomediscience Services: Matraville, NSW, 1994, pp. 2067
164 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
2.4-kilometre run
Aim
To measure cardiorespiratory endurance
Equipment
at course of at least 200 metres
(preferably 400 metres)
stopwatches
whistle
Procedure
1 Form pairs: one is the participant; one Figure 5.6 Timing a run over a fixed distance and comparing
the results helps to indicate cardiorespiratory endurance.
is the recorder.
2 Complete a number of laps of the course equivalent to 2.4 kilometres (12 200 metres or
6 400 metres).
3 Participants start on go, and should be encouraged to do their best until the end.
4 Recorders count laps and record the time.
5 Participants should continue to walk after they have completed the test until their heart rate has returned
to resting rate.
Results
Compare the participants time with the norms in Table 5.4 to determine their levels of cardiorespiratory
endurance.
Poor
Male 12:1115:30 14:0116:00 14:4416:30 15:3617:30 17:0119:00 19:0120:00
Female 16:5518:30 18:3119:00 19:0119:30 19:3120:00 20:0120:30 20:3121:00
Fair
Male 10:4912:10 12:0114:00 12:3114:45 13:0115:35 14:3117:00 16:1619:00
Female 14:3116:54 15:5518:30 16:3119:00 17:3119:30 19:0120:00 19:3120:30
Good
Male 9:4110:48 10:4612:00 11:0112:30 11:3113:00 12:3114:30 14:0017:15
Female 12:3014:30 13:3115:54 14:3116:30 15:5617:30 16:3119:00 17:3119:30
Excellent
Male 8:379:40 9:4510:45 10:0011:00 10:3011:30 11:0012:30 11:1513:50
Female 11:5012:29 12:3013:30 13:0014:30 13:4515:55 14:3016:30
Superior
Male 8:37 9:45 10:00 10:30 11:00
Female 11:30 12:30 13:00 13:45 14:30
Aim
To assess muscular strength by determining the maximum
5008 P 1/8
weight that can be lifted one time, which is one-repetition
maximum (RM)
Equipment
free weights or universal weights
Procedure
The type of exercise chosen will reect the muscle groups being
measured. Do not do similar exercises in the same testing
period, as fatigue will affect results.
Be sure that all participants know how to lift weights correctly.
1 Start by using Table 5.6 to determine your starting weight
for each exercise type. Your starting weight will be estimated
as a percentage of your body weight.
2 Continue to increase the weight gradually until only one
repetition of that weight is possible. Figure 5.7 Free weights or universal
weights can be used for the one-
3 Record the maximum weight that could be lifted. repetition maximum test.
Results
Divide the maximum weight that could be lifted (RM) by the persons body weight, and compare the result
with those in Table 5.5.
one-repetition maximum (RM)
strength ratio
body weight
Rating Overhead Bench press Abdominal Biceps curl Pull-down Leg press Leg Leg curl
press curls extension
Males
Excellent 1.101.20 1.401.50 0.400.45 0.310.35 1.151.20 2.803.00 0.750.80 0.650.70
Good 0.901.00 1.201.30 0.300.35 0.250.28 1.051.10 2.402.60 0.650.70 0.550.60
Average 0.700.80 1.001.10 0.200.25 0.190.22 0.951.00 2.002.20 0.550.60 0.450.50
Fair 0.500.60 0.800.90 0.100.15 0.140.16 0.850.90 1.601.80 0.450.50 0.350.40
Poor 0.300.40 0.600.70 0.00.05 0.100.12 0.750.80 1.201.40 0.350.40 0.250.30
Females
Excellent 0.650.70 0.850.90 0.200.22 0.200.22 0.800.85 2.502.70 0.650.70 0.550.60
Good 0.550.60 0.700.80 0.160.18 0.160.18 0.730.75 2.102.30 0.550.60 0.500.52
Average 0.450.50 0.600.65 0.120.14 0.120.14 0.650.70 1.802.00 0.500.52 0.400.45
Fair 0.350.40 0.500.55 0.080.10 0.080.10 0.600.63 1.401.60 0.400.45 0.300.35
Poor 0.250.30 0.350.45 0.040.06 0.040.06 0.500.55 1.001.20 0.300.35 0.200.25
Source: Adapted from J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, Physical Fitness Assessment in Exercise and
Sport Science, 2nd edn, Leelar Biomediscience Services, Matraville: NSW, 1994, p. 250
166 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Overhead Bench press Abdominal Biceps curl Pull-down Leg press Leg Leg curl
press curls extension
Aim
To assess the muscular strength
of the forearm
Equipment
hand-grip dynamometer
(A dynamometer is a device
used to measure muscular
power.)
Procedure
1 Adjust the dynamometer to
t the size of the participants
hands. Set the pointer to
zero.
2 Using the dominant hand
rst, hold the dynamometer,
keeping the arm locked 5011 P 1/4
straight at the elbow and
not resting against the body
or other objects. The index
nger and thumb should just
touch, not overlap. The hand
being tested can be lifted
above the head. Figure 5.8 Hand-grip strength dynamometers are used to test the
muscular strength of the forearm.
3 Squeeze the bars as hard as
possible for 23 seconds.
4 Lower the dynamometer, and read the measurement indicated with the needle.
5 Repeat for the non-dominant hand.
6 Complete three trials for each hand.
Results
Find the average of the scores for each hand. (Most people will nd that one hand is stronger than the other,
so they should be tested separately.) Compare the results with those in Table 5.7.
For example, a 17-year-old female performs the test three times with her left hand (dominant hand). Her three
scores are 27 kg, 29 kg and 26 kg. The average of these three scores is 27.3 kg, which puts her in the fty-fth
percentile and gives her a rating of average.
Source: Adapted from J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, Physical Fitness Assessment in Exercise and Sport Science,
2nd edn, Leelar Biomediscience Services, Matraville: NSW, 1994, p. 232
Aim
To assess the muscular strength of the legs
Equipment
back/leg dynamometer
Procedure
Before doing this test, ensure that participants do not have any back problems or back injuries.
1 Stand on the platform with feet shoulder-width apart, knees exed to about 135, while keeping the back
straight and hips positioned directly over the ankle joints. The chest should be forward and the head erect.
2 Move the pointer to zero.
168 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
3 Take a deep breath and, while slowing exhaling, attempt to extend the knees and straighten the legs as
smoothly and forcibly as possible. Ensure that the hips rise vertically.
4 Stop the test when the pointer ceases to move or when the knees are fully extended.
5 After a 2-minute rest, repeat the test a second time. After another 2-minute rest, repeat a third time.
Remember to move the pointer to zero each time.
Results
Record the best score. Compare the score with the results in Table 5.8.
Note that Table 5.8 lists the results for both the leg strength and lower-back strength tests. Please consider
results separately when determining your score. Do not combine/average your scores in both tests to
determine your overall rating.
Excellent
Good
Average
Fair
Poor
10 216 97 120 69
5 183 91 107 59
Source: Adapted from J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, Physical Fitness Assessment in Exercise and Sport Science,
2nd edn, Leelar Biomediscience Services, Matraville, NSW, 1994, p. 234.
Aim
To assess the muscular strength 5014 p 1/4 PS
in the lower back
Equipment
back/leg dynamometer
Procedure
Before doing this test, ensure
that participants do not have
any back problems or back
injuries.
1 Stand in an upright position
on the platform with feet
shoulder-width apart, and
arms and legs straight.
The palms of the hands are
placed on the front of the
thighs, and the chain or belt
is adjusted so that the bar is
at ngertip level.
2 Move the pointer to zero.
3 Extend forward at the hips,
with the back straight
from the lower back to the
shoulders and the chest
forward. Grasp the bar with
one palm facing forwards
and one facing backwards.
4 Take a deep breath and,
while slowing exhaling,
try to forcibly extend the
trunk at the hips by pulling
upwards on the bar and
keeping the legs straight.
The nal position should
be just short of the upright
Figure 5.9 Keep the lower back straight when doing the lower back
position.
strength dynamometer test.
5 After a 2-minute rest, repeat
the test a second time. After another 2-minute rest, repeat a third time. Remember to move the pointer to
zero each time.
Results
Record the best score. Compare it with the results in Table 5.8.
170 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
5016 L 1/8 PS
Muscular endurance
Push-up test
Aim
To assess the muscular endurance of the
elbow and shoulder muscles
Equipment
at, level surface
Procedure
1 Form pairs: one is the participant; one
is the recorder.
2 Participants assume the correct
position.
Position for a push-up (both
males and females): Hold the
arms straight, with the hands
directly under the shoulders. The
legs should be straight, with the
feet together.
Position for a knee push-up
(females only): Hold the arms Figure 5.10 The body positions for push-ups and knee push-
ups are different as shown.
straight, with the hands shoulder-
width apart and slightly forwards of the shoulders. The knees should be on the oor, and the body
should be straight from the shoulders to the knees.
3 Maintaining the correct positions, lower the nose or chin to the ground, then return to the starting
position. This is one repetition.
4 Recorder count the number of repetitions in 60 seconds.
Results
Compare the results with those in Table 5.9.
Repetitions
Superior 40 10 30
Fair 1019 12 59
Poor 09 0 04
Source: J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, Physical Fitness Assessment in Exercise and Sport Science, 2nd edn,
Leelar Biomediscience Services, Matraville: NSW, 1994, pp. 2645
Aim
To measure the muscular endurance of the abdominal muscles
Equipment
level surface
mat
stopwatch
Procedure
1 Form pairs: one is the participant; one is the recorder.
2 Participants lie on the oor with their knees exed to about 90 degrees. The arms are placed across the
chest, and the head is slightly off the ground. A partner supports each participants feet.
3 On go, participants curl upward and forward until the elbows touch the thighs. They then uncurl until the
mid-back touches the ground. Arms must stay across the chest at all times.
4 Recorders count the number of sit-ups completed in 60 seconds.
Results
Compare the number of sit-ups completed in 60 seconds with the gures in Table 5.10.
5017 L 1/8 PS
Figure 5.11 The sit-up test measures the abdominal muscles endurance.
172 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Excellent
99 70 69 70 65 57 64 63 65
95 59 59 61 62 51 56 54 54
90 54 55 59 59 48 50 50 50
85 52 52 55 56 45 47 49 47
Good
80 51 50 53 54 43 45 45 45
75 49 49 51 52 42 43 42 44
70 48 48 50 51 40 41 39 43
65 46 47 49 50 39 41 37 42
Average
60 45 46 47 49 38 40 35 40
55 44 45 46 48 37 38 34 39
50 42 44 45 46 35 37 33 37
45 41 42 44 45 34 35 32 36
Fair
40 40 41 42 44 33 33 31 35
35 39 40 40 43 32 32 30 33
30 38 39 39 40 31 31 30 32
25 36 38 38 38 30 30 29 31
Poor
20 35 36 35 37 28 28 26 29
15 33 34 33 34 26 27 25 27
10 31 31 30 31 24 25 23 25
5 27 28 28 25 20 20 20 19
Source: Adapted from J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, Physical Fitness Assessment in Exercise and Sport Science,
2nd edn, Leelar Biomediscience Services, Matraville: NSW, 1994, p. 458
Aim
To calculate the body mass index (BMI)
and waisthip ratio to determine the 5024 L 1/8
Equipment
accurate measuring scales
tape measure for recording height
dressmakers tape measure
Procedure
A very high or very low body mass index
is associated with a greater risk of health
problems and disease. The greater the
amount of fat deposited around the
waist relative to the hips, the greater the Figure 5.12 BMI and waisthip ratios help to predict health
and risk of disease.
health risk.
BMI (body mass index)
1 Measure the participants height and weight in light clothing with shoes off.
2 Use the following formula to calculate the BMI.
weight (kg)
BMI
height (m) height (m)
Waisthip ratio
1 Measure around the waist (between the last ribs and the top of the pelvis, just above or on the navel) in
centimetres.
2 Measure the hips (midway down the pelvis at the top of the thigh) at their widest part in centimetres.
3 Express this as a percentage using the following formula.
waist (cm)
waisthip ratio
hip (cm)
For example, a woman with a waist measurement of 78 centimetres and a hip measurement of
102 centimetres would have a waisthip ratio of 0.76.
Results
Consult Tables 5.11 and 5.12.
The desirable range for BMI is between 20 and 24.9. Scores over 24.9 are associated with an increased health
risk. Scores below 18.5 are considered underweight and are also associated with an increased likelihood of
health problems.
A waisthip ratio greater than 0.80 for women and 0.951 for men is associated with a higher risk for disease.
Waisthip ratios are believed to be a better predictor of disease risk than BMI.
In addition, a waist measurement of more than 94 centimetres (for men) and more than 80 centimetres (for
women) is associated with an increased risk of chronic disease.
174 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Source: J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, Physical Fitness Assessment in Exercise and Sport Science,
2nd edn, Leelar Biomediscience Services, Matraville: NSW, 1994, p. 54
Source: J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, Physical Fitness Assessment in Exercise and Sport Science,
2nd edn, Leelar Biomediscience Services, Matraville: NSW, 1994, p. 74
Aim
To assess the degree of hip and lower back exibility
Equipment
Wells sit-and-reach box, or similar
Procedure
1 Form pairs: one is the participant; one is the recorder.
2 Place the sit-and-reach box against the wall.
3 Participants do a light warm-up and stretch, and remove their shoes. They then sit on the oor with their
legs straight and their knees at on the oor.
4 Recorders may need to hold their hands on the participants knees.
5 With the arms straight and the head down, participants extend the hands slowly along the vertical surface
of the box, one on top of the other. They should not jerk.
6 Participants are allowed one practice attempt. They then complete the test three times.
7 Recorders note the maximum distance of each attempt. The score is the maximum distance reached and
held for 23 seconds. It may be a positive or negative value.
Results
Take the average of the three attempts. Then, compare it with the results in Table 5.11.
5019 L 1/4
Source: B Davis, J Roscoe and R Phillips, Physical Education and the Study of Sport,
5th edn, Mosby, Edinburgh, 2000
176 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Aim
To determine maximum 5027
running speed over a distance of
35 metres
Equipment
measuring tape or marked
track
stopwatch
cone markers
Procedure
1 Form pairs: one is the
participant; one is the
recorder.
2 Participants start from
a completely stationary
position (no rocking) with the
foot behind the starting line.
3 On the signal, participants
run at their top speed past the
nishing line.
4 Recorders record the
participants time from the
start to the nish line in
seconds.
5 Participants repeat the test. Figure 5.14 A 35-metre sprint helps to determine an athletes speed.
Results
The best time of the two attempts is recorded. Compare it with the results in Table 5.14.
Aim
To measure leg power, specically the legs ability to 5025 L 1/4
project the body forward
Equipment
soft, level surface (for example, gym mats)
tape measure
marked starting line
Procedure
1 Form pairs: one is the participant; one is the
recorder.
2 Participants stand with feet together behind the
starting line.
3 On go, participants bend the knees, swing the
arms up and jump as far as possible.
4 Recorders mark the landing point of the heel of
the back foot closest to the starting line, and
measure the distance in centimetres. (If the
jumper lands with any part of the body closer
to the starting line than the feet, the distance to
that body part is measured.)
Figure 5.15 A standing long jump test measures
5 Each participant should make three attempts. leg power.
Results
Compare the best of the three attempts with the results in Table 5.14.
Good
178 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Average
Fair
Poor
Source: Adapted from J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, Physical Fitness Assessment in Exercise and Sport Science,
2nd edn, Leelar Biomediscience Services, Matraville: NSW, 1994, p. 435
Agility
Shuttle run test
Aim 9.24 m
To assess the ability to accelerate and ts
change direction rapidly
Equipment
5029
a at area marked with two lines
9.14 metres (30 feet) apart (as shown
in Figure 5.16)
two small blocks (5 centimetres
5 centimetres 10 centimetres),
placed behind the second line (as
shown in Figure 5.16)
Figure 5.16 The shuttle run test measures an athletes ability
stopwatch to quickly change direction.
Procedure
1 Form pairs: one is the participant; one is the recorder.
2 On the word go, participants sprint from the rst marked line to the second line.
3 At the second line, participants pick up one block. They then run back to the rst line and place the block
over the line.
4 Participants sprint back to the second line, pick up the remaining block, and sprint over the starting line.
5 Participants can have one practice session and two timed attempts.
6 Recorders record the best time. An attempt is not counted if the block is dropped, thrown, or placed on the
line instead of over it.
Results
Compare the participants times with the results in Table 5.15.
Source: Norms derived from administration of modified AAHPER tests by NZ Department of Education (1996),
in J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, Physical Fitness Assessment in Exercise and Sport Science, 2nd edn,
Leelar Biomediscience Services, Matraville: NSW, 1994, p. 470
180 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Aim
To assess the ability to balance on the ball of the foot
Equipment
none
Procedure
1 Form pairs: one is the participant; one is the recorder.
2 Barefoot and with the hands on the hips, participants stand on one foot, with the other foot placed against
the knee of the supporting leg. They then raise their arms to shoulder level.
3 Participants raise the heel off the ground and balance on the ball of the foot for as long as possible.
4 Recorders time how long participants can balance from when the heel is raised from the oor. The
stopwatch is stopped if the:
non-supporting foot leaves the supporting knee
heel of the supporting leg touches the ground
participant hops, swivels or moves the supporting foot.
Participants can have one minute to practise balancing before being timed. They then have three timed
attempts.
Results
Record the best time of three attempts. Compare it with the gures in Table 5.17.
Variation
Try performing the stork stand with eyes closed, or after spinning ve times on the spot.
Now try it with both eyes closed and after spinning ve times on the spot. Consider why balancing becomes
more difcult in these situations.
Superior 50 27
Fair 514 37
Poor 5 3
Source: J Schell and B Leelarthaepin, PhysicalFitness Assessment in Exercise and Sport Science,
2nd edn, Leelar Biomediscience Services, Matraville: NSW, 1994, p. 327
Coordination
Catch test
Aim
To measure handeye coordination by
throwing a tennis ball underarm into a
target and catching it
Equipment
tennis ball
circular target (30 centimetres in
diameter)
tape measure
masking tape or chalk Figure 5.17 The catch test measures handeye coordination.
Procedure
1 Place the target on a xed wall, with the bottom edge level with the height of the participants shoulder.
2 Use the masking tape or chalk to mark a line 2.5 metres from the target.
3 Stand behind the line and throw the ball underarm with the preferred hand towards the target. Catch the
ball on the full with the same hand. Practice attempts are permitted.
4 Throw the ball ten times with the preferred hand. One point is given for each successful target hit and catch.
5 Throw the ball ten times with the non-preferred hand. Give one point for each successful hit and catch.
The ball is not allowed to bounce before being caught. The ball cannot be caught in front of the line or by
being trapped against the body. A catch is only successful if the ball hits the target (or lines) and is caught
cleanly. The total possible score is twenty.
Results
Evaluate your results by comparing the score, out of a possible twenty, with the data in Table 5.18.
182 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Poor
20 14 14 14 9 8 8
10 12 11 12 7 6 7
5 10 10 9 5 3 4
Source: Adapted from Australian Sports Commission, Sports Search: Norms for Sport-related Fitness
Tests in Australian Students 1217 Years, Australian Sports Commission, Canberra, 1994, pp. 1019
Reaction time
Ruler reaction time test
Aim
To determine the time taken to react to a visual and auditory stimulus
Equipment
a 1-metre ruler
Procedure
1 Form pairs: one is the participant; one is the recorder.
2 Participants sit at a desk with forearms across the desk top. Their hands extending beyond the edge of the
desk.
3 Recorders hold a 1-metre ruler between the participants ngers and thumb, which are 2 centimetres apart.
The zero point of the ruler should be level with the thumb and index nger.
4 Recorders say ready. They then drop the ruler within 10 seconds. Participants try to catch the ruler as
quickly as possible.
5 Recorders note the point where the participants thumbs and index ngers grasp the ruler. This is each
participants score. They record this result in centimetres.
Results
Compare the scores with those shown in Table 5.19.
Variation
Vary the conditions by asking participants to close their eyes. The command ready should be followed by the
call go when the ruler is actually dropped. Participants catch the ruler on go.
Good 6.510
Average 1115
Source: Adapted from L Fitzgibbon, T Cross
Fair 14.521.5 and R Ruskin, Outcomes: Studies in Personal
Development, Health and Physical Education,
Poor 22
Jacaranda, Milton, 1992, p. 236
Table 5.21Actions
Skill Total
Fouls 3
Rebounds 6
Jumps 32
Bounce passes 7
Chest passes 11
Overhead passes 4
Layups 2
Jump shots 20
Set shots 4
184 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
5037 L 1/3
130%
Figure 5.18 Training methods need to be tailored to suit each individual athlete, as athletes respond
differently to different training methods.
Training methods
This section explores the different types of trainingfrom training methods that improve strength to other
methods that focus on building cardiorespiratory capacity or improving power and speed.
With all training, it is important to recognise that athletes respond differently to different training
methods. Some athletes have a genetic advantage due to inherited factors such as gender, muscle-bre type
and body composition. Other athletes have to train harder to improve their performance by an equivalent
degree.
Aerobic training
Aerobic capacity will be improved by a training program that is designed to progressively overload the
cardiovascular and respiratory systems, and stress the muscles ability to use oxygen.
Aerobic training should be specic to the athletes sport.
The principal training methods used to develop aerobic capacity are:
continuous training,
fartlek training
long-interval training.
Continuous training
Continuous trainingwhich is sometimes called uniform trainingis long, slow, distance training that
involves the whole body or large muscle groups, such as running, swimming or cycling. It involves working
for a minimum of 20 minutes, at a uniform intensity within the aerobic training zone (7085 per cent of
maximum heart rate). Working continuously in this zone will develop an athletes aerobic training threshold,
improving their ability to use oxygen during exercise. This type of training is ideal for people wanting to
develop or maintain their base aerobic tness.
Figure 5.19 Continuous training involves working for long periods at a steady pace.
Higher-intensity continuous training has been shown to improve VO2 max and lactate tolerance. The
exercise intensity required to produce these improvements varies from athlete to athlete but should be
around 90 per cent of maximum heart rate. Work rates equal to or slightly above the lactate threshold
produce the best results. Athletes individual lactate thresholds can be established by determining their heart
rate and ventilation; a blood test is not needed. The duration of the training session depends on the tness of
the athlete, but should be approximately 2550 minutes for best results.
Training methods for improving aerobic capacity should aim to increase VO2 max, improve tolerance to
lactate and make movement more efcient.
Fartlek training
Fartlek is a Swedish term meaning speed play. Fartlek training is a variation of continuous training in which
athletes vary the pace and, in some cases, the terrain.
Fartlek training typically involves some exercise at a uniform pace, interspersed with short sprints. After
each sprint the athlete returns to the steady pace to recover before the next burst of speed. The variation in
pace can be the result of including uphill, downhill or stair work.
Fartlek training is a demanding form of aerobic training and aims to have athletes work both aerobically
and anaerobically. By its nature it helps to improve VO2 max. It is particularly benecial for athletes in sports
that frequently demand a change of pace, such as many team games.
PRACTICAL
Fartlek training
Plan a 30-minute fartlek training session around your school or home. Attempt the course,
ensuring that your heart rate is above the aerobic threshold during the steady sections and
above the anaerobic threshold during the speed sections.
186 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Long-interval training
Like fartlek training, long-interval training
incorporates periods of work interspersed with
periods of rest (light active rest, such as walking).
The intensity and effectiveness of long-interval
training can be varied by manipulating the:
duration of each training period
intensity of the training
duration of the rest interval
number of training and rest intervals in each
session.
Effective long-interval training depends
on identifying the athletes tness level and
appropriately adjusting the variables to suit. The
number of variables available makes it easy to build
progression into a long-interval training program.
To measure and monitor training, it can be
helpful to record duration, intensity and number
of intervals on cards or charts. Using a heart-rate
monitor is one way to measure the intensity of the
exercise.
The key to this type of training is the workrest
ratio. A workrest ratio of 1:1 would mean equal Figure 5.20 What type of aerobic training would
suit a triathlete?
periods of exercise and recovery. For aerobic
training, a workrest ratio of 1:1 would be used, and each exercise interval would typically be 25 minutes at
a sub-maximal pace. Generally, between four and eight repetitions would be completed.
Long-interval training allows exercise of a high quality to be performed as the recovery periods delay
the onset of fatigue. Athletes can complete more work than in an equivalent continuous training session.
However, a period of continuous training may be required to build aerobic tness before long-interval
training.
ACQUIRE
1 Explain how interval training can be used to train for aerobic and anaerobic fitness. What
are the similarities and differences of interval training when used to train for aerobic and
anaerobic fitness?
2 Compare and contrast each of the types of aerobic training.
Anaerobic training
Anaerobic training involves activities that use the two anaerobic energy pathwaysthe alactacid system
(ATPPC system) and the lactic acid systemas the major supply of energy. Such activities need to have a very
high intensity; most are undertaken with a heart rate in excess of 85 per cent of its maximum level.
Speed, strength and power are all tness components that are developed through anaerobic training.
Figure 5.21
Anaerobic training
for speed is
helpful in sports
that need quick
reaction times.
188 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Major energy Training distances Approximate Sets per Repetitions Workrelief Type of relief
system (metres) training time workout per set ratio interval
(min:sec)
Run Swim
Source: Data from EL Fox and DK Mathews, Interval Training: Conditioning for Sport and General Fitness,
Saunders, Philadelphia, 1974
PRACTICAL
Short-interval training for speed
Complete one of the sessions suggested in Table 5.22. How might you adjust the session to
make it more achievable or suited to your alactacid or lactic acid system?
Figure 5.22 Good gyms can tailor strength training programs to meet the specific needs of individual clients.
190 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Strength training
Regardless of the strength training program followed, athletes can ensure the program is effective and
safe by:
undertaking a general strength program before specialising for specic movements
performing adequate warm-up and cool-down activities
completing exercises for large muscle groups before those for smaller ones
using progressive overload as the body adapts to the amount of work performed
following an individual program shaped to the athletes level and requirements
focusing on the correct form, technique and breathing patterns for each exercise
allowing an appropriate recovery period between exercises during a session and between training
sessions
monitoring progress through the use of record cards or charts.
Isotonic contractions
An isotonic contraction exerts a force against an external load that remains constant throughout the
movement. The muscle contracts and changes in length, and there is movement across a joint. An example of
an activity that requires an isotonic contraction is a sit-up; the load is the persons upper-body weight.
Isotonic contractions can be divided into two categories: concentric contractions and eccentric contractions.
Concentric contractions are
those that shorten a muscle, for (a) Isometric (b) Isotonic
5043 P 1/3
example, the upward motion of
a biceps curl.
Eccentric isotonic contractions
are those that lengthen a muscle,
for example, the downward
motion of a biceps curl.
Isometric contractions
An isometric contraction is
performed at a constant angle
Concentric Eccentric
against an immovable load. The
muscle contracts, but it does not
change in length. There is also
Figure 5.23 Isotonic contractions move across joints; isometric
no movement across a joint. contractions do not.
For example, when gymnasts
maintain a handstand position,
the angles of their shoulder and
elbow joints do not change and
the oor is the immovable load.
Isokinetic contractions
An isokinetic contraction
generates movement at a pre-set, 5044 L 1/8
xed speed throughout the range
of motion of the joint. The muscle
contracts and changes in length
at the same rate throughout the
entire joint movement. Hydraulic
machines require isokinetic
contractions as they force the
muscle to contract at a uniform
Figure 5.24 Isokinetic contractions require the use of specialised
rate throughout the entire joint machines that maintain a constant speed of contraction.
range.
192 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
5045 L 1/4
Figure 5.25
Elastic resistance
training uses
bands or tubes.
Figure 5.26 Resistance bands can be used to progressively increase the resistance load.
Exercises performed with elastic resistance bands increase muscle strength and size. Because they can
be performed quickly, they also improve the development of speed and power. Elastic resistance training
can be tailored to work single or multiple joints. Because control is required to stabilise the body in positions
during the exercises, it can help to improve core strength. Additionally, elastic bands can help to strengthen
muscles that are not targeted by weights or machines, such as those in the rotator cuff of the shoulder.
Most training bands and tubes are colour coded so that different colours indicate different amounts
of resistance. Quality band systems also allow for multiple bands to be attached to the handles to further
increase resistance and progressively develop strength to higher levels. However, it can be difcult to
accurately measure the amount of resistance applied. Unlike weights, bands cannot be equated to a specic
weight, and the force produced by a band depends on how much it is stretched.
It is important to regularly check the bands as they can occasionally break. The attachment to either
handles or stationary support should be secure to prevent snap back and possible injury.
PRACTICAL
Elastic resistance training
1 Practise using elastic resistance bands with a range of general exercises, such as squats,
bench presses, upright rows and biceps curls. Describe your experience.
2 Design three exercises (other than the exercises already performed) that use elastic
resistance bands and mimic the movements of your sport. (Before you try your exercises,
have them checked by your teacher to make sure that they are safe.) If you are unable to
work out some of the exercises, check with your teacher for clarification.
194 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Weight training
Weight training is the most common form of strength training for athletes, and it has been used for
centuries. Weight training involves using force to resist the effects of gravity.
Nearly all the weight training that people do is isotonic. In isotonic contractions, the muscle changes
length under a constant load. Although the load is constant, the tension produced in the muscle varies as
the muscle contracts.
Various objects (such as bricks or sandbags) could be used as weights or loads. Typically, however, the
athlete will use equipment specically designed for this purpose.
196 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Biceps Seated biceps curl (both arms), biceps curl with a twist, alternate arm curl,
double-arm cable curl
Triceps Lying dumbbell extension, seated one-arm triceps overhead extension, one-arm
triceps kickback with a twist, triceps pushdown machine, pulley single-arm triceps
kickback, overhead triceps extension on pulley, dips
Shoulder Lateral shoulder raises, seated dumbbell press, chin-ups, seated shoulder press,
lateral side cable pulley
Back Upright row (dumbbell or machine), single or double bent-arm dumbbell row,
lateral pull-down (in front and behind head, narrow and wide grip), seated pulley
row
Calf Calf raises (standing or seated, weighted or not, toe in or out, machine or free)
This list is not exhaustive as new techniques and exercises are continually being developed.
Click for footage of the correct technique to use when using free weights.
Technique Explanation
Blitzing Blitzing is the practice of working a muscle or muscle group with different
exercises from different angles on one training day.
Forced repetitions Forced repetitions are exercises in which a partner gently supports the athlete
through the point where the muscles are weakest.
Cheating Cheating is where other muscles are used to assist in lifting the weight over the
weakest point. The aim is to move past the weak point and overload the strongest
part of the muscle. For example, in a very heavy arm curl, the trunk is bent
slightly forward and the muscles of the small of the back are used to lift through
the weakest point.
Negative repetitions Negative repetitions use eccentric isotonic contractions after the muscle is
fatigued. For example, after the biceps muscle is tired from performing biceps
curls, a partner assists by lifting the weight and allowing further lowering
(eccentric contractions) of the weight by the athlete. The extra work is known as a
negative repetition.
Pre-exhaustion Pre-exhaustion refers to exercising to isolate and fatigue a muscle, and then once
more using the muscle (along with other muscles) in a more complex exercise so
that it works further, for example, performing leg extensions to tire the legs and
then doing squats.
Rest pause Rest pause refers to fatiguing a muscle by overloading it to such a degree that
only 1 RM can be performed. The athlete then pauses for 10 seconds before
performing the exercise again and again. Caution is required, and this intense
technique should be used only by experienced lifters.
Pyramid training Pyramid training is the practice of increasing resistance up to the optimal weight,
and then decreasing resistance.
Up and down the rack Up and down the rack is similar to pyramid training. It uses light to heavy weights
arranged on a weight rack. The athlete works up the rack (increasing weights) and
then back down it (decreasing weights).
Compound training Compound training combines exercises of a muscle group and its counteracting
muscle group with minimal rest between. It can be done in:
super setsexercise the muscle, then the counteracting muscle (for example,
a biceps curl followed by a triceps extension), or complete a different exercise
with the same muscle group (for example, a bench press followed by a
dumbbell fly)
tri setswork the same muscle three times (for example, complete three
different exercises for the deltoids)
giant setscarry out super sets with more than two exercises and no rest in
between.
Hybrid exercises Hybrid exercises involve a greater range of motion because more than one joint is
(compound involved. Instead of doing three or four different exercises, athletes can complete
repetitions) just one hybrid exercise that uses many joints.
Triple drop Triple drop involves decreasing the weight of a set of repetitions so that more
repetitions can be done. The weight is usually reduced three times, or until
complete fatigue is reached.
198 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Overload techniques
As already discussed, a muscle
will strengthen only if it has
been forced to work beyond
its customary intensityif it Set 4
is overloaded. Table 5.24 lists 4 reps
some of the many techniques 75 kg
for achieving overload in weight
training.
Use a resistance of 26 RM
Complete 36 sets of fewer than six repetitions
Use 34 exercises per body part
Use compound exercises most often
Use training cycles that try to maximise strength and power, while minimising the probability of
overtraining
Use a variety of exercises
Beginner
Intermediate to advanced
Use a resistance that eventually causes fatigue, but allows you to perform many repetitions before you
tireusually a resistance of 1520 RM
Vary each set between 20 seconds and 60 seconds, depending on fitness levels
Vary rest or recovery periods between exercises, depending on the desired training intensity (generally
010 seconds)
Monitor intensity by measuring the heart rate
PRACTICAL
Pyramid training and progressive resistance exercise (PRE)
1 Design your own pyramid training and PRE strength work-out for a muscle group of your
choice. Work out your maximum weight (1 RM) first, and then adjust the other weights
around it.
2 Practise and evaluate each of the workouts.
200 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Figure 5.30 To avoid injury, weights training should be carried out with the help of spotters.
Isometric training
Hettinger and Mller revolutionised isometric strength training, which is training applying a static force. Their
study in 1953 showed 5 per cent weekly increases in strength. Their technique was to isometrically contract a
muscle group for 6 seconds, once per day for ve days each week. Repeating the contraction ve to ten times
per day produced greater strength gains.
Their study led to many further studies in which the amount of tension and the duration and number
of contractions were varied. The studies found considerable individual variations; however, they generally
conrmed that isometric contractions can improve muscular strength and endurance.
Although isometric training improves strength and endurance, it is not ideally suited to many sports
because it requires static contractions that very rarely occur in sports.
People with heart or blood pressure problems should take care when performing isometric training as the
exercises can stop blood ow to the muscle and increase blood pressure.
The advantages of isometric exercises are that, as equipment is not required, they can be performed
anywhere. They can also be useful rehabilitation tools.
ACQUIRE
1 a Describe the key features of resistance, weight and isometric training.
b Describe the advantages and disadvantages of each type of strength training.
2 Explain why overload techniques are used in strength training.
3 Identify safety procedures that should be followed when doing strength training.
EXTENSION
1 Propose a speed-training session for a cyclist, and one for a centre in netball.
2 a Outline the sort of training a surfer requires.
b Recommend some ways for a surfer to improve power and speed.
3 How and why would you use weight training in the sport you are currently studying?
Plyometrics
Plyometrics is a training method used to enhance power and explosiveness. A plyometric exercise is one that
uses an eccentric contraction to stretch a muscle group, followed by a rapid concentric contraction of the
same muscle group. This is often called the stretchshortening cycle.
The basic premise of plyometric training is that when a muscle is stretched much of the energy required
to stretch is lost as heat, but some of the energy can be stored in the elastic components of the muscle. This
stored energy is then available to the muscle only in an immediate subsequent contraction. The energy boost
is lost if the eccentric contraction is not followed immediately by a concentric contraction in the shortest
possible time.
When choosing appropriate plyometric exercises, it is important that the exercise be specic to the sport.
For example, a line-out jumper in rugby union is concerned with increasing vertical height, and a javelin
thrower is aiming for explosive upper-body power to launch the javelin.
When designing a plyometric program the focus should be on the quality of work, not the quantity.
Exercises should be completed with maximal effort, and appropriate rest periods should be allowed. Typically,
there should be 13 minutes between sets and 35 minutes between each exercise.
It is vital that athletes have a good level of basic strength, begin with appropriate exercises, follow proper
progression and perform the exercises correctly. An adequate warm-up routine is essential. A warm-up should
begin with general activity and proceed to specic exercises and dynamic stretches that mimic the exercises to
be performed.
To ensure the athletes safety, the following need to be considered:
the weight and age of the athlete
the plane of the exercisehorizontal is less stressful than vertical
limb involvementsingle or double
additional loading (weights)
the skill and stability of the athlete.
202 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Source: Adapted from V Gambetta, Plyometrics: Myths and Misconceptions, Sports Coach, vol. 20, 1998, pp. 712
Source: Adapted from V Gambetta, Plyometrics: Myths and Misconceptions, Sports Coach, vol. 20, 1998, pp. 712
Advantages Disadvantages
Exercise is performed more explosively than There is an increased risk of musculoskeletal
with traditional weights, leading to a more rapid injuries due to high-impact forces.
development of force, which promotes more
muscular power.
The continual acceleration throughout the A limited range of exercises are able to be
exercise produces high forces during the entire performed.
range of motion, which is more sport specific.
The exercises are able to be performed at Research has concluded that power is
higher velocities than with traditional weight minimised at an approximate load of 3040
training. per cent of maximum; the use of ones own body
weight in plyometrics does not represent this.
The exercises enable the use of elastic energy It is difficult to gain feedback from plyometrics;
and minimise the stretch reflex by training for a for example, the amount of force, speed, weight
specific activity to increase power. and so on are variables and are difficult to
standardise when compared with weights.
Higher velocities of contraction lead to lower
forces and therefore lower muscular strength.
Handstand jumps
When performing a handstand, go down on both hands (in the
same manner as doing a push-up), and then immediately spring
back up and down on both hands.
Push-up claps
During a series of push-ups, add a clap in between each push-up.
The pre-stretch occurs when the hands arrive back on the ground
after the clap and the chest sinks, followed quickly by an explosive
upwards action. Keep ground contact to a minimum.
Medicine ball
Lie on the ground face-up and have a partner drop a medicine
ball towards the chest. Catch the ball (the pre-stretch) and
immediately throw it back. This is a good exercise for throwers.
Plyometric sit-ups
The athlete lies on the back with the legs slightly exed and
perpendicular to the oor. A partner stands with his or her feet
on each side of the athletes head, facing the athletes feet. The
partner grasps the athletes ankles and the athlete grasps the
partners ankles.
The partner thrusts the athletes legs towards the ground by
rapidly extending the arms. The athlete provides slight resistance
to the partners push and allows the legs to slightly accelerate
towards the oor. The athlete quickly lifts the legs to the
perpendicular position before they touch the oor.
Figure 5.31 Plyometric push-up
204 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Starting position
5054 Jump over rst
5053
cone
Jump over
second cone
in opposite
direction; repeat
for all cones
pls mark up
Figure 5.32 Plyometric sit-up Figure 5.33 Depth jump Figure 5.33 Depth jump
Depth jumps
From a box 1 metre high, drop down (do not jump) to the ground (the pre-stretch), and then immediately
jump up (concentric contraction). Minimise the length of time on the ground.
ACQUIRE
1 a Identify other training methods that are used in sports to develop power.
b Compare and contrast each with plyometrics.
2 Explain the value of plyometric training.
3 Explain why is it important for plyometric exercises to begin at low impact and then
become more difficult.
PRACTICAL
Plyometrics
1 Design two other plyometric exercises: one that is suitable for the upper body and one
that is suitable for the lower body.
2 Try the two exercises you designed and some of the plyometric exercises listed. Evaluate
their difficulty, based on the demands placed on the body.
206 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Forearm
exion
Forearm
hyperextension
Hand exion
Hand
extension
Trunk exion
Trunk
hyperextension
Trunk lateral
exion
Thigh exion
Thigh
extension
Leg exion
Leg
hyperextension
Foot
dorsiexion
Foot
plantarexion
Figure 5.35 Flexibility screening tests can be used to identify weaknesses and suitability for particular sports.
Source: J Bloomfield, E Bruce and T Ackland, Applied Anatomy and
Biomechanics in Sport, Blackwell Scientific Publications, Melbourne, 1994.
1 2 3
Static excercises
1 2 3 4
Dynamic excercises
Dynamic excercises
1 2
Triceps and
shoulder stretch Biceps shoulder and chest stretch
208 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
1 2 3 4 5 6
Neck stretches
1 2
Lower back arch and sway stretch Lower back lumbar stretch
ACQUIRE
1 a Summarise the main points of each type of flexibility training.
b Compare the different types of flexibility training.
2 Identify specific flexibility exercises that are considered potentially dangerous.
3 How would you modify each exercise pictured on pages 208209 (Figure 5.36) to make
them:
a static stretching exercises
b PNF
c dynamic stretching exercises
d ballistic stretching exercises?
210 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
EXTENSION
Research different forms of yoga.
1 Describe how they vary.
2 Explain the purported benefits of each.
Skills training
Most sports require the athlete to be competent at certain skills. Training and participation are not always
concerned with aerobic or anaerobic capacity, strength or exibility. Coaches and athletes spend long periods
of time on improving the skills needed in the sport. Even marathon runners need to develop their skills to run
well; it is not merely a matter of increasing their VO2 max.
Coaches need to plan training activities that challenge the athlete. They also need to consider:
the purpose of the drillwhether it is for skill, team strategy or conditioning
athletes ability to perform the drill
the number of people involved
the equipment and set-up needed
the amount of time that will be spent on it
the expected level of performance.
A key point to remember in skills training is variety. Athletes are motivated to perform if training is kept
interesting and challenging. A variety of drills for practising skills will aid this process. Modifying well-learned
drills by adding defence, obstacles or other variables adds variety to the training session and makes it more like
a game. Variety can also be provided by employing a number of different practice methods (such as individual,
team and pairs) under a range of conditions (such as minor games, small games, skills practice and full games).
Before beginning training for a new skill, coaches should explain the activity to the players. Demonstrations
and explanations should be clear and concise, and appropriate feedback about practice and performance
should be given frequently.
Skills training varies according to the:
athletes current skill level
athletes motivation
practice methods used
length of practice session
requirements of the sport.
To revise the essentials of skills practice, refer to pages 2325 of Chapter 1.
Drills practice
Drills practice allows skills to be developed through repetition, observation and visualisation.
Drills practice is well suited to sports where individual skills need to be precise, such as gymnastics
or athletics. Drills can be designed to practise a specic movement or technique, for example, kicking or
throwing a ball, or completing a forward roll.
Drills practice can also be an effective training method at times when athletes are unable to practise with
a team or a partner. Examples of this include hitting a tennis ball against a wall or shooting a basketball.
Modified games
Skills training can also occur by using modied versions of the game. Modied games provide variety and are
an important and effective component of training. Modications can include changing the rules of the game,
reducing the size of the eld, playing with fewer players, shortening the play time, varying the games start
position, altering numbers in attack and defence, and so on. For example, a well-designed game on small
elds with fewer players can ensure each player is actively involved.
Modied games enable time-efcient skills practice and provide a valuable opportunity to develop game-
related skills, such as decision-making skills and tactics. Players can be encouraged to focus on specic skills
(such as passing and catching) or specic aspects (such as tness or evasion skills).
In the competitive environment of a modied game, athletes would be placed in situations that require
quick decisions. Modied games can be played to allow attackers to develop and practise deception skills
and, in turn, allow defenders to read the attempts at deception and make appropriate decisions.
Modied games could focus on tactics, such as maintaining possession, delaying the opposition or
manoeuvring to regain possession. Moments of transitionwhere a ball changes possessionare important
as they cause defenders to become attackers and switch tactics. Modied games can also be arranged to
focus on specic set plays or team patterns in certain areas of the eld.
212 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
ACQUIRE
1 Compare the different types of skills
training available to a coach by
summarising the differences.
2 Describe the benefits of using a variety of
approaches in skills training.
PRACTICAL
Skills training
1 a Choose a skill that is required in your current physical activity.
b Devise three drills that can be used to practise your chosen skill. Make the drills
progressively more difficult or taxing.
c Teach the drills to small groups in the class.
d Evaluate the practice session and recommend changes that you would make.
2 a In pairs or as individuals, devise a modified game for a sport of your choice.
b Teach the modified game to small groups in the class. (Be sure to explain it clearly!)
c Discuss your experience with others in your class.
Training
principles
Once athletes have selected
the tness components to
be developed and chosen the
appropriate training methods,
are they ready to start training?
How often should they train?
How long should they train
for? Jumping straight into
training at this stage could be
harmful, unless athletes apply
training principles.
Training principles are a
set of guidelines that athletes
must follow to ensure that their
training has a purpose, is safe and
helps them to improve. Athletes
increase their likelihood of
improving their performance by
adhering to the following training
principles:
specicity
FITT (frequency, intensity,
time and type)
progressive overload
recuperation
reversibility
variety
diminishing returns
Specificity
The principle of specicity states
that the type of exercise used in
training should be specic to the:
task requirements
energy systems required in
the task
muscle groups and bres
required in the task
Figure 5.40 For training to be effective, it needs to apply the training components of tness
principles. involved in the task.
214 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Figure 5.41 The training principle of specificity says that athletes should train for the sport in which
theycompete.
For example, to be competitive, marathon runners need to develop the aerobic energy system, and they
need to use their leg muscles (not, for example, their shoulders). A discus thrower needs to develop the ATP
PC system while, at the same time, developing the shoulder, back, leg and arm muscles needed for throwing
and power. To put it simply, cyclists need to train for cycling, and rowers need to train for rowing.
Care should be taken when applying this principle. Far too often, athletes believe they are achieving
specicity by working the general muscle groups of their chosen event, but they fail to engage the correct
muscle bres. Fast-twitch bres will be developed with speed, and slow-twitch bres will be developed with
endurance.
Specicity also refers to the training adaptations occurring inside the muscle bres. For example,
endurance training will increase the number of capillaries and mitochondria in the muscle, resulting in a
greater ability to use oxygen. Strength training will increase the quantity of contractile proteins and decrease
the number of capillaries and mitochondria in the muscle, which would harm the performance of athletes
who predominantly do aerobic work.
Although specicity is crucial, there is a place for cross-training: training not specically designed for the
primary sport. Cross-training helps athletes to:
stay motivated
maintain an aerobic base
avoid or recover from injury
maintain or develop muscular balance.
Cross-training is a supplement to specic energy system training, however, and not a substitute.
Have you thought about the specific requirements of your sport? Should you adjust your training?
Frequency
Applying frequency to a training program
When considering training programs, frequency refers to how often training should occur. When targeting
the aerobic system, training three to ve days per week is optimal. When working the anaerobic system
only, particularly for strength and power work, three days per week is more appropriate.
This can change as participants progressively overload, or it may vary according to the time of the season.
For example, a rugby league player might aim to develop a good aerobic base during the off-season, and then
aim just to maintain it during the playing season.
Intensity
Applying intensity to a training program
The intensity of a training program is the overall level of exercise difculty. Athletes should exercise at a rate
sufcient to tax the energy system being developed:
aerobic systemathletes should aim for an intensity somewhere between 75 and 85 per cent of their
maximum heart rate.
anaerobic systemathletes should aim for an intensity somewhere above 85 per cent of their maximum
heart rate.
For more information about training intensity, refer to the section on training thresholds on
pages 139142 of Chapter 4.
Click for instructions on how to calculate your own maximum heart rate and training
percentages, or see page 141 of Chapter 4.
Time
Applying time to a training program
The time of a training program is its length or duration. Training programs should be at least:
1215 weeks for aerobic gains
10 weeks for anaerobic (speed) gains
5 weeks for strength gains.
216 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Type
Type refers to the form of exercise that is undertaken. To improve aerobic capacity, the exercises or activities
should be aerobic, for example, jogging, swimming, cycling or walking. This aspect of FITT relates to the
principle of specicity.
Progressive overload
The principle of progressive overload explains how athletes must exercise at a level beyond the one that they
are accustomed to for training to have an effect. As they improve, the body adapts to the stress exerted on it,
which sets a new benchmark of ability.
It is believed that the principle can be traced back almost 3000 years to the Greek wrestler, Milo of
Croton, who, according to legend, lifted a newborn calf on his shoulders every day in the years leading up to
the Olympic games. As the calf was still growing, he was progressively lifting a heavier weight each day. In
this way he became stronger.
Maintenance
5062 L 1/3
Energy expended during
training sessions
Slow progression
Starter program
0 4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32
Weeks of training
Recuperation
When you train or exercise, your cells are being damaged and your bodys resourcessuch as ATPPC,
water and saltsare being used up. That is why you feel weaker and more tired (rather than stronger) after a
workout, run or swim. How much weaker you feel after exercise depends on factors such as your tness level,
the intensity and duration of the exercise and your diet.
The bodys cells work to maintain homeostasis, or equilibrium. In other words, the body tends to try to
maintain its internal environment at normal levels. To achieve this, the body has two responses: a repair
response and an adaptation response.
The repair response is self-explanatory: it is the bodys tendency to repair any damage to bring itself back
into equilibrium.
218 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Figure 5.44 The principle of recuperation explains the need for rest between training sessions.
The adaptation response helps the body to adapt and respond better next time, in accordance with the
principle of progressive overload. Adaptation will minimise future damage and ensure that next time the
athlete does not feel as weak or tired.
If athletes do not give their body adequate time to repair and respond to exercise, they run the risk of
over-training and damaging the body. The principle of recuperation explains the need for rest between
training sessions. The amount of rest required depends on the individual and the type of training.
For aerobic training, one to two days each week of rest are recommended. For anaerobic training, two to
four days of rest are recommended.
Reversibility
Regular exercise at the same intensity maintains tness; regular exercise at progressively overloaded levels
improves tness; and long intervals between exercise reverses tness. In other words, the effects of tness
training can be reversed.
Ensuring an athlete gets sufcient rest between training sessions is vital, but too much rest can be
detrimental to the athletes progress. This principle is particularly relevant to injured or ill athletes who are
forced to miss large portions of a training program. When they do return to training, they must do so at a
level appropriate to their new, reduced level of tness.
So, how quickly will an athletes tness levels plummet without training? This depends on the tness
components and energy systems being trained. Athletes developing their aerobic system can expect
signicant decreases in VO2 max about two weeks after they stop training. Reductions in muscular strength
take longer to occur.
Variety
Athletes who do not have a
varied tness regime can quickly
become bored and lose motivation.
Introducing variety into training
such as by varying the training
location, activities and methods
can help to keep an athlete
enthusiastic.
Variety must, however, be
balanced with the need for
specicity. Without careful
consideration, variety might mean
that the training is not geared
towards the athletes event or
position.
Diminishing returns
Improvements in tnesslike
improvements in skill acquisition
occur rapidly at the beginning
of a training program and begin
to slow down as athletes near
their maximum genetic potential.
Improvements become less
noticeable with time. It is important
for athletes to understand this
Figure 5.45 While training should remain specific to the athletes principle so that they do not become
needs, variety can be refreshing and maintain motivation.
frustrated or lose motivation.
This principle supports the need
High for progressive overload. As athletes
Athlete beginning with a high
level of fitness become tter, they require constant
increases in their workload to make
gains. However, as they progress, the
Athlete beginning with a low gains will be more gradual.
Fitness
5067
level of fitness
ACQUIRE
1 List the training principles
athletes should use to guide
Low their training.
Time 2 Why is recuperation an
Figure 5.46 The diminishing returns principle explains how gains important principle?
are rapid at the beginning of a training program, especiallyfor
athletes with low initial fitness.
220 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
contraction of the same muscle group. Rest 30 seconds 1 minute 1.5 minutes
Flexibility training includes static, dynamic
9 Explain the intensity component of the FITT
and ballistic techniques. One static exibility
principle.
technique is proprioceptive neuromuscular
facilitation (PNF). 10 a Describe the principles of training.
The design of a training program needs to b Analyse how any four of these principles can
include the training principles: specicity, FITT, be applied to a program designed to develop
progressive overload, recuperation, reversibility muscular hypertrophy.
duration, variety and diminishing returns. 11 Explain the dangers athletes are likely to face if
Training principles must be correctly applied for they do not allow for proper recuperation in an
the benets of training (adaptations) to occur. anaerobic training program.
6
Designing
and
evaluating
training
programs
6002 1/3 L
Figure 6.1 Coaches are often responsible for planning training programs.
What to consider
Careful planning will ensure that athletes are appropriately prepared for competition. Planning needs to
consider all of the aspects that together make a difference to the athletes or teams success: from athletes
performance and tness needs to the competition schedule, the climate and the season.
In most cases, this planning is a coachs responsibility; however, in a school, individual students
participating in the program are often responsible for their own planning, usually with the assistance of a
teacher. In this topic, the term coach is used frequently to refer to the person who does the planning, but it
is important to understand that it is not always a coach in this role.
Training sessions
Any planning for training programs must consider training sessions. Coaches must plan training sessions so
that technical, physical, psychological and tactical skills are all developed. While elite athletes can dedicate
a lot of time to training for their sport, other athletes might be restricted in the number of training sessions
that they can attend each week. Coaches and others planning training programs need to plan so that they
efciently use the time that is available and focus on the most important skills.
When structuring training sessions, coaches should also consider the time players have between sessions
for recovery. Elite athletes often train twice a day, and planning their training to allow their bodies time to
recover is important.
Another important consideration when planning training sessions is the availability of resources, such as
specialist equipment, gymnasiums and practice elds.
Training sessions should be structured so that they are:
safe
relevant
well balanced (between training for skills and training for tness)
structured to allow for practice and improvement
structured to a familiar routine while allowing exibility and variety.
Is your current training safe? Does it balance skills training with fitness training?
Examples of how training sessions are structured can be seen in Table 6.1, which looks at models used
by professional football teams. Other professional sports would develop their own models to accommodate
the training components important to their sport. Amateur teams would adjust their training session to
compensate for fewer sessions.
Table 6.1Professional football training models
Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
Traditional model
224 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
ACQUIRE
1 Outline four factors an athlete needs to consider when designing a training program.
2 a Why use a structured training program as opposed to just going out and training as
yougo?
b Who would a structured program benefit?
3 Describe an ideally designed training session.
4 How can climate play a role in influencing an athletes training?
Phases of competition
Athletes training programs can often be broken down into three distinct phases:
post-season or off-season (transition)
pre-season (preparatory)
in-season (competition).
Subtle and important differences in training exist in each of these stages. At each stage, the training
volume and the training intensity are adjusted to best suit the athletes needs. Training volume refers to the
length of training sessions and the frequency at which training occurs. Training intensity is the effort put into
trainingwhether is it strenuous or relatively light. Table 6.2 suggests some activities for various training
phases throughout the year.
226 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Running Low intensity: 12 days High intensity: 3 days per High intensity: 12 days
per week week per week
Source: Adapted from ML Foss and SJ Keteyian, Foxs Physiological Basis for Exercise and Sport, 6th edn, WCB/McGraw-Hill,
Boston, 1998 and SK Powers and ET Howley, Exercise Physiology Theory and Application to Fitness and Performance, 3rd edn,
Brown and Benchmark, Madison, 1997
Post-season training
Post-season (or off-season) training varies from sport to sport, but has the following general aims:
to prevent weight gain
to maintain a base level of aerobic tness
to maintain strength
to maintain reasonable skill levels
to repair injuries
to recuperate physically and mentally.
Regardless of the sport, variety is the key to post-season training programs. Post-season training is
usually low intensity but high volume (a large number of long sessions). A post-season program might include
competitions in the athletes sport (or a similar sport) and recreational and social activities for fun.
Pre-season training
Pre-season training usually occurs eight to twelve weeks before the start of the season or competition. In this
time, the energy systems (aerobic or anaerobic) used in the sport are taxed to maximum capacity.
The principal difference between post-season training and pre-season training is the intensity of training.
While post-season training is usually low intensity, but high volume, pre-season training shifts to high
intensity (progressive overload) and low volume.
Time should be allocated to developing physical tness and practising skills in the pre-season.
In-season training
The aim of in-season training is to maintain the tness, strength and skills developed during the pre-season.
Practice sessions should be at a volume and intensity that allows athletes to maintain their strength and
endurance.
It is important to mix conditioning and skills practice through the in-season. The in-season phase is
marked by an emphasis on skill and strategy development, while the specic conditioning for the sport is
continued. Much of this conditioning can be achieved through intense skills practice and small-sided games.
In-season training usually focuses more on game skills and strategic development than either post-season
or pre-season training does. As athletes spend more time doing drills that require game skills and tness,
practising in game-like practice sessions and playing actual games, they can spend less time on aerobic
capacity and strength conditioning. The exception to this is athletes who do not receive much game time;
they might need to do additional high-intensity conditioning or skills practice during the week.
ACQUIRE
1 Why should an athlete or team train differently at different times of the year?
2 Summarise each phase of training, including a brief description of time frames and
possible focus areas for each.
228 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
These will be repeated every but you should rest up before Run no more than 15 miles
two weeks. having a serious race or pace with 2 weeks to go.
12 weeks to go run. The last week
Introduce the quality sessions, 5 weeks to go You will have done 810 miles
once a week at rst, increasing This is probably the best with seven days to go, and
to two a week, plus one long time to put in your three- after that it doesnt really
run, pace run or race. A typical hour run. It also gives you an matter. I advise a little running
session would be 6 x 1 mile or opportunity to try out drinking each dayno more than half
5 x 2 km, with 34 minutes before and during the run. an hour. If you are going to
rest between each. 4 weeks to go carbo-load, the right period is
11 weeks to go Your last race. Rehearse the from the Thursday evening to
Assess the training load of the pre-race routines of carbo- the Saturday evening before
rst two weeks. From now on loading in the last two days a Sunday race. It is advisable
you should establish a pattern, before the race, and the to be at the race venue the
based on either a 7-day or a pre-race meal. Decide on the day before to check out the
14-day cycle, which will enable right shoes. During the next exact nish of the race and
you to do the hard work three weeks most of your the arrangements regarding
and recover from it by the serious running will be done at getting to the start.
beginning of the next cycle. marathon pace to get into the Race day
9 weeks to go right rhythm. For a morning race, get up
After four or ve weeks you 3 weeks to go three-and-a-half hours before,
should be running a race to Your last long run, about 20 breakfast three hours before,
measure your progress, and miles, with a few stretches at and bring a drink with you to
also getting up to two-and-a- marathon speed, the rest is take 10 minutes before the
half hours for your long run. easy. start. Make sure that you have
clothing for either a warm
8 weeks to go 2 weeks to go
day or a cold day. Finally, run
At the end of this week From now on you are tapering.
the rst mile as close to your
you should allow yourself a The mileage should be cut
target time as possible. After
recuperation period to absorb to two-thirds of normal and
that? You have done all you
what you have done. you should concentrate on
can so enjoy it!
7 weeks to go feeling good, just doing a bit
Source: Brian Mackenzie,
The next four weeks will of striding out to keep the leg UK Athletics Level 4 Performance
include the hardest training, speed and the stride length. Coach, www.pponline.co.uk
230 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Months Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec.
Basic Specic
Macrocycles Unloading Unloading Unloading Peaking Transition Conditioning
conditioning conditioning
Microcycles
Skill Improve specic skills Develop skills under pressure Improve basic skills
Increase
Psychology Goal setting Simulate competition strategies Goal setting
motivation
100%
Training volume 80%
60%
100%
Training intensity 80%
60%
Testing
% Training time:
Conditioning 50 40 30 20 20 20 20 30 20 60 70
Skill 30 30 40 40 40 40 30 20 20 40 30
Tactical 20 30 30 40 40 40 50 50 60
Source: TO Bompa, Theory and Methodology of Training: The Key to Athletic Performance,
3rd edn, Kendall/Hunt, Iowa, 1994
Figure 6.5 An annual training plan helps athletes and coaches to achieve their goals.
Macrocycle 1 Macrocycle 2
Conditioning emphasis Skills emphasis
High
Medium
Volume
Low
Week 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Load Increasing volume Intensity reduced with increased volume,
and intensity Recovery until mid cycle when intensity is increased
Intensity
Skill Conditioning
Click for an interview of a coach discussing how he gets his athletes to peak.
232 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Tapering
To achieve peak performance in major
competitions, many athletes reduce
aspects of their training in the weeks
leading up to the event. This allows the
body and mind to have a break from
vigorous physical exertion, and provides
an opportunity to heal injuries and
recharge energy reserves. This is known
as the taper period or tapering.
Tapering often means decreasing
the volume or intensity of training.
Reducing training volume but
maintaining intensity is generally
preferred.
The time to begin tapering varies
from sport to sport. A taper period
of approximately seven to ten days
appears to be appropriate for most
sports. A taper period of at least
two weeks is recommended for
swimmers, and a period of one to
two weeks, for runners. Tapering in
swimming improves performance, with
increases noted in both VO2 max and
arm strength. In running, however,
Figure 6.7 Training programs are designed so that athletes
are at their peak when it matters most: during competition. performance does not change but leg
power slightly improves.
Tapering allows the body to increase muscle glycogen stores in preparation for a match. To help build
energy stores, tapering should be accompanied by rest and good nutrition, including a high-carbohydrate
diet.
Speed, endurance, strength and power cannot be improved within three days of a match. Therefore, any
training session held in the thirty-six hours before competition needs to be brief and intense, so as not to
signicantly deplete glycogen reserves.
Athletes might experience some of the following during the taper period:
VO2 max increases.
Muscular strength increases.
Blood lactate levels decrease.
Minor injuries are healed.
Soreness disappears.
Glycogen stores are replenished.
However, athletes bodies respond differently to tapering; for some athletes, none of these occur.
When do you think you will need to start tapering your training to peak for your event?
Overview
It is important for coaches to give athletes a brief overview or introduction before each training session. The
coach gives a brief explanation of the sessions objectives and activities, which helps athletes to understand
what will be expected of them and why.
During the training session, coaches need to continue to give athletes effective instructions to ensure
athletes are able to perform the tasks well. Effective instructions are clear, concise, relevant, accurate, well
timed, constructive, positive and informative.
234 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Conditioning
General tness conditioning should occur after skills practice so that the practice is not affected by fatigue.
Fitness conditioning should last for about 1520 minutes. The only exceptions are fartlek training and
fatigue-loading, which involve tiring the athlete to practise performing skills when tired. These should occur
after the warm-up.
Games
Games, although optional during a training session, can also be added during the warm-up or cool-down, or
after conditioning. These serve to motivate and to reinforce execution of skills in a competitive setting. They
can be modied to focus on fun or tness.
Cool-down
A cool-down of 510 minutes, plus stretching, helps to remove waste products and gradually bring the body
back to resting levels. It gives the body time to return blood to the heart, rather than letting the blood pool in
the muscles. This allows the oxygenated blood to ush out the waste products that form during activity and
begin to rebuild the energy stores required for the next performance.
A cool-down should include a period of stretching that enables working muscles to be stretched to their
original length, thereby reducing muscle soreness and aiding recovery.
Evaluation
An evaluation of the training session should occur during or after the cool-down. This is an opportunity for
the coach and players to reect on the sessions training objectives and performances. It can be a good time
to talk about intensity and application in training, punctuality, the next training session, player availability
and the coming game. The evaluation should involve the players giving feedback, which can help to guide
future training sessions.
3 For each of the following sports, recommend three training activities that help to improve
fitness and allow skills practice.
a netball
b soccer
4 Distinguish between a skill and a drill.
5 Explain why a training session should be evaluated.
6 Describe why games are used in training sessions.
PRACTICAL
Planning a training session
In pairs, choose a sport and design a 30-minute training session. Prepare a brief written plan of
your session. Use headings such as main objectives, activities and things to prepare. Then,
take members of your class or another group through your training session. Remember that if
you have young athletes in the group, the instructions and drills will need to take their age into
account.
1 Describe, giving examples, how the activities matched the abilities of the group.
2 Describe the groups reaction to the training session.
3 Explain how your training session could be modified.
4 Describe the hardest part of this activity. Why was it the most difficult?
5 What was the easiest part of this activity? Why?
Avoiding over-training
Months of training every day, or every few days, has the potential to place considerable stress on athletes,
both physically and psychologically. Over-training occurs when an athlete does more work than can be
physically tolerated. The body is not able to adapt, which results in tissue damage and not enough time to
236 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Figure 6.9
Well-developed
training programs
avoid over-training.
ACQUIRE
Describe the signs and symptoms used to identify an over-trained athlete.
238 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Short-term training
programs
Athletes who are serious about their
sport and compete regularly develop
long-term training programs. However,
not everyone has long-term competitive
goals; some simply wish to achieve
physiological benets with short-term
training.
Designing a short-term
training program
Physical education students are likely
to participate in short-term training
programs and might even be required
to design one. This section provides a
step-by-step breakdown of short-term
training program design. Figure 6.10 Short-term training has physiological benefits.
As the physical activities being studied as part of this topic will differ from school to school, this section
has been designed so it can be applied to various team and individual sports. However, it is important to note
that this section provides a broad guideline and that your teacher may alter some of the steps to suit your
schools environment and curriculum needs.
Seven steps are involved in designing a short-term training program.
1 Analyse tness and skills.
2 Decide on the duration of the program.
3 Divide the program into periods.
4 Decide on training days.
5 Create a program outline.
6 Plan training sessions.
7 Ensure that the Training Principles have been correctly applied.
List goals
Each athlete must consider his or her individual goals. For example, a beginner may wish to simply build his or
her general aerobic tness; a highly trained athlete may wish to reach peak speed.
Specific I want to become a better goal keeper by increasing my goal saves percentage.
Measurable A goal is saved each time I successfully prevent the opposition from scoring. I can find this
information. I would like to achieve a 75 per cent success rate.
Attainable Last season, I averaged a 65 per cent success rate. I believe that 75 per cent will be challenging, but
within my reach. I have devised a series of drills to complete each week.
Realistic I believe I am now at the associative level in my sport as I have started playing at club level. I have
spoken with my coach, and she feels that a 75 per cent goal save rate is a realistic goal.
Timely I want to achieve this average by the end of this season, which is five months away (1 December).
Exciting This goal provides a challenge and will help to keep me motivated.
240 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Click for more information about the types of software available to analyse techniques.
Pass 100%
Stick check 0%
Shot
Analysis: Although I did not make any attempts at goal, I am not concerned. As a
defender, playing correct zone defence means that I should not be in an attacking
Figure 6.13
position on the field. My catch and pass success reflects the amount of training I have Recording
been doing in those areas. Although my stick check success rate is low, I am asserting statistics gives
myself in defence and making attempts to turn over the ball. However, I need to start an objective
converting stick checks into possessions to be of more benefit to my team. assessment of the
skills needed.
242 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Nine-week program
3.5 hours
3.1 hours
2.7 hours
2.6 hours 2.4 hours
2 hours 2 hours
1.8 hours
1.5 hours
Six-week program
6020 TS L 1/3
ller
Figure 6.16 Distance swimmers who need to focus on building aerobic capacity would train five days
perweek.
Rather than trying to write the entire program in advance, it is recommended that athletes focus on
the medium weeks in their program rst. Determining what is a medium or average difculty for each
athletes current tness levels will provide a reference point from which changes can be made to other weeks
in the program. A medium week should consist of sessions that are individually tiring but that do not make
the athlete feel physically sore or drained at the end. As the principle of progressive overload needs to be
applied, ensure that each medium week is pitched at a slightly more challenging level than the last. Refer to
Table 6.5 on page 245 for further guidance on how to apply the principles of training.
What would a training session need to consist of to make you feel tired by the end but not feel sore the next
day?
244 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Name
Program duration
Program goal
Name
Week number
(and dates)
Monday Type:
Training day / Frequency:
Rest day Intensity:
Time:
Tuesday Type:
Training day / Frequency:
Rest day Intensity:
Time:
Wednesday Type:
Training day / Frequency:
Rest day Intensity:
Time:
Thursday Type:
Training day / Frequency:
Rest day Intensity:
Time:
Friday Type:
Training day / Frequency:
Rest day Intensity:
Time:
Saturday Type:
Training day / Frequency:
Rest day Intensity:
Time:
Sunday Type:
Training day / Frequency:
Rest day Intensity:
Time:
246 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
6023 L 1/3
Figure 6.17 When planning a training program, include enough variety that you do not get bored and lose
motivation.
Training checklist
When the short-term training program, including a plan for individual sessions, has been written, athletes
should be able to answer yes to the following questions.
1 Are your individual sessions specic to your event and your needs?
2 Are you training often enough each week?
3 Are you doing the correct number of repetitions and sets each session?
4 Are you working at the correct intensity? (Remember, the intensity will depend on the week of your
program: medium, hard or recovery.)
5 Are your intervals, sets or drills running for the appropriate length of time?
6 Are you allowing your body enough rest between sets?
7 Are you appropriately increasing the stress on your body to see improvement?
8 Are you ensuring that you will not get bored? Have you made sure that you have a variety of relevant
activities?
Muscular Resistance Untrained Untrained The number of Gradual decreases Machines, free
strength training: Muscle athletes: athletes: 812 RM, sets will guide of 210% of RM; weights, elastic
contractions 12sessions per slowmoderate the time for each the lower the RM, bands, persons
should involve week, 23 sets per speed session. However, the heavier the own body weight,
both concentric session Advanced athletes: the amount of rest weight pulleys and
and eccentric Advanced athletes: 26 RM, slow is constant. levers, and sport-
contractions. 35sessions per moderate speed Untrained specific machines
Where possible, week, per muscle athletes: 23 (for example,
actions should group, split minutes between swimming
mimic those of the sessions, 36 sets sets resistance bench)
sport per session Advanced athletes:
35 minutes
between sets
Muscular power Power is the result 12 sessions per 612 RM for 210 The number of Gradual decreases Machines, free
of applying force week, 36 sets per repetitions, fast sets will guide of 210% of RM; weights, elastic
(strength) quickly; session speed the time for each the lower the RM, bands, persons
it is necessary to session. However, the heavier the own body weight,
have adequate the amount of rest weight pulleys and
strength before is constant: 35 levers, and sport-
one can develop minutes between specific machines
power. Therefore, sets (for example,
it is recommended swimming
that a power resistance bench)
program includes
a maintenance
strength program.
Where possible,
actions should
mimic those of the
sport
Muscular Any activity 3 sessions per 15+ RM for The number of Gradual decreases Machines, free
endurance requiring the week, 36 sets per 1520 RM, sets will guide of 210% of RM; weights, elastic
muscle to session medium speed the time for each the lower the RM, bands, persons
repeatedly session. However, the heavier the own body weight,
contract against a the amount of rest weight pulleys and
resistance, such is constant: 13 levers, and sport-
as plyometrics and minutes between specific machines
weight training sets (for example,
swimming
resistance bench)
248 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Speed (anaerobic) Short-interval Alactacid: 85100% of Alactacid: Gradual increases Track, sprinting,
training, 10 seconds5 maximum heart 10 seconds1:4 in intensity or cycling, swimming,
intermediate- sets per workout, rate workrelief ratio, distance gym machines
interval training 10repetitions complete rest
perset recovery
20 seconds3 20 seconds1:3
sets per workout, 8 workrelief ratio,
repetitions per set complete rest
Alactacid/lactic recovery
acid: Alactacid/lactic
3045 acid:
seconds4sets 3045
per workout, seconds1:3
4repetitions per workrelief ratio,
set workrelief
1:201:30 1:201:30
minutes2sets minutes1:2
per workout, workrelief ratio,
4repetitions per workrelief
set Anaerobic:
Anaerobic: 1:452:15
1:452:15 minutes1:2
minutes1set workrelief ratio,
per workout, workrelief
5repetitions per 2:30-3
set minutes1:1 work
2:303 or complete rest
minutes2sets recovery
per workout,
2repetitions per
set
Flexibility Static stretching, There is no Static and PNF: Static: Held for Gradual increases Individual
PNF, dynamic maximum Low intensity, no 1030 seconds in a in range of stretching, pair
stretching frequency. Stretch bouncing pain-free position movement across stretching, assisted
MUST occur every Dynamic: gentle PNF: Static stretch joint. Be careful (e.g.elastic band),
session after a repetition of held for 1020 not to over-stretch during an aerobics
suitable warm-up the types of seconds, 6seconds using the PNF class (dynamic)
and at the very end movements of isometric technique
of the session associated with the contraction, 1020
sport seconds of further
static, and so on
Agility, These components Cognitive and Cognitive and Drills can become Will depend on the
coordination, will be developed associative stage associative stage more challenging. physical activity in
balance, reaction in the skill training of learning: Every of learning: Usually Examples include question
time phase of a session. session at the start of a performing the
The skills and Autonomous session when the drill for longer,
drills will depend stage of learning: athlete is fresh. performing the
on the physical most sessions Autonomous drill faster or
activity (some may be stage of learning: increasing the
conditioning only) Integrated with success rate
fitness conditioning before completing
andoften when the drill
the athlete is tired
(fatigue loading)
6024 L 1/3
Program evaluation
Training programs need to take into consideration the individual needs of the athlete, and they need to be
adaptable. It is essential that a program is clearly structured from the beginning; however, those involved in
the planning and participation should take time to regularly reect on the program so that necessary and
timely adjustments can be made.
Monitoring training
It is important to monitor a training program to ensure that athletes are given appropriate feedback and
remain motivated. Most importantly, regularly monitoring training will help to highlight problem areas and
mistakes in the training program and ensure that the program is one that is relevant to the athletes needs
and will help them achieve their goals.
Common mistakes that are often identied when monitoring training programs include:
over-training
under-training
inappropriate training methods
inappropriate intensity
training that is not specic to the athletes goals
failing to taper.
Monitoring progress
An athlete can monitor their progress in one of two ways: by conducting periodic tness testing or by keeping
a training journal.
Both methods provide valuable feedback about the amount, intensity and type of exercise being
performed.
250 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Essential Optional
Day: Total calories expended:
Location: Diet:
Frequency
Intensity
Time allocated
Cool-down
252 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
6 No exertion at all
8 Extremely light
9 Very light Very light, as for a healthy person taking a short All day with breaks
walk at his or her own pace.
10 510 hours
11 Light 45 hours
12 2.54 hours
14 5090 minutes
15 Hard (heavy) It is hard and tiring, but continuing is not 2550 minutes
terribly difficult.
16 1525 minutes
17 Very hard Very hard. It is very strenuous. You can still go 715 minutes
on, but you really have to push yourself and you
are very tired.
18 37 minutes
19 Extremely hard An extremely strenuous level. For most people 30 seconds 3 minutes
this is the most strenuous exercise they have
ever experienced.
Source: Borg RPE scale, Gunnar Borg. The scale, with instructions, can be obtained from Borg Perception, Se.
www.borgperception.Se
400
B
6029 L 1/4
350
A
Baseline fatigue index (total of HR, below)
Heart rate (beats per minute)
300
250
Fatigue index 60 sec rec
200
Exercise HR Resting HR
150 30 sec rec
100
50
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Days
Figure 6.21 This figure shows data of an athlete during a 3-week competition. The athlete ignored signs of
fatigue at day 8. By day 12, he had developed a serious cold and sore throat, and was unable to compete for the
next two weeks.
Source: BJ Sharkey and SE Gaskill, Sport Physiology for Coaches, Human Kinetics, Champaign: Illinois, 2006
Aim
To measure and monitor your levels
of fatigue during training
Equipment
stopwatch
Procedure
6016 P 1/4
Do the following after rising in the
morning but before breakfast or
stimulants (tea or coffee).
1 Sit quietly for 3 to 5 minutes
until your heart rate is stable. You
can read the paper during this
time.
2 Take the resting heart rate at
the wrist for 10 seconds. Then,
multiply the number of beats by
six to get the rate per minute.
3 Start the stopwatch and begin
stepping (up with one foot then
the other, then down with the
rst foot and then the other). The
entire sequence of stepping up
and down should take 2 seconds
and be repeated 30 times in
1 minute.
4 After 1 minute of stepping, stop.
While still standing, take the
post-exercise heart rate and then
sit down immediately.
5 Sit quietly and relax. At 30
seconds after exercise, take your
heart rate for 10 seconds. Then,
multiply the number of beats by
six to get the rate per minute.
6 At 60 seconds after exercise, take Figure 6.21 When fatigued, athletes have an increased risk of
the nal heart rate. illness and injury.
Record your results in a table like the one on the next page. Results can then be plotted on a graph each
day. To calculate the fatigue index, add up all of the heart rate measurements. To determine your own
baseline fatigue index, calculate your average index after several days of rest. After a baseline index is
found, the following tests can be used to gauge increased risk of overtraining.
254 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Monitoring goals
Goals provide athletes with purpose and help to maintain motivation.
On page 240, we discussed how training goals should be SMARTER: specic, measurable, attainable,
realistic, timely, exciting and recorded. It is the second variable in the SMARTER modelmeasurablethat
is the most useful for program evaluation as it enables athletes to determine if their initial goals are being
been met. Setting objective goals, such as In the next six weeks I aim to increase my vertical jump by
5 centimetres, allows for goals to be monitored and measured because the athlete is stating what they want
to improve, by how much and by when.
If realistic goals are set, monitoring them
periodically by measuring progress will allow
6035 s 1/4
coaches and athletes to determine if something
is wrong with the program. It can also provide
insight into an athletes attitude. There is no point
monitoring athletes progress with periodic tness
testing if they have lost motivation and fail to see
the point of their training.
Strengths Weaknesses
What were the best aspects of the program andwhy? Are there gaps in the program?
What was done well and why? What did we not do very well and why?
What test results showed improvement and why? What test results showed a decline and why?
Opportunities Threats
How can the program be improved? What may prevent the achievement of short-term and
long-term objectives?
ACQUIRE
1 What is the minimum duration of a training program to see physiological changes?
2 What steps must an athlete go through when completing a short-term training program?
3 Why should you analyse the fitness and skills gained in athe sport before writing a training
program?
256 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Tapering, by reducing training volume, allows 3 Outline the steps you, as a coach, would take to
athletes to maximise physical and mental assist an athlete who is over-trained.
preparation before an event. 4 Design a checklist to recognise the signs and
Each training session needs to have appropriate symptoms of over-training in a 100-metre
warm-ups and stretching, skill instruction swimmer.
and practice, conditioning, cool-down and 5 Explain how breaking a long-term training
evaluation. Health and safety must also always program into smaller blocks of time (phases and
be considered. macrocycles) can help athletes to improve their
Over-training can be avoided by ensuring that performance.
an athletes program has an appropriate blend 6 Compare the focus of the preparation
of training volume, training intensity, rest and (pre-season) phase of an annual program with
variety and that the athlete has a nutritious diet. that of the in-season phase.
Coaches should be aware of the physical and 7 Imagine that you are about to design a
mental signs of over-training. Athletes often short-term training program. Conduct your
mistakenly think that more is better. own individual tness and skill analysis for your
Training principles must always be correctly current physical activity.
applied. 8 How would a short-term training program for
Monitoring a training program provides athletes hurdlers at the cognitive (beginning) stage of
with essential feedback and motivation. Two learning differ from a program for hurdlers at the
forms of monitoring are common: periodic autonomous stage of learning? Compare and
tness testing and keeping a training journal. contrast the priority given to skill versus tness
Training programs should be monitored against development. Justify your response.
the initial goals. 9 Describe the methods used to monitor a training
At the end of any program, it is vital to take time program.
to reect on its overall effectiveness and decide 10 Explain the purpose of a SWOT analysis.
whether any changes need to be made in future.
7001
7
Sports
injuries
Classifying and
managing injuries
Classifying sports injuries
Sports or performance injuries can be classied by the cause of
the injury or by the type of body tissue damaged. Secondary
injuries are another classication. Secondary injuries are those
that occur as a result of earlier injuries that have not fully
Figure 7.1 A direct injury can occur healed.
when an athlete is struck by an object,
such as a hockey stick. If injuries are classied according to their cause, the three
categories are:
direct injury
Indirect injury
One type of indirect injury occurs, like direct injuries, as a result
of collisions with other people or objects. This type of indirect
injury differs from direct injuries because the actual injury is
some distance from the impact site. For example, falling on an
outstretched hand can result in a dislocated shoulder.
Another type of indirect injury does not result from
physical contact with an object or person, but from the actions
of the athlete. This type of injury is often the result of over-
stretching, poor technique, fatigue or lack of tness. Muscle
Figure 7.3 Stress fractures, a type
strains and tears, and ligament sprains are examples of these
of overuse injury, can result from a injuries.
repetitive force.
Heel pain Tenderness over heel Tight calf muscles Decrease activity
Pain increased by Growth spurt RICER
running, jumping Poor footwear Physiotherapy
Stretching program
Correct footwear
Orthotic control
260 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Hard-tissue injury
Hard-tissue injuries are those involving damage to
the bones. They range from severe fractures and
joint dislocations to bruising of the bone. A direct
force can bruise a bone and cause bleeding between
the outer layer of the bone and the underlying
compact bone. Bone bruising is common in bones
Figure 7.4 Managing player injuries is a crucial
such as the tibia (shin) where there is little muscle
part of all sports. tissue over the bone to absorb the force.
Bones have a blood supply and internal bleeding can result from a fracture. In major injuries, this internal
bleeding in the bone, together with bleeding from surrounding damaged tissue, can lead to shock and serious
circulatory complications. Hard-tissue injuries are covered in further detail on page 267.
Secondary injury
Athletes returning to activity are also at risk of a secondary injury, which is an injury that occurs as a result
of a previous injury being poorly treated or not being fully healed. Athletes risk injuries recurring if they start
playing before they regain full strength and movement.
What experiences have you had with injury?
Body area Injury type New injuries per club per season
Head/neck Concussion 0.5
Facial fractures 0.5
Neck sprains 0.1
Other head/neck injuries 0.1
Shoulder/arm/elbow Shoulder sprains and dislocations 1.3
Acromio-clavicular joint injuries 0.5
Fractured clavicles 0.2
Elbow sprains or joint injuries 0.2
Other shoulder/arm/elbow injuries 0.1
Forearm/wrist/hand Forearm/wrist/hand fractures 1.1
Other forearm/wrist/hand injuries 0.4
Trunk/back Rib and chest wall injuries 0.3
Lumbar and thoracic spine injuries 1.4
Other buttock/back/trunk injuries 0.5
Hip/groin/thigh Groin strains / osteitis pubis 3.2
Hamstring strains 7.1
Quadriceps strains 2.2
Thigh and hip haematomas 1.0
Other hip/groin/thigh injuries, 1.0
including hip joint
Knee Knee anterior cruciate ligament 0.6
Knee medial cruciate ligament 0.7
Knee posterior cruciate ligament 0.3
Knee cartilage 1.9
Patella injuries 0.2
Knee tendon injuries 0.5
Other knee injuries 1.0
Shin/ankle/foot Ankle joint sprains 2.6
Calf strains 1.3
Achilles tendon injuries 0.6
Leg and foot fractures 1.0
Leg and foot stress fractures 0.9
Other leg/foot/ankle injuries 1.5
Other Medical illnesses 2.9
Non-football injuries 0.1
New injuries/club/season 37.6
Source: J Orchard and H Seward, 2009 Injury Report, Australian Football League, Melbourne, 2010
262 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
EXTENSION
Investigate whether injuries can be classified in ways other than those described in this chapter.
Soft-tissue injuries
Soft-tissue injuries are the most common type of injury in sports. They include injuries to skin, muscle, tendons
and ligaments.
Inflammatory response
The acute inammatory phase, during the rst 24 to 72 hours after injury, is the initial stage of repair of body
tissue. The bodys immediate response to injury is to increase the ow of blood and other uids to the injured
site. If blood vessels at the site are damaged, there will also be direct bleeding into the surrounding tissue. The
accumulation of uid in the area causes an increase in pressure, which produces pain.
All these changes produce inammation, which consists of redness, heat, swelling, pain and loss of function.
If inammation is left unchecked and persists for a long time, more inexible scar tissue will form. The extent
to which the formation of scar tissue can be prevented will, in part, determine the time required for injury
rehabilitation and how well normal functioning can be returned to pre-injury levels. Stretching and applying
ice will limit the formation of scar tissue.
During the rst two to three days after an injury, certain actions must be avoided. These include applying
heat (for example, hot liniments, spas, saunas and hot baths), drinking alcohol, physical activity and massage.
These actions all increase blood ow and, therefore, swelling.
264 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Managing soft-tissue
injuries
The immediate management of
soft-tissue injuries during the acute
inammatory phase is very important
for successful rehabilitation. Immediate
treatment aims to:
prevent further tissue damage
minimise swelling
ease pain
reduce the formation of scar tissue
reduce the time needed for
rehabilitation.
RICER
To effectively manage soft-tissue
injuries, the RICER procedure needs to
be followed:
rest
ice
compression
elevation
referral.
Have you used RICER to successfully Figure 7.6 Rest, ice, compression and elevation all help to
manage a soft-tissue injury.
manage a soft-tissue injury?
Rest
The injured area must remain relatively inactive for the rst 4872 hours. The duration of the rest will
depend on the severity of the injury.
Ice
Applying ice causes the blood vessels to constrict, which decreases circulation and results in less
inammation at the site.
Where possible, ice should be applied to the surrounding area, in addition to the direct site. Ice should be
applied in a wet towel for 2030 minutes every 2 hours for the rst 4872 hours.
Do not apply ice, or a plastic bag containing ice, directly onto the skin. Care should also be taken when
applying ice near the eyes.
Compression
Compression, such as applying a wide elastic bandage over the injured site and surrounding area, will help to
reduce the swelling by limiting uid build-up. It also provides support for the injured site.
Care should be taken to ensure that circulation is not constricted by bandaging too tightly.
Impact
No RICER (24 hours) No RICER (3-6 weeks)
Soft tissue
immediately after injury
Compression
(elastic bandage)
Figure 7.7 The effects of not using RICER can be detrimental to long-term recovery.
Elevation
Elevating the injury above the level of the heart reduces the volume and pressure of blood ow to the injured
area, thus limiting inammation. Most injuries can be elevated by supporting the injured area while the
casualty is seated or lying down.
Referral
Medical assessment should be sought as soon as possible to determine the full extent of the injury, and to
commence appropriate rehabilitation.
266 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
ACQUIRE
1 Describe the differences between a sprain and a strain.
2 Explain the acute inflammatory response.
3 Outline the aims of immediately managing soft-tissue injuries.
4 Identify the problems that can sometimes occur at the ice and compression stages of the
RICER procedure.
5 Explain what actions should be avoided after sustaining a soft-tissue injury.
6 Identify the common management steps that should be followed with skin injuries.
7 Clarify when a skin injury requires professional medical attention.
8 Identify soft-tissue injuries that commonly occur in your sport.
9 a Is elevation possible for all soft-tissue injuries? Discuss.
b If elevation is not possible, outline other ways that blood flow to the area can be
reduced.
10 If ice is not available, what items could be used as a substitute?
PRACTICAL
Managing soft-tissue injuries
Apply the RICER procedure to the following soft-tissue injuries:
1 sprained ankle ligaments
2 corked or deeply bruised thigh
3 sprained thumb ligaments.
Hard-tissue injuries
Hard tissue refers to bone. Hard-tissue injuries usually involve fractures and dislocations; they can also occur
when bone is bruised.
Dislocations
Dislocations are injuries to joints
where one bone is displaced from
another. A dislocation is often
accompanied by considerable
damage to the surrounding
connective tissue. Dislocations 7013 S 1/4
occur as a result of the joint being
pushed past its normal range
of movement. They commonly
occur at the ngers, shoulders
and patellae (kneecaps).
Signs and symptoms of
dislocation include:
a loss of movement at the
joint
obvious deformity
swelling and tenderness
pain at the injured site. Figure 7.9 Dislocations can be clearly seen in X-rays.
268 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Immobilisation
The treatment of hard-tissue injuries aims to minimise movement of the injured area. This is achieved by
immobilising the joints above and below the site of the injury. If the injury site is the shaft of a long bone (for
example, the femur or humerus), the injury can be supported with a sling or splint.
A supporting splint should be long enough to extend beyond the joints nearest to the injury. A splint can
be another part of the body, such as another limb, or any rm, straight object.
It is essential to correctly apply a splint. When correctly applied, a splint is secured at all of the following
six points:
1 above the joint above the
fracture Figure 7.10 7012 P 1/4
2 below the joint below the Fractures can require
splints to keep the
fracture injury immobile while
3 at the joint above the fracture medical treatment is
sought
4 at the joint below the
fracture
5 just above the fracture
6 just below the fracture.
In some types of fracture, a
rigid splint is unnecessary, and a
sling is adequate.
Immobilisation is also the
immediate aim for dislocations.
Under no circumstances should
a rst aider attempt to relocate
a dislocation. Dislocations can
cause other damage to the
bones and to ligaments around
the dislocated joint. An X-ray is
usually needed before relocation.
A rushed attempt by a rst aider
to relocate a dislocation might
result in further damage.
ACQUIRE
1 Differentiate among the three types of
fractures.
2 Identify the signs and symptoms of a
fracture and a dislocation.
3 What is the immediate aim when
managing a fracture or a dislocation?
How can this best be achieved?
4 Explain why a first aider should not
attempt to relocate a dislocation.
PRACTICAL
Managing hard-tissue injuries
Using a variety of materials, follow the six
steps to apply a splint to fractures of the:
1 tibia
2 femur
3 radius
4 finger. Figure 7.11 A sling can be used to immobilise some types of
fractures and dislocation.
EXTENSION
It is important to be able to discriminate between injuries that require immediate medical
attention and those that do not. Using what you have learned so far, write a policy called
Guidelines for Medical Referral that gives injury guidelines for your current sport. The policy
should list situations when immediate medical attention needs to be sought.
First aid
It is important to follow correct procedures when assisting an injured athlete. The initial stages of assessment
and rst aid can play a large part in the long-term successful recovery of an injury.
When attending to an injured athlete who might be unconscious, the DRABCD action plan must be
followed. If the athlete is conscious, the TOTAPS method of injury assessment can be used.
Step Action
1 Danger Control dangers, then assess injured athlete
2 Life threat Use DRABCD
3 Initial injury assessment Use STOP
4 Detailed injury assessment Use TOTAPS
5 Initial management Manage appropriately
Refer to health professional
270 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Danger
Before assisting anyone, it is important to check that there is no danger to yourself, the injured person or
others. Only when you are sure that it is safe are you able to help the injured person.
Response
The next step is to check for a response from the casualty to tell if the person is conscious or unconscious.
This is usually done by introducing yourself (if the person is unknown to you), gently squeezing their
shoulders or hands and asking the following questions:
Can you hear me?
Can you open your eyes?
What is your name?
Can you squeeze my hands? (Place your hands in theirs.)
If there is no response, the person is unconscious and an ambulance should be called immediately while
the remaining steps are carried out.
If the person is conscious, the next steps are not necessary.
Airway
The next step is to check that the injured person has a clear airway. Gently open the persons mouth and
check for obstructions, such as broken teeth, blood or vomit. Even a persons tongue can be an obstruction if
a person is unconscious. Use your ngers to carefully move or remove anything in the mouth that might be
blocking the ow of air.
Breathing
Once the airway is clear, check for signs of breathing. With a hand gently placed between the casualtys navel
and ribs, and an ear by the casualtys nose and mouth:
look at the hand on the casualty to see if it is moving due to the rise and fall of the casualtys breathing
listen for breathing sounds
feel for signs of breathing by sensing motion in the hand or breath on the ear.
If the person is breathing, he or she should be gently moved into the recovery position: on the side with
the head tilted back and face towards the ground.
Compressions
If the casualty is unconscious and not breathing, they will require chest compressions or CPR.
Defibrillation
The nal stage, debrillation, is only possible when an automatic external debrillating machine is available.
Such machines are being made available more often, but they do require specialist training to use.
Click for more information about first aid and first aid training.
STOP
STOP stands for stop, talk, observe and prevent, and is a fast method of assessing injuries on the eld.
TOTAPS
The TOTAPS procedure is used to provide information about the extent of the injury. It also helps to indicate
whether the person should be permitted to continue the game or should be given professional medical help.
TOTAPS stands for:
talk
observe
touch
active movement
passive movement
skills test.
It is important to note that controlling bleeding takes priority over TOTAPS.
272 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Observe
After questioning the athlete, examine the site of the injury. Look for deformity, swelling and redness. If the
injury is to a limb, compare it with the corresponding area on the opposite limb. If there is obvious deformity,
there is likely to be a fracture or serious ligament/tendon damage, and medical assistance is needed.
Touch
If there is no obvious deformity and the athlete is not especially distressed, feel the site of the injury. Using
your hands and ngers, gently touch the site without moving it. If possible, feel the corresponding site on the
other side of the body and compare the two sides. Note any differences in bone shape and skin temperature.
Observe the athletes level of distress as you touch the injury. If touching the injury causes the athlete
intense pain, the injury might be serious and need medical diagnosis. If touching the injury causes only slight
pain, move on to the active movement stage.
Active movement
If there is evidence of a fracture or dislocation, do not proceed. Specic management for a fracture should
begin.
If there is no evidence of a fracture or dislocation, ask the athlete to try to move the injured part. Observe
the degree of pain. Also observe the range of movement that is achieved. If possible, compare it with the
other limb. As the athlete moves, feel the injured site for any clicking or grating. If the athlete cannot move
the injured site or has only minimal range of movement, the RICER procedure is used, and medical assistance
is sought. If the athlete can move without intense discomfort, proceed to the passive movement stage.
Passive movement
If you have reached the passive movement stage, it is likely that the injury is not serious.
The passive movement stage requires the rst aider to move the athletes injured body part and
determine how much pain-free movement is possible. If the athlete cannot have the injured part manipulated
through the normal range of movement without pain, the rst aider should not continue. RICER treatment
should be administered. If the range of movement is normal, the athlete should be asked to stand.
Figure 7.13 Touch the injured site to help determine the seriousness of the injury.
Skills test
A decision needs to be made about whether the athlete can continue to play.
If the athlete can stand, have the athlete place pressure on the injured site by performing movements
similar to those required in the activity to be resumed. If these actions can be completed, the athlete
may resume the activity. For example, a touch football player being assessed for an ankle injury might be
asked to run forward and backward and change direction quickly as these movements are fundamental to
the game.
ACQUIRE
1 Discuss the value of following the TOTAPS procedure.
2 In the touch stage, identify what the first aider should be feeling for.
3 a Compare the differences between active movement and passive movement in the
TOTAPS procedure.
b Discuss why passive movement follows active movement.
4 Describe some of the signs at each stage of the TOTAPS procedure that require you to seek
immediate medical treatment.
274 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
PRACTICAL
TOTAPS
For each scenario below, apply the
TOTAPS procedure to determine
the nature and extent of injury.
Remember that medical help is to
be sought when a serious injury is
suspected. Prepare and complete a
table such as the one below.
1 A hockey player goes in for a
tackle and is involved in a heavy
collision with another player.
The player remains on the
ground in intense pain, grasping
the lower leg.
2 At a cross-country event, a
participant cannot continue and
is in obvious discomfort with a
Figure 7.14 How would you act to help an injured athlete?
leg injury.
3 At a rugby union game, a player remains lying on the ground after a ruck. The player is
conscious and complains of pain near the spine.
4 You arrive at the scene of a cycling accident. The cyclist is trying to remount the bike and
continue the race, but has severely limited movement in one arm.
5 A 100-metre hurdler pulls up in the middle of the race and grasps her knee.
Table 7.4TOTAPS
Figure 7.15 One of rehabilitations aims is to allow athletes to safely return to competition.
Injury rehabilitation
Rehabilitation
Rehabilitation after injury can take some time, depending on the type and severity of the injury. A qualied
doctor or physiotherapist should supervise the process.
The aims of any rehabilitation program are to:
restore optimal function of the injured area
return the athlete to competition quickly and safely
prevent re-injury.
Athletes who are not completely rehabilitated and who favour the injured part in an attempt to protect it
increase the risk of re-injury to the same site or a new injury at a different site.
The injury management procedures that follow will assist rehabilitation.
Progressive mobilisation
Any injury involving the muscles or connective tissues surrounding a joint will restrict the movement of that
joint. Joint mobilisation is the freeing of hindered joints to allow improved motion.
Joint mobilisation can be achieved by the athlete carefully exercising the injured joint or by another
person manipulating the injured part. This process is known as progressive mobilisation because the range
of movement is gradually increased over time until the full range of movement is restored.
Mobilisation of the injured part should begin soon after the injury because inactivity can increase the
formation of scar tissue.
276 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Graduated exercise
Part of any rehabilitation procedure includes graduated exercise, which incorporates stretching, muscle
conditioning and maintaining total body tness.
Stretching
Loss of exibility occurs as a result of injuries to muscle and connective tissue, and because of the scar
tissue that forms. A degree of exibility will be returned to the injured site through progressive mobilisation;
however, attention needs also to be paid to stretching exercises. If completed correctly, stretching exercises
improve rehabilitation by:
reducing muscle tension
increasing circulation
increasing muscle and tendon length
increasing the range of motion.
Flexibility, like mobilisation, is restored gradually to the injured area through the use of slow static
stretches and PNF stretching early in the repair phase. The advantage of PNF stretching is that it does
not require the injured site to be moved extensively. The stretching is gradually made more active, and is
increased from 510 seconds to 2030 seconds. Stretching should be performed regularly after a warm-up,
and should always remain within the pain-free range.
Muscle conditioning
Restoring muscle strength is essential for injury rehabilitation. Active muscles will increase in size and
endurance; passive muscles will decrease in size. Even if the injured area is immobilised (for example, in a cast
or brace) a program should be designed to prevent muscle atrophy (wasting of muscle tissue).
Isometric exercises can be used as they develop strength without requiring movement at the joints. In
this way they can help to prevent muscle atrophy until movement is possible.
As swelling and pain lessen, exercises
involving pain-free movement can be introduced.
As strength is slowly regained, further resistance
can be applied. The introduction of weight-bearing
exercises can be considered if the injured area
is thought to be capable of support. Isokinetic
exercises are considered benecial at this stage
because they develop strength through the full
range of movement using uniform resistance and
speed.
When conditioning muscles, it is important
to monitor the increase in strength of both the
muscle being treated and the muscle that moves
in the opposite direction. This will ensure that an
appropriate ratio of strength is being developed.
278 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Heat
Heat is applied to increase circulation, either in the body generally or in a particular area.
The bodys general physiological responses to heat are:
decreased pain
increased ability to stretch
relaxation
increased blood ow
reduced joint stiffness
280 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
ACQUIRE
1 Outline the important factors to remember when mobilising a joint.
2 Describe the benefits of maintaining total body fitness while injured.
3 Clarify the circumstances in which cold and heat treatments are used.
4 Explain the safety considerations that need to be observed when using heat and cold to
treat injuries.
PRACTICAL
Rehabilitation program
1 Plan a rehabilitation program for each of the following:
a a soccer player with a hamstring tear
b a tennis player with tendonitis of the elbow
c a gymnast with a fractured tibia and fibula
d a rugby league player with a shoulder dislocation.
Your rehabilitation program should consider:
appropriate initial treatment
surgery options
progressive mobilisation
graduated exercise (stretching, muscle conditioning and total body fitness)
time required for a full recovery.
2 Justify the program you have planned.
EXTENSION
1 Contact a local physiotherapist to determine the current techniques and practices for
using heat and cold to treat different types of injuries. If it can be arranged, visit a local
physiotherapist or invite one as a guest speaker.
2 Discuss how techniques have changed over time.
3 With assistance from your teacher or a physiotherapist, conduct a practical session that
uses a variety of heat and cold treatments. Assess each based on:
its cost
its effectiveness
the patients feelings
its ease of use.
4 Summarise your findings in an article that could be used in a sport magazine as a feature
story.
Assessing readiness
to return to play
Athletes, coaches and medical
staff should all feel condent
in athletes physical and
psychological readiness to return
to play.
Physical readiness
Two indicators of physical
readiness to return to play
are being pain free and having
Figure 7.20 An athlete returning frominjury should be put through a mobility restored to the injured
sports-specific fitness test.
area.
Physical tests can assess an athletes readiness to return to play after injury. Many of these tests are basic
tness and skills tests that are used throughout the season. They measure an athletes ability to resume play
in a specic sport. They can also provide a point of comparison. For example, an athletes post-recovery test
results can be compared with the results of the same test before the injury.
An athlete returning from injury should be put through a sports-specic tness test. For example, a
netballer returning from an ankle injury would be tested on her ability to sprint and her agility using a variety
282 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Pain-killers
The use of pain-killing drugs is becoming more common in many sports. As the pressures on athletes to return
to performance increase, so too does the use of pain-killing medications.
Using pain-killing drugs to mask the pain of an injury and allow them to play before they are fully t can be
attractive for athletes, and for the sporting clubs who nancially rely on them. However, while an injury is still
painful (even if the pain is partially hidden by the effects of the drugs) it has not fully healed.
As drug technology continues to advance, the use of medications to allow athletes to return to play before full
recovery is an increasingly important medical and ethical issue.
Figure 7.21 Pain-killing drugs are sometimes used to mask the pain of an injury before it is fully healed.
Psychological readiness
The psychological readiness of athletes to return to play can be measured by less formal means, such as
discussing with athletes their readiness and observing their behaviour.
Anxiety can be monitored to ensure athletes do not feel pressure to return to play before they are fully
ready to do so. Such pressure can come from internal or external sources: from their own desire to return to
play or from the expectations of others such as teammates and coaches.
Taping the injured area, if appropriate, can both provide physical support and act as a psychological form
of treatment long after the injury is recovered. Athletes might feel more able to play with the support of the
tape.
Pressure to participate
Determining when an athlete returns to training and competition can be difcult. The decision can have
short-term and long-term health consequences. Athletes who do not allow an appropriate recovery period
after injury place themselves at risk of further complications. Unfortunately, some athletes are tempted to
return to competition before they are ready.
Athletes can feel internal pressure to return to their sport because of:
boredom
a drive for success
a fear of losing their position in the team
a sense of letting down the team.
Amateur athletes can be pushed to return before they are ready because of the expectations of other
players, their family or their coach. Professional athletes can also be put under external pressure from:
nancial considerations (their need to earn an income)
the media
sponsors
spectators.
ACQUIRE
1 Discuss the factors that will determine an athletes readiness to return to play after injury.
2 Outline examples of progressive mobilisation for a basketball player after an ankle injury.
3 Identify the internal and external pressures that an injured athlete may experience when
deciding whether to return to play.
4 Outline measures athletes should use to determine when they are ready to return to play
after an injury.
284 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Monitoring progress
Athletes physical and psychological condition should be monitored when they return to play. This might
involve:
observing the athletes performance
discussing progress with the athlete
conducting ongoing testing (comparing test results pre-injury with current results)
using performance-evaluation techniques.
Athletes will benet from appropriate feedback about their progress.
Visits to medical professionals to monitor the injury are also advisable. Athletes should continue to follow
the advice of coaches and medical staff until their recovery is complete, and their performance has returned to
pre-injury levels. Ongoing therapy is advised until such levels are reached.
Return-to-play policies
Coaches, sports administrators and sports medicine practitioners play an important role in establishing
guidelines for athletes who are managing injuries and deciding when to return and whether to play with injury.
Priority must at all times be given to the welfare of athletes, and decisions should be guided by medical
advice.
Return-to-play policies, procedures and guidelines vary depending on the sport. Decisions about readiness
to play may be determined by a particular sports governing organisation or be left to the discretion of individual
sporting clubs. The nature and severity of the injury may determine who makes return-to-play decisions.
7025 L 1/3
Figure 7.22 Boxing Australia Inc. has policies about athletes who lose consciousness.
286 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
2 Running
4 Full-contact training
Figure 7.23 The Australian Football League
5 Game play has guidelines regarding concussion and players
readiness to return to play.
Source: AFL Medical Officers Association, The Management of Concussion in Australian Football,
Australian Football League, 2008, p. 3
First aid
DRABCD
TOTAPS
STOP
Rehabilitation
Progressive mobilisation
Graduated exercise
Retraining for skills
Heat and cold
Returning to play
Assessing readiness
Monitoring progress
Figure 7.23 Good injury rehabilitation is one step to preventing further injury.
EXTENSION
1 Read Boxing Australias loss of consciousness guidelines on page 286.
a Outline why the guidelines are in place.
b Justify their appropriateness and suitability.
2 Read the summary from the Australian Football Leagues document The Management of
Concussion in Australian Football on page 287.
a Assess how the guidelines will affect player welfare.
b Compare the guidelines to those published by Boxing Australia.
3 Collect return-to-play policies, procedures and guidelines from sporting clubs and
organisations. Compare them, looking at aspects such as timing and the decision-making
process for return to play. Summarise your findings in a table.
4 Should there be a universal return-to-play policy across all sports after a head injury?
Discuss.
5 Discuss who should have ultimate responsibility for deciding when an athlete competes
after injury.
288 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Rehabilitation aims to safely restore full Your brochure should include diagrams and
movement to an injured area and return athletes graphs to represent the statistics you nd.
to the playing eld. 5 Compile a media le of articles about injuries
When deciding whether an athlete can return to sustained by elite athletes. For each injury:
play, the priority should be the athletes welfare a classify it by cause and tissue type
and safety. b outline relevant management procedures.
Physical indicators of readiness to return to play 6 Create a short lm of the management
include being pain free and having full mobility procedure for soft-tissue injuries and hard-issue
restored to the injured area. injuries.
A players physical readiness to return to play can 7 Contrast the management methods used to
be assessed using sport-specic tness testing. treat soft-tissue injuries and hard-tissue injuries.
A player needs to be psychologically ready to 8 Describe the inammatory response and the role
return to play. it plays in injury rehabilitation.
Athletes are sometimes under pressure (both 9 Discuss each step of the TOTAPS procedure and
internal and external) to return play before they the role it plays in assessing a sporting injury.
are physically and psychologically ready to do so. 10 Justify the four rehabilitation procedures
Many sporting teams, clubs and governing commonly used after sporting injuries.
organisations have policies, procedures and 11 Outline what may determine whether a player is
guidelines regarding athletes returning to play psychologically ready to return to play.
after injury. They vary depending on the sport
12 Discuss the possible consequences for an athlete
and the nature and severity of the injury.
who returns to play prematurely.
Preamble Preamble
It is essential that athletes maintain a personal tness prole To adapt and improve, athletes participate in structured
to monitor their progress. training programs. You have recently participated in a training
During long-term training programs, athletes periodically program for a physical activity, during which you were
update their tness prole to guide their training. During required to keep a personal tness prole.
short-term programs, athletes record results before the
program begins and at its conclusion. Learning requirements
During your physical education class, you recently completed To successfully complete this task you will need to:
a series of training sessions in a particular physical activity complete a prescribed six-week training program
and were required to keep a personal tness prole. complete two sets of tness tests: before and after
training
Learning requirements
record test results
To successfully complete this task you will need to:
keep a training journal
complete two sets of tness tests: one before training and
another after
Click for an example of a training journal.
record test results
analyse test relevancethat is, which tests indicate Task
tness attributes that are relevant to the physical activity
In your report, evaluate your training programs effectiveness
at improving your performance. Justify your conclusions by
Click for a data sheet used to record physical referring to journal entries, tness results, training principles
fitness components.
and training methods.
290 \\\\\ Focus area BProcess and effects of training and exercise
Preamble
In sport, different athletes are likely to be more suited to
a particular sport, event or position in a team. You have
just completed a unit in a given physical activity and were
given the opportunity to try the activitys various positions,
disciplines and events.
Learning requirements
To successfully complete this task you will need to:
participate in the various positions, disciplines and events
analyse the energy system contributions to the various
positions, disciplines and events
complete two sets of tness tests: one before training and
another after
record test results
analyse how the components of physical tness relate to
the bodys energy systems.
Task
Evaluate your suitability to your chosen position or event.
Justify your decision by analysing the energy needs of that
position, discipline or event and considering your own
physical strengths and weaknesses. Explain your ndings in a
speech, accompanied by a PowerPoint presentation.
Additional information
Prepare PowerPoint slides to accompany your speech.
Use palm cards when presenting your speech.
PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
IN AUSTRALIAN
SOCIETY
Australians pride themselves on their sporting prowess and success. Most Australians could easily
name ten famous Australian athletes, but struggle to name half that number of Australians who
are acclaimed for humanitarian achievements. Although not all Australians feel passionately about
sport, sport is undeniably linked to the Australian psyche.
The following chapters use Figueroas framework as a tool to investigate how decisions to
participate in sport are affected by socio-cultural inuences such as our history, our values, the
media and the allocation of sports funding.
Focus questions
How has Australias sporting culture developed?
What is the medias role in promoting equality in sport and recreation?
Do all Australians, regardless of race, religion, gender, socioeconomic status or education, have
equal opportunities to participate in and enjoy sport?
Does providing access ensure participation?
Coming up
Figueroas framework: An introduction to sociology page 294
Cultural inuences on equity and sports participation page 306
Structural inuences on equity and sports participation page 332
Institutional inuences on equity and sports participation page 358
Interpersonal and individual inuences on equity and
sports participation page 374
292 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
8
Figueroas
framework:
An introduction
to sociology
This chapter will provide a brief overview outlining the relationship between
sport and society, and introduce Figueroas framework, a sociological tool used to
study the factors that affect equity in and access to sport. Each level of Figueroas
framework is studied in the chapters that follow.
Figure 8.1 Sociologists study sport as it reflects societys behaviour and beliefs.
EXTENSION
Read the article Caged Fury on page 296 and discuss how changes in society have increased
the popularity of this sport.
296 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Zelaznik. At rst people didnt Sol Spitalnic, secretary of Boxing violence is out of step with
realise they were watching a show Victoria. Theres a lot of people reality. Its easy to use words
about UFC. out there who want boxing like barbaric, but these guys
The show was a hit and is banned and this doesnt help. go to extraordinary lengths to
now in its 12th season. UFC and The AMAs Mr Hambleton make sure its safe, said Gus
its spin-offs are broadcast in 36 is among those calling for a Seebeck, program manager at
countries. Last year, the owners ban: People are desensitised to One HD. Its not for everyone
reportedly rejected a takeover violence all over the place. Kids but this sport is growing
offer worth more than a billion are playing graphic video games faster than pretty much any
dollars. and doing violent things to each other. I think there is room for
other and boxing is part of that more product like this in the
But though UFC is growing,
culture. schedule.
there are concerns even among
ght fans. Its not boxing, its just But the sports defenders Source: Karl Quinn,
The Sydney Morning Herald,
a gimmick to make money, said say the perception of extreme 22 February 2010
ACQUIRE
Look up the meaning of the words equity and access in a dictionary. Then, discuss the
following:
1 Why are the concepts of equity and access to sport and other physical activities considered
important?
2 What might be reasonable barriers to equity and access?
298 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Figueroas framework
Many social factors directly or indirectly shape opinions and inuence an individuals decision to participate
in physical activity. These factors change throughout an individuals life. For example, some children start
playing sport because it is fun; others may join a sporting group because their older brother or sister plays
that sport. A new sporting complex may open nearby and provide a chance to try a new sport. Coaching
clinics might inspire some people to give a sport a go. Teachers can provide both positive and negative
sporting experiences. At school, peers can change adolescents attitudes about a sport that was previously
enjoyed. Even students who are talented at a particular sport may quit it because a sporting career is not
realistic or because of the social expectations of their gender. Work commitments, nancial costs and
equipment costssuch factors can have a negative effect on sports participation.
Peter Figueroa, a sociologist, developed a framework to analyse racism within society, particularly to look
at how equity and access to societys resources are affected by a persons race. This framework can also be
applied to other aspects of sociology, including equity and access in sport.
Figueroas framework explored equity and access through ve levels in society:
1 cultural level
2 structural level
3 institutional level
4 interpersonal level
5 individual level.
The levels look at all aspects of society, beginning with the big picture of society and working down to
the individual. They provide a starting point to analyse how Australian society affects Australian sporting
participation.
It is important to remember that sports participation is a complex issue and that each person is affected
differently. The level of Figueroas framework that has the greatest inuence on an individuals sports
participation will vary. A simplistic response might say that only one level has affected an individuals
participation; a deeper analysis will reveal that factors from each of the ve levels have played a role.
Each of the ve levels is summarised briey below. They are all looked at in greater detail in the following
chapters.
Cultural level
History, cultural identity, socialisation, social construction of gender stereotypes, hegemonic masculinity,
ethnic background
Structural level
Policies, funding, media, development programs, marketing, sponsorship
Institutional level
Community, school, facilities, rules, religion
Interpersonal level
Peers, family, teachers, coaches, role models
Individual level
Values, attitudes, personality, genes
Figure 8.4 Figueroas framework can be used to evaluate the influences on sports participation.
A societys history and culture also affect sporting culture in other ways. Cultural factors can inuence
the type of sports that individuals within that society participate in. For example, consider the sports that are
regularly watched or played in Queensland. Are they different from the sports preferred in Western Australia
or somewhere further away, such as Canada? Such differences are the results of different sporting cultures.
300 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
8007 1/3 l
Figure 8.6 The interpersonal level is used to explain how relationships with family, friends and others
influence sports participation.
At the Olympics,
Torah likes to
support and
encourage
other athletes.
(Interpersonal level)
Figure 8.7 Torah Bright hails from a small town in Australia, but she now spends most of her
winters living and training in Salt Lake City.
302 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
304 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
gender
9
Cultural
influences
on equity
and sports
participation
s
BEFORE YOU START CHAPTER OVERVIEW
Have you considered how society has affected your opportunities to participate A brief history of sport
in sport? How has Australias sporting success shaped Australian culture? What in Australia 307
sporting stereotypes exist and how do they affect participation? Is there equality
Australias sporting
between the sexes in the sporting arena? How does sport give identity to groups
identity 313
from different ethnic backgrounds within our society?
Socialisation 313
In this chapter, we will examine how the cultural level of Figueroas framework can
Gender roles and
be used to understand how socialisation has shaped the role of sport in Australia.
stereotypes 314
The idealistic notion that every Australian has the same opportunity to pursue the
Ethnic identity 324
physical activity of their choice is unrealistic because society puts up barriers. These
barriers can be strengthened by cultural attitudes that reinforce existing practices,
limiting equal opportunities. As more people become aware of the barriers that
exist and how they have been created, opportunities can be developed to bring
about change. This chapter will look at a range of factors that have shaped the
opportunities to participate in sport in Australian society.
9002 p 1/2
EXTENSION
Research a variety of sports that were played in Australia during the colonial years. For each
sport you research, identify who the sport was played by (age, gender and social class) and
describe its purpose.
who has never competed for a money prize, staked bet, or declared wager, or who has not
knowingly and without protest competed with or against a professional for a prize of any description
or for public exhibition, or who has never taught, pursued or assisted in the practice of any athletic
exercise as a means of livelihood or for pecuniary [monetary] gain.
308 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Figure 9.2 The working classes were excluded from amateur athletic association competitions.
Working-class athletes did not have the leisure time of the wealthy and were only able to take time off
work if their sport offered a prize or payment. These payments compensated them for the wages lost while
away from their jobs.
The concept of amateurism was developed to protect the middle and upper classes from a working-class
invasion of their leisure activities. Many sporting clubs restricted membership to amateurs to exclude the
working classes from the clubs and games of the upper classes. Those who used their athletic skill for prot,
or as a source of income, were considered unt for membership and undesirable by the pillars of society.
Sport was not seen as an appropriate way to earn a living; it was not a proper job. Excluding professionals
was also believed to guarantee the codes of conduct and playing conventions associated with gentlemanly
behaviour. Amateurism was associated with moral superiority.
For example, in cricket matches, players were labelled gentlemen or players, depending on their social
status. Players were those who had poorer social origins and who used their physical skills to gain a prize;
gentlemen were amateurs who played as a hobby. On tour, the two groups lived in separate accommodation
and entered the eld from separate gates. In England, clubs employed players to bowla task considered to
be manual labourwhereas the gentlemen batted.
It is important to note that loopholes existed so that gentlemen could receive some payment for their
participation but still maintain their amateur status. It is clear, then, that the term amateur was related
more to a persons social status than to a strict interpretation of whether or not the person was paid.
Another method often used to exclude the lower classes was to increase ticket prices for spectators. For
example, the Western Australian Turf Club raised the gate fee during the depression of the 1890s. The leisure
pursuits that called for wealth, time and space became the possession of the upper and middle classes.
Membership of the ruling bodies of clubs or associations (such as the amateur athletics clubs) was also
socially restricted. Without sufcient social standing it was impossible to become a member of a club board.
The social stigma associated with professionalism and sport lingered until late in the twentieth century.
For example, the International Olympics Committee only relaxed its rules barring professional athletes from
competing in the 1970s.
EXTENSION
A puritan sporting ethos claimed that a gentleman played only for the love of the game.
1 Conduct a class debate on the topic Athletes today should play purely for the love of the
game.
2 After your debate, construct a PMI (positives, minuses and interesting points) chart to
summarise your thoughts on the discussion.
310 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
ACQUIRE
1 Outline how participation in sport in the nineteenth century differed for women and men.
2 Compare the opportunities for nineteenth-century women to participate in sport with the
opportunities available to women today.
EXTENSION
1 Do some research to answer the following questions about sport in Australia in the
nineteenth century. Share your findings with the class. Present it in a format that would be
suitable for use as revision or summary notes, such as a mind map or a podcast.
a Identify the sports in which women participated.
b Explain the purpose of physical activity for women.
c Discuss the ways in which sport and physical activity were different for the different
social classes, and different for men and women.
d Identify the strategies used to discourage women from participating in sport.
2 Create a timeline outlining womens participation in the modern Olympic Games.
312 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Socialisation
9007 Has Australians belief that we
are a sporting nation increased
equity and access to sport and
physical activity for all members
of our society? To determine the
effects of our culture on equity
and access, we need to look at
how socialisation builds and
reinforces cultural barriers to
some individuals participating
in sport, while encouraging
participation by others.
Socialisation is the process by
which individual beliefs, opinions
and values are shaped by
society. The factors inuencing
socialisation are known as social
Figure 9.5 Australians love winners and identify with the success of
sporting heroes. determinants and can include
314 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
9009 l 1/3
pls advise
Figure 9.7 Ballet dancers are some of the fittest athletes in the world.
316 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Faggot: a bunch of sticks tied together, but to the typical guy on the oval, obviously a guy who likes guys.
Poofter: same again (but without the sticks).
Gay: once meant to mean happy and carefree, now same as above.
I can keep going. Anyone reading this could add a dozen more terms. It doesnt take intelligence, simply
ignorance. My choice is to let you decide.
My father said to me, You can ght back, Shane, or not. Its your choice. I am not worried that you like to
dance. Once you hit someone though, you cant take it back.
It all turned sour when my mind spoke before logic could save me.
It was a typical sunny daylunch time (to set the scene). I was the target of more than ten boys near B
block. Several boys had pushed me too far and were calling me every homosexual word their small minds
coiuld think of. They were very good rugby league players so I said, I dance with really cute girls. Theres only
one of me and twelve girls, and they all like me! You chase after other guys, with other guys, grabbing at hairy
legs trying to grab a little ball! Whos probably more gay?!
Thats when the ght started.
Unfortunately for everyone, including me, I had no idea of how strong the dance training had made me.
Somehow, I picked up and threw a few guys through a door and hurt a few more. I was very angry and upset,
and anger and adrenaline was certainly fuelling my body. I had never before known how strong I was. Later,
in my dancing career, this strength was a singular skill and ability that helped me to become a principal
dancer and create moves that deed most other professional dancers. Then and there, it only helped me to be
expelled the very next day from high school. Grade ten. No senior certicate.
In retrospect, I wish I could have been smarter and found a way to overcome my anger, avoid the pain I
caused the ve boys I hurt, and be a better person. But that is what happened. As dad had said, You cant take
it back.
From then I worked at a shopping centre, shelving stock. I also worked as a milk boy. I paid my way
through dancing. Then, at fteen, I received a scholarship to the Queensland Dance School. I joined the
Queensland Ballet Company in 1987 as a dancer in training, and by 1991 I was the youngest principal dancer in
Australia. In 1991 I was awarded the Young Queenslander of the Year award in the Arts. I have travelled quite a
lot of the world and done it doing a career that offers only pain, truth and the need to be honest with yourself.
I trained from 7.30 am to 6 pm six days a week, and I loved every moment.
ShaneW eatherby
EXTENSION
1 Read the case study Ballet, me and the world. The events that Shane Weatherby
experienced in high school happened in 1983. Would he receive the same treatment
if he were at school today? Do the stereotypical views about dance and dancers still
exist?
2 Consider Jason Akermaniss advice to gay players in the AFL in 2010 to stay in the closet.
Why did Akermanis make these statements? Should players stay in the closet?
Click for more information on the stay in the closet controversy in AFL.
inside activity? Chapter 9Cultural influences on equity and sports participation ///// 317
Figure 9.8 Some female athletes emphasise Figure 9.9 Female athletes who possess the
their feminine qualities with hair, make-up and skills of power, strength and speed can be seen as
fashionable outfits. unladylike because of gender stereotypes.
Although a stigma is attached to some types of sports participation for men, as men have far more
opportunities to participate in sport without being subjected to stereotyping, studies on this topic focus
primarily on women. Women participating in most sports require aggression, strength and muscular
physiquestraditionally masculine characteristics. Women who play sport and show masculine traits often
have their sexuality questioned; they can be labelled as butch or lesbians. The lesbian stereotype exerts
pressure on athletes to demonstrate their femininity and heterosexuality.
Societys perception of gender norms is that men should be more muscular and powerful and that
women be smaller, weaker and beautiful. The perceived unattractiveness of muscular women can deter
heterosexual female athletes from continuing in some sports and cause them to question their body image.
Some female athletes attempt to display their femininity through the use of make-up, pretty hair, and
uniforms.
Some people may think that men who nd big, muscular women attractive could be gay because
they are attracted to a trait that is typically masculine. To enable men to continue to nd sportswomen
attractive without their manhood being questioned, athletic women will often be portrayed in the media
using photos that show feminine, passive poses, and accompanying stories and captions that reinforce their
femininity.
318 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
4 What cultural beliefs would need to change so that dancing could become a more socially
acceptable sport for men?
5 a What effect does the success of television programs such as So You Think You Can Dance
and Dancing with the Stars have on the cultural stereotyping of dancers?
b How has featuring typically masculine mensuch as professional Australian rules
football and rugby league stars, and televisions home-renovation tradesmenon
Dancing with the Stars changed societys views about men who dance?
6 Are some types of dance more socially acceptable for males? What are they? Justify why.
7 Consider dancing classes you have taken at school.
a Did you:
offer token resistance (that is, pretend a lack of interest while secretly enjoying the
experience)?
think it was a great way to meet and get close to your peers?
hate every minute because you think you cannot dance well?
put up with the single line dancing (such as to Nutbush) because you were on your
own?
enjoy having an activity that was not competitive?
like the idea that dancing allowed more creativity?
b Would your responses have been the same in primary school? If not, what socialisation
processes occurred between primary school and high school?
8 Australian dance will always struggle to enlist male participants based on the dominance
of more rugged sports. Do you agree or disagree with this statement?
Justify your response in 400 words or less, referring to relevant levels of Figueroas
framework.
9 Female dancers are incredibly athletic but are still also seen as incredibly feminine. Why
do they not suffer the social stigma of being called butch or lesbian that some other female
athletes do?
9012 p 1/4
Hegemonic masculinity
Before we discuss hegemonic
masculinity, it is important to
understand the meaning of the terms
hegemonic and hegemony. Simply
put, hegemonic means ruling, and
hegemony means leadership.
Our societyboth inside and outside
the sporting arenahas traditionally
been one of hegemonic masculinity. In
other words, men have held the power
and authority to inuence society and
Figure 9.10 Womens sports, including netball, receive less
set the rules that govern behaviour,
media coverage and less funding than mens sports.
including the behaviour of women.
Stereotypically masculine qualities of competitiveness, courage, determination, power and aggression have
been seen as those to aspire to and necessary to gain respect in our society.
Hegemony is often studied and discussed when discussing how one group maintains its authority over
another; for example, how a ruling class maintains power. The group in power uses a variety of tactics to keep
their authority, including manipulating social attitudes to encourage those without authority that the current
order is the natural and best way.
In our history and culture, gender roles in everyday life have reinforced male power in society. For
example, women were educated differently; they were discouraged from working outside the home and
becoming nancially independent; and until 1896, they were not allowed to vote.
Sport is another area of our society that has been dominated by men. Sport reinforces hegemonic
masculinity by celebrating stereotypically masculine activities and attributes, and restricting the behaviour
of women. Women have been ghting for equality, and we have certainly seen improvements, but the
subordinate role of women in sport continues to be reinforced by practices such as:
giving womens activities less government funding than mens
providing less media coverage for womens sports than for mens
offering less prize money for womens sports than for mens
identifying womens competition by their gender to differentiate them from the mens (for example,
WNBL and NBL)
restricting womens membership of sporting clubs and associations, such as golf clubs.
Hegemonic masculinity has been reinforced at all levels of Figueroas framework. For example, at
the institutional level, individual sporting institutions have set rules and regulations restricting womens
participation. Men maintain control through their positions of power within the organisations that make the
rules. It is common, for example, for the chief executive ofcers of sporting associations to be male.
Today, the most visible tool used to maintain hegemonic masculinity in sport is the media. Media
coverage of sport continues to reinforce gender stereotypes and marginalise women and their sporting
activities. For example, television stations and newspapers have limited coverage of womens sport. Media
coverage targets a mostly male audience. When female athletes are featured, they are treated differently:
they are often sexualised and their achievements are trivialised. Women athletes sometimes feel they need
to resort to sexploitationpromoting their sports through sexy calendars and underwear sponsorshipsto
gain a portion of market share.
320 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
EXTENSION
Read the article Call for Funding Link to Equality on page xx. In small groups, discuss the
following questions.
1 Why are women under-represented in positions of authority in sport and business?
2 How do you think having more women in positions of influence in sporting organisations
would influence womens participation in sport?
NEWS
Call for funding link to equality
Taxpayer funding of national sporting bodies should
be linked to increasing the representation of women
on their boards, according to Elizabeth Broderick, the
Sex Discrimination Commissioner.
Broderick, who will speak at an international
conference on women in sport that starts in Sydney
today, argues the failure of sporting organisations
to have adequate numbers of women at the top
means they miss out on female participation at the
grassroots level because the stereotype of women as
sporting inferiors gets perpetuated.
You cant be what you cant see, Broderick said.
Young women need to be able to see sportswomen
at every level of amateur and elite sportsfrom Figure 9.12 Although only 21 per cent of the board
members of national sporting organisations funded
the best and fairest and most valuable player, right by the Australian Sports Commission are women,
through to sport management and governance. outside of sport the figures are even worsein all
[Sports] bodies are failing to use the expertise and business across Australia, women account for less
than 9 per cent of board directors.
experience of more than half of the population.
She believes the lack of women in the senior little progress has been made over the past decade
levels of sports administration also exacerbates the in advancing gender diversity on sporting boards.
problems that have been seen in the attitudes some
Only two of the 15 members of the executive
sportsmen have towards women.
board of the Australian Olympic Committee are
The four-day event is the fth conference of women despite an IOC recommendation of 1997
the International Working Group on Women and that national Olympic committees achieve a 20 per
Sport, and its chairwoman is Johanna Adriaanse, cent target for womens representation by the end of
who lectures in human movement and sports 2005.
management at Sydneys University of Technology.
Olympic sports receive the vast majority of
Increasing the number of women in sport federal sports funding. Mike Tancred, a spokesman
governance is critical for advancing womens sport for the AOC, said the organisation was acutely aware
because it is at this level that important decisions of the need to increase female representation on
are made for hundreds of thousands of physically its board and on the boards and among the senior
active Australians and those that want to be active, management of its member sports.
Adriaanse says on the conferences website.
At the AOCs executive board meeting last week,
National sports bodies receive signicant president John Coates demanded sports get their act
funding from the public purse, and while women together and get more women in senior positions.
make up more than half of the population they
Broderick also called on the federal government
continue to be underrepresented on sports boards.
to be transparent and show how much sports
Adriaanse says only 21 per cent of the board funding went to males and how much to females.
members of national sporting organisations funded Source: Daniel Lewis, The Sydney Morning Herald,
by the Australian Sports Commission are women, and 20 May 2010
322 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
EXTENSION
1 Do some research into Australias Olympic history. Before you begin your research, use
your general knowledge to guess the answers to the following questions. Then, compare
your guesses with your research.
a List five gold medal winners (individual and team).
b List Australias top five most successful Olympic medal winnersthe individuals and
teams who have won the most medals.
c For each of the following eras, which gender had greater success?
18961936
19481976
1980present
Were you surprised by any of your findings?
2 Which gender has had the greater Olympic success? Why?
Ethnic identity
In earlier sections, we looked at how Australias sporting culture has been strongly inuenced by the
countrys British and colonial heritage. However, Australia is an incredibly multicultural society. Our sporting
culture has been inuenced by Indigenous Australians and by the many migrants that have come to Australia
from all parts of the world.
Click for more information on the influences that different ethnic groups have on Australias
sporting culture.
9016 l 1/3
Figure 9.13
Sport and physical
activity has
always been a
part of Indigenous
Australian culture.
324 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
EXTENSION
Read the article All Stars Instigator Within Sight of Proudest Moment and answer the
following questions.
1 Predict the effects this event will have on young Indigenous Australians and their
involvement in sport.
2 Will sporting events that recognise and embrace a culture increase sporting opportunities
for more people?
NEWS
All Stars instigator within sight of proudest moment
Preston Campbell came up with Thats something I was happy to continued. Youve got Princey,
the All Stars concept in the hope nd out. who knows hes from Mt Isa, but
it would encourage Indigenous Titans teammate Scott Prince hes actually from the same tribe
Australians to learn more about is another learning about his as [former Panther] Sid Domic,
their identity. What he didnt heritage. the designer of our jerseys.
expect was to discover so much It was pretty interesting to
A lot of blokes dont know
about his own. know that. Hes excited about
where they come from, Campbell
Ill be honest and say I
didnt know anything about
my [Aboriginal] background,
9020 l 1/3
Campbell told The Sun-Herald.
Its great to catch up and learn
what tribe youre from, know
what areas your family come
from.
I always thought I came
from the Kamilaroi tribe from
the north-west of NSW. Actually,
the clanthe nation that I come
fromis a big area with tribes
within it. I always thought I
was the Kamilaroi clan but Im
Figure 9.16 Proud ... Preston Campbell believes leading the
actually from the Nucoorilma Indigenous All Stars on Friday will be the high point of a glittering
tribe from within that nation. career.
326 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
knowing a bit more about his The superstars in our team are South Sydneys Beau Champion
background. very highly respected. Youve got and the Titans Greg Bird have
It is appropriate that a few of those players that are been rushed into the squad.
Campbell will captain the Indigenous and it would be hard For Cronulla forward Anthony
Indigenous All Stars in next to take them out of the Australian Tupou, his selection in the NRL
weekends inaugural clash team. team is signicant for other
against the NRL All Stars on the I dont think wed want to reasons. The former NSW and
Gold Coast. The concept was see the people in the Australian Australian back-rower hopes his
Campbells brainchild and, with a team lose some of those selection will be a springboard
bit of help from Gold Coast CEO superstars. back into the representative
Michael Searle, his dream is about The Skilled Park clash is a sell- arena.
to become a reality. out. More than 30 of those seats It makes me feel pretty
Campbell has won a will be taken up by Campbells good after missing out on those
premiership and a Dally M medal extended family. teams last yearit was a bad year
but has no doubt that next This has got some more for me in terms of rep footy, he
weekends xture will be his signicance for myself; Im feeling said.
career highlight. The pint-sized like Im playing for a bit more than When you have something
playmaker is less sure about how two points, he said. Im pretty and you dont have it, you miss it
hell cope with the emotion of much playing for my family so its so much more.
representing his people when he pretty important. Campbell said he was
leads his side onto Skilled Park. There will be all of my condent the All Stars game
Will he shed a tear? immediate family and a few would be a permanent xture in
If I shed a tear, I wont be cousins there. I havent really sat the calendar.
angry at myself, Campbell down to take it all in and its only People are excited about this.
said. I wont think any less of a week away. Weve had the cricket, the tennis,
myself. I wont think less of my This is the rst time anything all the sports, but people are
teammates. like this has ever happened. Its itching to watch football now. This
If they shed a tear, its good. coming around so quick, I dont being the rst game of the rugby
It just shows its from the heart know what to think or feel. I just league calendar, being televised,
that they are passionate about know Im excited. its great, he said.
playing for their people. The match has created Its going to hang around for
Some of Campbells All unprecedented interest from a while hopefully. If youve got
Stars teammates have called footy fans, who helped to the calibre of players in this game
for an Indigenous side to be assemble the NRL All Stars side. available for every game, youll
represented at the next World The game will also double as the get plenty of interest.
Cup. However, Campbell didnt farewell for cult hero Wendell
Asked for his nal words
want the likes of Greg Inglis, Sailor, while NRL All Stars coach
before the game, the 32-year-old
Johnathan Thurston and Sam Wayne Bennett has agreed to be
replied: I havent really thought
Thaiday to be torn between wired for sound.
about it. I just hope they really
representing their country and The Indigenous sides enjoy themselves.
their people. preparations were disrupted by
It would be great but I dont the loss of Golden Boot holder
Source: Adrian Proszenko, The Sydney
see it happening, Campbell said. Inglis (injured hip) on Friday. Morning Herald, 7 February 2010
Multicultural
influences
Almost one-quarter of
Australians were born overseas,
and more than 40 per cent of
Australians have at least one
parent who was born overseas.
Approximately 16 per cent of
Australians speak a language
other than English at home.
Sport and physical activity
can be an extremely effective
vehicle to break down cultural
barriers and strengthen
community multiculturalism.
Physical activity can provide
an excellent way for new
migrants to build friendships and
assimilate more easily into new
communities.
Cultural groups within the
Figure 9.17 Sport and physical activity can be an effective way to
break down cultural barriers. community organise activities
that enable people to meet other
members of their culture. They also provide people with the opportunity to participate in activities that
are traditional or popular in their country of origin. Examples of such activities are cultural dance (such as
amenco), bocce, table tennis and badminton.
Migrants have introduced activities such as tai chi and yoga that have helped Australians gain an insight
into other cultures. They have also contributed signicantly to the prole of sports such as diving and
gymnastics. Sporting success by people of a particular ethnic background can foster pride in that ethnic
community and culture.
Australians from different cultural backgrounds choose to participate in different sports and have
different attitudes and beliefs about sports and physical activities. Cultural stereotypes based on ethnic
background can either promote participation in particular sports and physical activities or reinforce barriers
that prevent participation.
328 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
APPLY AND
EVALUATE
1 Suggest reasons why
soccer has the highest
participation rates for
boys aged 514 years.
2 Why, when so many
young people play soccer,
is it not a dominant
professional sport in
Australia?
a List (in order of
importance) social
and cultural factors
that explain why
soccer does not have
the audience and
fan support of other
sports.
b Link each factor listed
to its appropriate
level in Figueroas
framework. Which
level has created the
dominant barrier(s)?
Why? Figure 9.19 Soccar is a very popular sport with young people.
Table 9.1Number and percentage of people aged 514 years and main sportsparticipated in by sex
Males Females
Main sports participated in Number % Number %
Swimming 240 100 17.20 262 800 19.8
Football (outdoor soccer) 277 800 19.90 82 700 6.2
Netball 3500 .03 225 0 00 17.0
Australian rules football 223 700 16.00 11 400 .9
Tennis 131 600 8.00 83 200 6.3
Basketball 118 700 7.40 83 200 6.3
Gymnastics 23 700 1.70 101 200 7.6
Rugby l eague 97 200 7.00
Athletics (track and field) 42 400 3.00 47 000 3.5
Futsal (indoor soccer) 59 400 4.30 17 500 1.3
Hockey 25 600 1.80 31 800 2.4
Other 221 200 15.80 160 900 12.1
330 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
178%
10
Structural
influences on
equity and sports
participation
EXTENSION
Movies are a form of media that have the ability to influence our opinions. Study a film about
the struggles of an athlete or sporting team (such as Remember the Titans, Million Dollar Baby
or Bend it Like Beckham) and answer the following questions.
1 What issues of equity and access are addressed in the movie?
2 Which levels from Figueroas framework created the barriers that the athletes portrayed in
the film had to overcome?
3 Did the film suggest any solutions to the barriers?
Glamour Ana
as the warriors, the broncos and the titans all
relate to highly valued masculine attributes and are
10003 ts p 1/3
unlikely to be used to describe female athleticism.
Sexy Ivanovic
Chapter 9 discussed how Australias success
in sport has been important in building national
pride, and gaining international recognition and
charms Sydney status. This train of thought has survived the past
century and can still be seen today. As women
Water babes
were latecomers to competitive and representative
sport, most of the early successes were mens. As
a result, the success of our female athletes today is
Courting battle
often considered to be a bonus on top of the mens
achievements.
of the babes
The media perpetuates the idea that womens
sports are not the main event. An example of this
can be seen in the reporting of swimming during
Champions put emphasis the 2004 Athens and 2008 Beijing Olympics. These
events should have cemented Australias female
on clothing swim team as a superpower in the pool; instead,
their achievements were devalued when the media
Sartorial stunners continued to focus on the mens performance. The
womens success was initially celebrated in both
Figure 10.3 Newspaper headlines focus on female
print and electronic media, but this well-deserved
tennis and water polo players appearance.
coverage was short-lived. The focus soon turned to
Click for the full text of these articles. the deemed failure of the mens swim team who,
in comparison, achieved a limited medal haul. The
perceived failure of the men was more newsworthy
334 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Click for the full text of these articles. Figure 10.4 The language used to describe mens
sports often focuses on warlike qualities.
10006 l 1/3
Figure 10.5 Male athletes are often portrayed, and spoken of, in warrior terms.
Figure 10.6 The media spends considerably more effort and time covering mens sport than womens.
336 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Sport as a business
Since its conception in ancient times,
sport has been used as a tool by people
to acquire prestige and prot. In recent
times, mass media has elevated sport
into big business. For example, the
ownership of teams and the rights to
televise sporting events are now bought
and sold for vast sums of money. High-
prole athletes and teams have huge
support crews that include managers,
sponsors and marketing advisors.
As sport has increasingly become a
business, we have seen the prole and
salaries of some sports stars skyrocket,
and spectator (customer) expectations
become increasingly sophisticated.
We have also seen rapid changes and
developments in technologyboth in
sports research and in how the media
is able to broadcast and communicate
sport.
The commodification of
sport
A commodity is anything that can be
bought or sold. The process of turning
something, such as sport, into something
that has commercial value is known as
commodication. The commodication
of sport can be described as the process
of developing sport into a marketable
business
Figure 10.7 Sport today is big business.
Changing sport into a commodity has seen the formation of companies that manage large sporting
competitions, such as the NRL and AFL. Individual sporting teams within such competitions are also big
businesses.
The commodication of sport has also caused some sports to change so that they better suit the needs of
business. Today, sport is both big business and a form of entertainment. As a form of entertainment, sports
can be changed to become more appealing to larger numbers of fans. More fans means more prots for the
businessfrom increased sales of tickets, sporting merchandise and television rights, and from an improved
ability to attract sponsors.
How many items of sporting merchandise do you own?
338 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
ACQUIRE
1 a Define the word commodity.
b Give an example of how sport has become a commodity.
2 Outline who benefits from sport being represented in the media.
3 Describe the economic considerations that are associated with media coverage and
sport.
340 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
players to be available for past two or three decades and I national team that is a driving
selection for their teams, think Twenty20 is doing that again force for our business, but there
Sutherland told The Australian. and we make no secret of the fact is also real potential to have a
I think the Big Bash is that we want cricket to be more major and signicant domestic
going to genuinely ask us the popular. People are increasingly cricket league provided the
question about when and how time poor and Twenty20 is a entertainment proposition is valid
we do create clear oxygen for vehicle to bring people to the and works for the public and all
Twenty20 cricket. It is going to game and arguably the other the signs are that Twenty20 is that
be a successful tournament, but forms of the game are going to and something that we want to
for it to go to another level it struggle to do that, Twenty20 is a roll out over the next three or four
may need that extra little bit that great introduction to the game. years.
comes with not competing with Sutherland also believes Twenty20 is becoming
international cricket and also Twenty20 will create a revenue the highest priority for state
having the best Australian players stream from a league-type organisations with NSW and
available. competition which has been Victoria both scooping big prizes
Sutherland believes Twenty20 denied cricket in the past. from the Champions League
can bring new fans to the game in One of the things that competition. The nalists from the
the way one-day cricket once did. differentiates us from other sports 200910 Big Bash are eligible to
is that we dont have a league compete for $US12m ($13.3m) in
What we have always said
concept that generates revenue the next Champions League and
about Twenty20 is we see it as a
in any regular way, he said. In the prospect has seen domestic
way to bring new people to the
an Australian context thats what teams shopping for big-name
game, he said.
drives AFL and other sports. stars.
One-day cricket has done that
in the past, it has broadened the We have got a distinct Source: Peter Lalor, The Australian,
spectrum of cricket fans over the advantage of having a high-prole 1 January 2010
Sports marketing
The way in which a commodity is soldthe process and the methods usedis known as marketing.
Marketing also refers to the activities that businesses undertake to increase awareness of their product in the
marketplace.
Marketing techniques are used to inuence individuals decisions about which sports to support and
watch as spectators, and which to participate in. Often the two are closely linked.
However, there are differences between the ways professional sports are marketed and the marketing
that occurs at school and grassroots levels.
Merchandising
Sports merchandise, such as team jerseys and calendars,
help professional sports in two ways. The sale of such items
brings in additional income. Also, such merchandise acts as an
advertising tool. For example, when people see a professional
teams jersey worn by a fan, it shows that the team has
supporters and increases the teams public prole.
Media exposure
Figure 10.9 Sports merchandise helps When television and print journalists report on sport, this is one
teams income and advertising.
form of media exposure providing audiences with sports results
and commentary. Each time the media reports on a game, community awareness grows and the sports
marketability improves. Popular sporting events that are most likely to be televised and given wide coverage
in other media include:
nals matches, such as the AFL and NRL grand nals
big racing meetings, such as the Melbourne Cup
international competitions, such as the Australian Open Tennis and the Olympic Games.
The media can also determine which sports are popularised. By devoting spacein the form of headlines,
photographs, articles and airtimeto a lower-prole sport, the media have the ability to change the publics
view of the sport and to increase its popularity.
Product changes
As discussed earlier, changes to the rules and processes of sport have signicantly affected sports marketing
in Australia. In many sports, play has been compartmentalised to meet the needs of television commercial
breaks. For example, an umpire in AFL waits for a ashing light signal before bouncing the ball after a goal,
indicating that the television channel covering the game has completed its run of advertisements. Changing
the time of games to the evening (such as when the NRL moved its grand nal) so that they are played under
lights allows greater exposure to a wider range of viewers at prime viewing time, which assists in securing
corporate product endorsement.
342 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Sponsorship
Linked closely to marketing is the notion of sponsorship. Sponsorship in sport is usually provided by
businesses, which provide athletes or teams with funds, resources or services. Sponsorship might be in the
form of nancial payments, uniforms, equipment, scholarships or competition fees. For example, Adidas
sponsored the casual attire of the 2008 Australian Olympic team.
The business providing the sponsorship benets too; in exchange for its support, its name is positively
associated with the athlete or team. For the corporate sector, sponsorship aims to generate further business
as the athletes or sporting clubs endorse the businesses products.
The association between the sponsor company and the athlete or team is demonstrated by displaying
logos and signs at venues, and through media advertising.
This corporate marketing strategy is sometimes linked with community programs, such as the NAB
AFL Auskick program for junior Australian rules football players. The program gets much-needed funds to
encourage children to take up Australian rules football, and the NAB gets good publicity as it is seen to be
helping children.
The allocation of sponsorship is closely linked to the amount of exposure that sports receive through
marketing and media coverage. The prime objective of companies who sponsor sports and athletes is to
market their own product. This can only be effectively achieved if the public have opportunities to view the
sponsors product. If the media does not give a sport or athlete exposure, sponsors are less likely to invest
money in the sport or athlete. As a result, it is common for athletes and sports to use crowd-pleasing tactics
in an effort to improve their public popularity; this in turn increases their media exposure and provides more
incentive for sponsors to invest in them.
Have you ever witnessed a sports star engage in on- or off-field antics that have gained them notoriety?
344 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
ACQUIRE
1 Provide two examples of sports marketing techniques.
2 Define sponsorship.
346 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
EXTENSION
1 Read the article The Undeniable Marketability of Torah Bright below and discuss the
effects that her success might have on sponsorship for snowboarding and snowboarders.
2 Predict how effectiveTorah Bright would be as a role model to increase female participation
in sport.
NEWS
The undeniable marketability of Torah Bright
As soon as Torah Bright claimed the womens wholesome values which companies look for when
halfpipe in Vancouver on Thursday, it was clear to endorsing a client. She is a member of the Church of
see that her prole was sure to rise. The 23-year-old Latter-day Saints, and although she enjoys to party
Australian literally has the world at her feet. from time to time, holds this very close to her heart.
Torah is far from a household name in Australia, With Torah, you know you are getting a level-headed,
with many winter athletes failing to attract any focused athlete who strives for success and wont get
exposure unless they bring home a gold. Aussie caught up in the hype.
gold medallists Steven Bradbury and Alisa Camplin Despite enjoying success in the past, including
have carved out nice careers in the media, but never an X Games gold medal, Torah is listed as only
garnered the raft of endorsements they deserved. having a few sponsors. Roxy is her biggest sponsor,
However, Torah is different, as her appeal spans which includes her own range of snowboards. Her
globally because snowboarding is the hottest winter other sponsors include the Solomon Group, which
sport going around. manufactures snowboard-related equipment and
With the popularity of snowboarding comes Boost Mobile. With minimal industries covered, this
the money. Take gold medallist Shaun The Flying leaves a lot of room for opportunity.
Tomato White, for example, who pulls in around So how does one tackle an opportunity like this?
$9 million a year from a wide variety of sponsors. Firstly, her website needs a massive overhaul.
So what is it about Torah that makes her a Many areas of the site have not been updated in
marketers dream? Firstly, shes gorgeous and a while, and with Torah Bright being Googled by
photogenic, which means her face on any product everyone during the games, her website needs
is going to attract attention. Secondly, she has to entice fans. The website doesnt list all of her
sponsors, and with new media providing a wealth her own range of video games, including in the
of opportunities, this is an outlet that cant go increasingly growing mobile market.
unnoticed. Another area to look at is the electronics sector,
Continuing with new media, Torah Bright may do and I wouldnt be surprised if Hewlett-Packard try
well to set up a Twitter account. Being as personable to snap her up as they already have Shaun White on
and likable as she is, this outlet will provide an their roster. Having the two best snowboarders with
avenue to interact with her fans and develop a strong one company can provide them with a wealth of
fan base. exposure.
She has many industries from which she can Torahs snowboarding apparel and related
garner endorsements, in particular the food and sponsorships are covered, so the only opportunities
beverage sector. Torah currently has a deal with I can think of would include instructional DVDs,
health food drink Fuze, so a new beverage deal snowboarding movies, public appearances, interview
may be against her current contract. In regards columns and other media-related items.
to food, Torah could strike a deal with a health/ Armed with a knockout smile, Torahs other
protein bar company or other foods associated opportunities may include cosmetics and non-
with performance. Alternatively, if desired, she sporting fashion, such as watches or jewellery.
may choose to go down the route of companies
There is no doubt that her agent will be inundated
associated with extreme sports, such as fast-food
with phone calls and offers over the next few weeks,
companies like Pizza Hut, Doritos, etc.
so expect to see this gorgeous blonde from Australia
Torah has previously appeared in the Amped the next time you open a magazine.
range of video games, but may choose to release
Source: Chris Lesley, Sports Agent Blog
10016 l 1/3
348 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Click for interviews with beach volleyball playersboth male and femaleregarding
sexploitation.
350 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
10022
Figure 10.15 Male athletes, such as Mitchell Johnson (shown in these two photos), may also be subject to sexploitation.
ACQUIRE
1 Define sexploitation.
2 Sexploitation is linked to which level(s) of Figueroas framework?
3 What are some examples of sexploitation in sport today?
4 What are some of the consequences of intentionally sexualising athletes to increase media
coverage?
Government
funding
anddevelopment
programs
Sport is highly valued in Australian
society. This is reected in the high
esteem with which Australians view
their sporting heroes, as well as in the
amount of media coverage, sponsorship
investment, and federal and state
10025 s 1/4 government funding sport receives.
Sports ability to raise Australias
international prole results in
governments building infrastructure
to support sports development and
supporting Australias bid to host major
events such as the Commonwealth and
Olympic Games.
Government funding and
development programs for sport in
Australia are initiatives that began in
the 1970s. Before this, athletes were
generally expected to fund their own
Figure 10.16 The 2000 Olympics were declared the best games
participation in international contests,
ever by IOC President Juan Antonio Samaranch. This statement
boosted national pride. and to develop their own talent. This
practice stemmed largely from the
British ideal of amateur sport. Sport was a pastime and, like any other hobby or pastime, people covered
their own costs to participate. The rewards of competitive sport were not nancialpeople played for the
enjoyment and for the glory if they won. Clubs were responsible for nancing their teammates, based on the
principle of esprit de corps (group morale).
In 1914 the Australian Olympic Committee (Federation) was founded; its primary role was to raise
funds for future Olympic Games. Hosting the 1956 Melbourne Olympics then spurred the federal and state
governments to assist in supporting the infrastructure required for an international competition.
In 1972, with the election of the Whitlam Labor Government, various initiatives were undertaken to
increase Australian involvement in sport. These measures included promoting community tness, providing
nancial assistance to national sports associations and improving sporting facilities. Local governments
supported the establishment of swimming centres, parks and playing elds in their communities.
Australias failure to win a gold medal at the 1976 Montreal Olympics was attributed to the fact that
many other nations had increased funding for sports training and had developed talent-identication
programs. Because of this perceived failure of Australian athletes and the tarnishing of our international
sporting image, the government felt compelled to act. It believed it could not risk athletes and coaches
moving overseas where there were superior facilities and support. As a result, the Australian Institute of
Sport was established in 1980 in Canberra to raise the standard of Australias elite athletes.
352 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
EXTENSION
Can the establishment of the Australian
Institute of Sport be considered a success?
Discuss whether the amount of money
poured into elite sport can be justified
based on Olympic and international results.
Has this success improved Australias
international status as a sporting nation?
Because of the rising incidence of obesity among young Australians and declining sports participation
rates, many people would agree that redistributing funding to sports resources that benet more Australians
is common sense. The panel suggested that an additional $250 million of government funds be allocated to
community infrastructure investment, on top of the $1.02 billion already committed. The redistribution of
funds would allow greater opportunities to access sporting facilities and sports development programs.
However, most government funding goes to building and maintaining sports facilities. Will simply
providing more sporting facilities increase physical activity participation rates? Even when equal access to
sporting facilities is provided, many people choose not to use the facilites.
The panel of people who prepared the report also recommended that the Australian Sports Federations
administration of the funding and application process be simplied so that more sporting clubs and groups
could apply for fundingnot only large sports organisations that had the resources to prepare complicated
submissions.
In addition to infrastructure projects, many federal and state programs help individuals and sporting
associations access available funds. Examples of these are:
Young Athletes Assistance Program
Club Development Program
Local Sport and Development Program
354 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Figure 10.18 The Auskick program has been successful in encouraging children to play Australian rules football.
Click to read Lleyton Hewitts blog about the controversial allocation of funds to elite tennis
instead of to the grassroots.
EXTENSION
1 What was the aim of the 2009 report The Future of Sport in Australia (The Crawford Report)?
2 What recommendations did the reports authors make to increase access and opportunities
to participate in physical activity?
356 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
11
Institutional
influences on
equity and sports
participation
11003 l 1/4
Community and
school sport
Many people consider
participating in sport a wonderful
way to have fun and to develop
the positive qualities associated
with sports participation, such
as self-condence, discipline and
team spirit. Another commonly
expressed benet of sport is
that it keeps the kids off the
streets! The Australian Bureau of
Statistics found that in 200506
almost one in three people aged
15 years or older participated in
sport or physical activity at least Figure 11.1 Sporting clubs can become like second families to their
members.
twice per week.
Two types of institutions that offer sporting opportunities are community sporting groups and clubs, and
educational institutions including schools, colleges and universities.
Sport in schools
In Australia, schools play a signicant role in young peoples lives. During their time at school, students
acquire the knowledge and thinking skills needed for the adult world. Schools are also a powerful socialising
agent. Possibly the most important skills developed while at school are social and personal skills that prepare
young people to become active members of the community.
Physical activity is seen as another essential skill. Needed for good health and wellbeing, it improves
students academic performance, supports their personal development and promotes a lifelong active
lifestyle. For these reasons, in schools across Australia sport and physical education are taught alongside
other skills such as English, maths and science.
The government values the benets of sport and physical activity. The Queensland Government made
it compulsory for all junior high school students (Years 8 and 9) to participate in two hours of moderate
physical activity each week. Primary school students should participate in at least 30 minutes of moderate
physical activity each day during class time. The government also developed a program called Smart Moves,
which aims to improve childrens health and reduce obesity by one-third.
For many Australians, school sports and physical education classes in primary school are their rst
introduction to organised sport and physical activity. Many adults attitudes to sport and physical education
are heavily inuenced by the experiences they had while at school. The types of sports that they are
introduced to and the sporting culture of their school can have a long-term inuence on their attitudes and
beliefs about sport and physical activity, and on their participation.
360 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
School facilities
Schools offer a wonderful opportunity for students to try a wide range of sports. The sports available to
students at each school depend on the schools sporting facilitiesits playing grounds, gymnasiums and
equipmentand its staff.
Schools allocate funds to purchase sporting equipment and ensure their curriculum has sufcient time
for physical activity. The development of sporting facilities is determined by each school. Some schools are
fortunate to have a wide range of facilities, which can provide greater exibility in their sports programs and,
therefore, allow them to promote
more sports. Some schools even
have specialised facilities such
11007 s 1/4
as indoor rock-climbing walls,
fully equipped gymnasiums and
indoor swimming pools.
Many schools also use
community facilities to increase
students access to a wider
range of sports facilities. This
can increase the number of
sports from which students can
choose, but it can also mean
that some of the costs of using
community facilities must be
met by the students and their
families. On the other hand,
many community organisations
are only able to run competitions
because they have access to
school facilities.
If money was available, what
sporting facilities would you
Figure 11.3 Good sporting facilities at schools provide students with like to see developed in your
opportunities to participate in a wide variety of sports.
school?
362 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
School traditions
The famous opening scene from the 1981 British lm Chariots of Fire shows students of Trinity College,
Cambridge, competing in the traditional Trinity Great Court Run where students have to complete the 341
metre run around the courtyard before the clock strikes twelve (approximately 43 seconds). Events such as
these are a part of some schools sporting traditions.
The University of Queensland has its own version of this event, the Great Court Race, where students
race around the sandstone cloisters of the universitys great court. The race over 636 metres was established
in 1984 and continues to attract many competitors vying for their place in the universitys record books.
Not all institutions have a great court to send athletes charging around, but many are steeped in sporting
traditions. For some Australian schools, their sporting traditions date back to their origins in the late
nineteenth century.
In Victoria, the Head of the River Regatta is an interschool rowing regatta that has taken place every year
since 1868. In Brisbane, the Head of the River Regatta is a similar, ercely competitive event that began in
1918. Schools are very proud of being founding members of such longstanding and prestigious competitions.
When their teams win at local, state, national or international competitions, the culture of excellence and
success is further entrenched.
11008 l 1/3
Figure 11.4 The Great Court Run is a sporting tradition of Trinity College.
Figure 11.5 Doing well at interschool sports competitions fosters school pride.
For many schools, sport plays a large role in developing and sustaining the schools culture and pride.
Schools that have a successful sporting history often promote their sporting achievements to future students
and their parents, as well as to current and former students. Schools use their websites to advertise their
successful sporting history. A culture of winning and competing at the highest level is extremely marketable
and increases the schools prestige in the community.
Individual students within schools can also gain prestige by being a member of the rst team. Students
from many schools have their sporting representative honours embroidered on their school blazers. The
honour associated with being part of such teams and sporting traditions can encourage students to take up
these sports and try out for the teams.
However, equal recognition of all sports within a school is rare. Individual students can become frustrated
by a school culture that promotes some sports at the expense of others. Students who play the marginal
sports can often feel ostracised and resent that the students who play the dominant sports receive special
treatment. Resentment about the perception of unequal treatment and recognition can lead participation
numbers in marginal sports to decrease. Marginal school sports will remain marginal, while the dominant
sports obtain all the recognition and promotion.
Even so, school cultures can change and once marginal sports can become dominant. One way for this to
occur can be through the efforts of teachers to promote a sport. A school with one teacher who is passionate
about a particular sport can create a culture of success for that sport. Two teachers with the same drive can
create more support. Teachers can raise the sports prole in the school by developing a squad of players
and creating opportunities to participate. Some initial success is achieved, and this creates more motivation
for everyone to become involved. From here, the sports credibility gains momentum and it can become a
signicant part of the school.
A correlation often exists between the size of a schools student population and available sporting
opportunities. More students results in a need for more teachers. A greater number of teachers with passions
for different sports broadens opportunities for student participation.
List the sports in which your school is known for its sporting excellence. What effect has the schools
success in these sports had on your participation?
364 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
EXTENSION
1 Develop a web page or
brochure that your school
could use to outline the
tradition behind your
physical activity. Include
historical background
to show how this sport
is developing a tradition
of success, and list your
schools achievements
and past students and
their representative
honours.
11017
OR
Develop a proposal
Figure 11.7 Being part of a successful school team can give a sense
explaining how your of school spirit and pride.
physical education
department could increase the profile of your physical activity. In your proposal, examine
the factors that would be needed to generate success, such as staff, facilities and other
equipment, resources and competition structures.
2 Read the following articles about rugby union and the value of sport within the great public
schools (GPS).
a Discuss reasons that could explain the emotional ties that link past students to their
schools sport.
b Is the implementation of weight divisions a realistic solution? Explain your response.
c To ensure an equitable competition, many codes have rules that limit the number of
international players, or financial limits in the form of salary caps. Should measures
such as these be introduced to school sport? Discuss.
Click for more information about this debate regarding rugby union in the GPS.
366 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
I have a friend who was a sports star at Sydney I have another friend who played in the First XV
Grammar in the 1970s, as was his father and at a Brisbane GPS school. So did his father-in-law. He
grandfather before him. In the 1980s the headmaster had two sons at the school who played in A teams
of Sydney Grammar announced his school would not right through to their nal year, when they were
be a party to the arms race GPS sport had become. relegated to the seconds to make way for scholarship
It would lose with honour and, if necessary, forfeit winners from the Pacic Islands.
First XV matches against opposition considered too They could have been in the Firsts like their father
strong. and grandfather, he said. I asked them if they were
My friend, announcing: Im not going to spend disappointed and they said it didnt matter, but I
the next 12 years of my life watching my team get think it did. If not now, then later on when they cant
thrashed, sent his three sons to The Kings School. say they were in the Firsts.
So when a GPS headmaster receives irate calls And his feelings?
from old boys demanding a better First XV, he Well, I guess it just teaches them that life isnt fair.
listens. There will be times when someone gets the job they
Especially when they say theyll pay for it. should have because theyre related to the boss or
And if that means some hardworking but less someone will get a promotion they dont deserve
talented players stepping aside for the greater good because they suck up. Its a tough world out there.
of the school, so be it. Source: Mike Colman, The Courier-Mail, 11 April 2010
NEWS
GPS rugby may introduce weight divisions for
school matches
Queenslands Great Public Schools may introduce Mr Hain said he had held talks with the
weight divisions to help rid rugby union of the ARU, Queensland Rugby and his fellow school
mismatches threatening player safety. directors of sport and rugby about a weight-scaling
The Australian Rugby Union and the schools have policy.
discussed introducing a system whereby players New Zealand junior rugby enforces such a
would be graded by weight rather than age. regimen.
Students born in the same year would have to But I dont think the GPS is prepared to go out
meet a set weight classallowing for uctuations of and do this on its own at the moment, Mr Hain said.
about 20 kgto compete against each other. Were looking at it. Its a work in progress.
Players either side of the threshold would climb Parents concerned for their sons welfare have
or drop a grade. ooded The Courier-Mail with telephone calls and
So, for example, you could have a bracket emails in response to the newspapers investigation
between 50 kg and 70 kg and anyone thats right off into sports scholarships.
the scale, plays up, said Bryan Hain, chair of the GPS The series kicked off on Monday with a warning
Association Rugby Sub-Committee. by St Josephs College Gregory Terrace headmaster
What happens if you have a really big 93 kg boy Peter Chapman that he would withdraw his teams
under 14, and your average weight is 70 kg? I worry from rugby games in the event of any gross
about safety. mismatches of size and strength.
And Arthur Palmer, vice-chair of the Combined I think once you go beyond that, I can see where
GPS Old Boys, predicted a death on the paddock if the unfairness comes in, said the now NSW Junior
a brake was not applied to the sporting arms race of Waratah.
schoolboy football. Especially for kids that have been in the school
During the week, The Courier-Mail revealed how since Year 8, and then come Years 11 and 12, their
several GPS schools were spending millions of dollars positions get taken by scholarship-holders.
on importing the strongest and most skilful rugby Kiwi Nick Seymour, 20, a controversial Brisbane
players to effectively buy premierships. Grammar School sports scholar who has since been
Most readers were disgusted at how the elite contracted to the Waikato Rugby Union, said a First
schools core business of education, and principles of XV import quota applied in New Zealand schools.
sportsmanship, fair play and social justice had been He said they were restricted to two overseas and
forsaken in pursuit of corporate image and marketing two domestic recruits every two years. But he said
power. the rules were useless if not strictly policed with
Sports scholarships are banned in Sydney GPS appropriate penalties.
schools. New Zealand schools bring in players from
Ironically, two former Brisbane sports scholarship Tonga, Samoa, Fiji, the Cook Islands, Seymour said.
stars believe an import capping regime is long But if they breach their quotas, the players
overdue. theyve brought in have to stand down for a certain
Eddie Bredenhann, 19, an Australian Schoolboys number of weeks.
scrumhalf who played for Churchies First XV in If they dont, the team will lose competition
200708, called for a limit of three scholarship- points.
holders per First XV.
Source: Matthew Fynes-Clinton, The Courier-Mail,
16 April 2010
11012 l 1/3
Figure 11.8 Schoolboy football has become a sporting arms race among Queenslands great public schools.
368 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Netball
Tennis
Basketball
Gymnastics
Rugby league
Aerobics / tness
graph 11014
Bushwalking
Cycling
Golf
Netball
Tennis
Running
Figure 11.11
Football (outdoor soccer) Females Participation
Males by people over
Swimming the age of 15
top ten sports
Walking and physical
recreation
0 10 20 30 40 activities by
% gender.
Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009
370 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Religious institutions
Religious organisations are another form of
institution that should be studied as part of the
institutional level of Figueroas framework. Closely
linked to the cultural level of Figueroas framework,
peoples religious beliefs are interconnected with
their values and cultural identity.
Australia is a multicultural society that contains
many different cultures, values and expectations. To
provide equal access and opportunities to physical
Figure 11.13 It is essential that people of all faiths activity to all members of our society, institutions
have access and opportunities to participate in such as schools need to improve their understanding
physical activity. of different religious and cultural requirements.
Although no religion discourages physical activity, religious beliefs can be seen as barriers to sports
participation. Certain religious beliefs can limit when followers can participate and the types of activity that
they can participate in.
Many religions, including Christianity, Judaism and Islam, observe a sabbath or holy day once a week,
during which believers are expected to rest from work and concentrate on their faith. For each religious
group, the day of prayer is differentJews observe it from Friday evening until Saturday night; Muslims
observe it on Fridays; and most Christian faiths observe it on Sunday. Strict followers of these faiths might
not be able to attend a sporting match on these days as they are expected to be praying or taking part in
other traditions of their faith.
Apart from regular days of worship, all faiths and cultures celebrate special holidays each year, such as
Christmas, Chinese New Year and Hanukah. Easter is celebrated at different times by different Christian
faiths. Scheduling sports competitions to clash with dates such as these could prevent some athletes from
participating.
Muslim people all over the world participate in Ramadan. Ramadan is a period of thirty days when
Muslims neither eat nor drink between dawn and dusk. The timing of Ramadan changes each year, moving
forward about ten days. Because they cannot drink, not even water, this period can be physically stressful to
Muslims when participating in sport, especially when Ramadan occurs during the heat of summer.
Other religious restrictions can also affect the types of activities that people choose to participate in.
Some religions, including some Christian faiths, ban dancing and music, or place restrictions on the types
of dance and music that are permitted. The two major barriers that prevent some Muslim females from
participating in sport are clothing and the inappropriateness of participating in mixed-gender sports.
Sporting groups and clubs can also act in other ways that inadvertently discourage people from certain
religions from joining. For example, holding a fundraising sausage sizzle that included pork sausages or served
alcohol would also go against some religious beliefs.
Knowledge and understanding of religious beliefs and exible school and club attitudes can ensure
children and adults of all faiths and cultures can have positive experiences in sport.
372 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
11: SUMMARY
Many Australians participate in sports and NOW THAT YOU HAVE FINISHED ...
physical recreation activities that are organised
1 a Outline how schools provide opportunities
by a club, association or other organisation.
for participation in physical activity.
Community sporting groups, often working with
b Referring to relevant levels of Figueroas
local government, provide sports facilities and
framework, explain why different schools
programs that cater for the local community.
will provide different sport and physical
The type of facilities available in a community activity opportunities.
can have a signicant effect on local peoples
2 a Explain how school traditions can cause
opportunities to participate in particular sports.
some sports to become dominant at the
The sports available to students at each school expense of others.
depend on the schools sporting facilitiesits
b What strategies can schools put in place to
playing grounds, gymnasiums and equipment
provide more equitable recognition of all
and its staff.
sports?
For many Australians, school sports and physical
c Do you believe that schools should have to
education classes in primary school are their
recognise all sports equally?
rst introduction to organised sport and physical
activity. The experience of school sport can 3 Referring to Figures 11.10 and 11.11, consider the
affect individuals attitudes to sport and physical discrepancies in participation rates in netball and
activity. rugby league between children (aged 514) and
adults (15 years and older). Discuss the factors
School sporting traditions can dictate the sports
in the cultural, structural and institutional level
that are offered and the allocation of resources.
of Figueroas framework that might have led to
Resources can be disproportionately allocated to
these discrepancies.
certain sports that are believed to enhance the
school prole. 4 a Which has had the greatest effect on your
personal sports participationcommunity
The rules and regulations of sport can discourage
or school sport? Explain why.
or prevent participation. They should be regularly
reviewed and, if necessary, modied to ensure b Which should cater for the grassroots level
equity for all. of sports participationcommunity or
school sport? What extra support is required
Understanding religious and cultural beliefs
to ensure success?
can increase opportunities for all people to
participate in and enjoy physical activity. 5 Every student from Year 1 to Year 12 should
participate in compulsory physical activity.
Develop a SWOT (strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities and threats) analysis for this
statement to determine whether compulsory
participation would cause long-term
participation rates to rise and obesity levels to
decrease.
6 Provide three reasons why religious and cultural
beliefs should be considered when developing
policies for sports participation.
12
Interpersonal pls conrm
and individual
influences on
equity and sports
participation
Interpersonal level
The interpersonal level is used
to investigate the relationships
Cultural level
that affect an individuals
participation and access to sport
Structural level
and physical activity.
Most of us are inuenced,
Institutional level
directly or indirectly, by our
relationships with the people
around us, including parents, Interpersonal level
peers, siblings, teachers, coaches
and sporting role models. These Individual level
relationships play a signicant
role in determining the sporting
Figure 12.1 The interpersonal and individual levels are strongly
opportunities a person will seek
12002_HED_QPE.indd 1by all other levels of Figueroas framework.
influenced 28/09/10 9:34 AM
and receive.
The people around an individual are, in turn, inuenced by cultural, structural and institutional factors
from all levels of Figueroas framework. Analysing only one level from Figueroas framework is an overly
simplistic approach that overlooks the complex interrelationships between all ve levels.
Family
The family is the earliest and most signicant inuence on an individuals attitude towards sport. Research
has shown that about one child in three states that parents are the main inuence on their activity choices.
A familys inuence on sports participation can be either positive or negative. Either way, it can have
lifelong effects on an individuals sporting pathways. For example, a child who has parents who value a
particular sport will be provided with more opportunities to play that sport than others. Children whose
parents are heavily involved in touch football, for example, will be more likely to play touch football.
Conversely, if parents are not involved in any sport, their children will be less inclined to choose sport as a
hobby. Such children might need the inuence of others, such as peers, to be inspired to take up a sport.
Children who reported that their fathers were involved in sport also reported playing more sports
themselves. However, parents themselves do not need to participate in a sport to instil a sporting ethos
in their children. Parents who value sport or who have an interest in a particular sport will also positively
inuence their childrens participation.
What values and opinions do your parents have about sport? How has this affected your sports participation?
It is common for parents to have preconceived ideas about the type of sport that is best suited for their
children. A stereotypically masculine father may steer his son towards a sport that encompasses his ideals of
masculinity, such as pursuits involving strength, aggression and courage. Mothers, on the other hand, may
discourage their children from rough activities due to a natural instinct to nurture and protect, and because
they fear injury to their children. This is, of course, a broad generalisation, but one that is quite common.
Chapter 12Interpersonal and individual influences on equity and sports participation ///// 375
Insert diagram
12003
pls conrm AW
Figure 12.2 Children who reported that their fathers were involved in sport also reported playing more
sports themselves.
376 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Chapter 12Interpersonal and individual influences on equity and sports participation ///// 377
Siblings
Within the family, the inuence of siblings is also signicant in determining a childs sporting choices.
It is common for younger children to want to do the same activities as their older sibling and for younger
children to develop an interest in the sport of an older sibling. Parents often encourage this as having two
children choosing the same sport can be more convenient and offers cost savings. The parents are able to
drive two children to the same venues, saving time and petrol; the younger child is also often able to use the
hand-me-down equipment and uniforms of the older sibling.
In some cases, siblings can have a negative inuence. For example, when there is a clear difference in
ability from one sibling to another, the less-able sibling can feel inadequate and worthless. This has been
known to discourage young athletes from continuing in the sport or trying their hardest.
Did a sibling influence your early sports choices?
ACQUIRE
1 Discuss reasons to explain why larger families tend to have a greater involvement in sport.
2 List barriers to sports participation in single-parent families.
Peers
Outside of the family, friends and peers are one of the most inuential factors in the sporting decisions made
by young athletes. Research has shown that as children get older the inuence of the family decreases and
the inuence of peers becomes more important.
Peers can inuence decisions about:
whether to participate in sport
the type of sport to undertake.
Many children admit that the desire to t in and belong is an important inuence in their decisions to
participate in sport. Adolescents have a desire to feel they belong and will often make decisions about sport
based on what is considered the norm or what is seen to be socially acceptable among their peers.
378 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Teachers
For many adolescents, participation in physical activity at school is their only exposure to sport.
While a schools curriculum plays a role in shaping attitudes to physical activity, it is the teachers at the
school who will ultimately inuence the opportunities provided to the students. Where a teacher or teachers
have a passion for sport, they use their expertise, enthusiasm and commitment to give students positive
experiences in that sport. For example, a teacher with a personal passion for volleyball is more likely to enter
teams into volleyball competitions and provide expert coaching in that area. This can be at the expense of
other sports, limiting students choices, or it can complement other sports already offered at the school. If
that teacher were to leave the school and be replaced by an expert in touch football, it would follow that the
touch football participation in the school would probably increase.
Chapter 12Interpersonal and individual influences on equity and sports participation ///// 379
Figure 12.6 Good physical education teachers can inspire students with positive attitudes to sport that can
last their entire lives.
Teachers have the opportunity to motivate, teach physical and social skills and provide new experiences
that can lead to a lifelong relationship with sport and physical activity. However, not all teachers will provide
positive experiences for all students, as the values and individual physical activity needs are different for each
student. Students can have negative experiences of sport at school if their sporting needs are not met by
their teachers.
Different teachers will place a different emphasis on what they see as the most important sporting
outcome. Some teachers see winning competitions as the most important aspect of sport and physical
activity. Other teachers will try to instil in students their belief that developing social skills and working as a
team are more important goals than winning.
Coaches
Another type of person who inuences sports participation in the interpersonal level is the sports coach.
Coaches assist athletes to develop to their full potential. They are responsible for training athletes by
analysing their performance and providing skill instruction and encouragement.
Coaches are responsible for guiding an athlete in their chosen sport, and often in other aspects of life.
As a result, the role of a coach can be variedinstructor, assessor, friend, mentor, facilitator, chauffeur,
demonstrator, advisor, supporter, fact nder, motivator, counsellor, organiser, planner and a fount of all
knowledge.
380 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Role models
Role models are people who have
the capacity to inspire individuals
to greater achievement.
Successful sports stars with high
proles are often thrust into the
limelight and presented as role
models for children to emulate.
Children aspire to achieve the
same levels of success as their 12009 l 1/4
sporting heroes. A 2009 study
found that a signicant number
of boys gave their desire to
emulate their sporting heroes as
the dominant reason for playing
sport.
Not all successful sports
stars are excellent role models.
Some elite athletes, although
successful, can become know for
inappropriate temper tantrums
or outbursts on the eld. Others
are exposed by the media for
acting immorally in their private
lives.
A role models inuence
will vary depending on a young
athletes drive and level of
association with a sport. The
relationship between the role Figure 12.7 In the film Bend it like Beckham, Jess dreams of being a
model and the individual will great soccer player, like her hero David Beckham.
Chapter 12Interpersonal and individual influences on equity and sports participation ///// 381
also determine the inuence. Although elite athletes become role models for many aspiring athletes, young
athletes are more likely to nd a role model closer to home. Having a personal relationship with a role model
they know and trust is often more powerful than the inuence of a distant star. Teachers, coaches, parents,
siblings and teammates are more often sources of inspiration for aspiring athletes than high-prole stars.
Even children recognise that the levels of achievement of elite athletes are not always realistically achievable
for everyone.
Who has been the greatest inspiration for your sporting achievements?
In a sporting world dominated by men, it is extremely important for young women to have role models
to promote their continued participation in sport. As well as having family members, teachers and coaches to
encourage and inspire female athletes, it is also important to be able to see successful elite female athletes
positively portrayed in the media. Such positive images inspire young women to continue their participation
in sport.
Many successful young female athletes cite role models such as netballer Liz Ellis, swimmers Jessica
Schipper and Stephanie Rice, and tennis star Alicia Molik as the inspiration behind their success. It is
unfortunate, therefore, that the coverage and promotion of female sports stars still lags behind that of male
sports stars, leading to a paucity of female role models.
382 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Click to read articles about Alicia Moliks efforts to promote tennis to young Australians.
Individual level
The value of physical activity to improve general health has been thoroughly researched and established, yet
some individuals still choose to forgo physical activity. Analysing why individuals make choices to participate
in or to avoid physical activity needs to consider the many factors that shape each of us as individuals.
The reasons individuals exercise and their understanding of what physical activity is will vary from person
to person. To many people, the word exercise is associated with images of unpleasant, vigorous activity
that just makes them dirty, sweaty and uncomfortable. Others see exercise as a something they must do
to improve tness or as a normal part of their daily life. For others, exercise is something that they do for
enjoyment.
Early experiences
Peoples attitudes to physical
activity are usually formed
Organised sport
during their early years of
Informal sport (b)
childhood. Childhood is when
Watched TV, videos or DVDs
most people try their rst
Played electronic or computer games
sports at school or through local
community groups. Primary 50
school students participate in
regular physical activity during
school hours. Schools offer a 40
variety of activities to try to
accommodate students different
30
needs and encourage students
%
to be active. The activities range
from competitive sports to 20
social physical activities such as
walking, handball and dance. The
10
early development of positive
attitudes towards physical
activity is essential to reverse 0
the increasing trend of sedentary 2 hours 3-4 5-9 10-19 20 hours
or less or more
behaviour among children.
Hours per fortnight
Unfortunately, studies have
Figure 12.9 Childrens leisure time is divided between active and
shown a rising trend in the
sedentary activities.
number of hours children spend Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006
Chapter 12Interpersonal and individual influences on equity and sports participation ///// 383
384 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Clothing
One factor that can inuence attitudes towards physical activity is clothing. Many sports require uniforms that
are tighter, shorter or closer-tting than everyday clothes. Issues surrounding body image, body weight and
self-condence mean that people, especially young women, can feel self-conscious about wearing such outts
and avoid sports and activities that require them.
For many women, the clothing requirements for certain sports can become a barrier to participation.
Uniforms for men and women can differ dramatically; for example, in beach volleyball and indoor volleyball,
basketball, athletics and touch football. As discussed on page 349, one method of sexploitation is to use
body-hugging and revealing sports uniforms. Although many sports require closely tted uniforms, individual
athletes and their sporting associations often feel compelled to dress female athletes in revealing outts that
are not needed for practical reasons simply to get media recognition for their sport. In 2004 Sepp Blatter, the
president of international soccer association FIFA, caused an uproar by suggesting female soccer players should
wear tighter shorts to attract more attention to their sport.
The issue of inequitable clothing regulations will become redundant when women in sportand in society
in generalare judged based on their abilities and not their looks. For such a cultural shift to occur, the media,
which has enormous powers to bring about changes in society, would have to actively support it. Such a
cultural shift would also bring about more equal television and other media coverage of womens sportboth
in reporting time and space, and in the language used.
If sporting organisations can gain appropriate media exposure, sponsorship and support without resorting to
the use of sexploitation, rules governing uniforms could then be based solely on practicality and performance.
The ultimate aim of all sporting bodies should be to increase participation, yet people will only continue to
participate if they are comfortable while doing so.
Chapter 12Interpersonal and individual influences on equity and sports participation ///// 385
386 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
pls supply
APPLY AND EVALUATE
Imagine that a new sporting venue
has opened two minutes walk from
your house. It has facilities for a
sport that you have always been
interested in. In groups, discuss
the following.
1 Which of the following
barriers might prevent your
participation?
part-time employment
study commitments
cost
peer disapproval
Figure 12.11 Part-time work and study commitments are said
a belief that you lack the to act as barriers to sports participation for young people.
necessary skills or fitness.
2 Which motivating factors would encourage you to give the activity a go?
the opportunity to use new facilities
you live close to the venue
your friends are keen to form a team
your parents have an interest in this activity
low fees
free coaching clinics
equipment is provided
the uniforms are excellent
the venue has organised a competition
other.
3 Prioritise the barriers and motivators from most significant to least significant. Is the
ranking the same for males and females?
EXTENSION
1 Dr William Glasser developed his choice theory based on the belief that all individuals
are internally motivated, choose their own behaviour and make their own decisions to
satisfy their needs. Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchy of needs to explain individual
motivation.
a Do some research to find out more about each theory.
b Discuss how each theory can be applied to an individuals choice about sports
participation.
2 Many people like to use motivational quotes to help them achieve their goals. Find ten
motivational quotes. Which quote is the most significant to you? Why?
Click for more information about Glassers and Maslows theories.
Chapter 12Interpersonal and individual influences on equity and sports participation ///// 387
Cheating
Cheating in sport is any activity that uses tactics such as breaking rules, lying, deception or trickery to create
an unfair advantage for an individual or team.
Cheating can be the result of athletes being placed under pressure to win at any cost. This pressure
can come from various sources, including parents, coaches and teammates, or from an athletes own
expectations.
Failing to abide by the rules
The rules and regulations of sport are designed to create an even playing eld for all competitors. They are
formed by sports governing bodies (institutional level) for the greater good of the sport and to encourage
fair play. Athletes who break rules do so to gain an advantage. For example, in softball, base runners are
required to stay on the base until the ball has left the pitchers hand. When stealing a base, some players will
try to gain an advantage by leaving the base early. This gives them a greater chance of getting to the next
base without getting out.
Taking drugs in sport
One of the most contentious forms of cheating in sport is drug use. The use of drugs to enhance performance
has occurred throughout the history of sport, and the use of illegal performance-enhancing drugs and
methods is a signicant problem in modern sport. Many methods are used to gain an edge over opponents.
While some are safe and within the rules of the sport, it is the illegal performance-enhancing drugs and
methods that are the focus of sporting bodies.
The International Olympic Committee has developed a list of banned substances and practices in
sport, and believes that drug use contravenes the ethics of sport and medical science. The classes of
388 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
NEWS
Aussie legend supports drug use
Former middle-distance runner Ron Clarke, one should be allowed to use drugs to give them a
of Australias most revered sporting gures, has fairer chance against competitors raised at
launched an unexpected defence of drug use in sport. altitude.
Clarke told the Australian Associated Press (AAP) There are two competitions in the world, the
on Wednesday that athletes should be permitted to altitude runners and the others, he said.
use performance-enhancing drugs, including steroids Im not advocating drugs, Im saying until there
and EPO, as long as they did not harm their health. is a drug, there wont be any parity in any future
If its not dangerous, no (it should not be competition.
banned), it just levels the playing eld, Clarke was Well never break another world record by our
quoted as saying. sea level athletes from 1500 m or above for another
As soon as something comes along like EPO ... century.
theyll say its a drug and you cant use it (but) its the Clarke broke numerous world records during his
only thing that levels the playing eld. glittering career but never won the Olympic gold
Clarke, a former multiple world record holder medal.
who retired in 1970, said athletes born at sea level Source: BBC Sport, 3 July 2002
Chapter 12Interpersonal and individual influences on equity and sports participation ///// 389
390 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Chapter 12Interpersonal and individual influences on equity and sports participation ///// 391
392 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
by the FBI All sorts of crazy Beijing Olympics but his bid to More importantly, he has assured
things happened to me during this overturn his Olympic ban was a sceptical public that the times
period, Chambers said. thwarted in court, a decision that he posts will be clean.
The transformation I had to shattered him. The problem we have in the
go through from a regular guy to a I know [Bolt] is not going to sport is that if you run fast, people
superhumanits a crazy affair. be bold enough to come forward think youre dirty anyway, he
[Drugs] come as a high and and say it, but I beat him very said.
its a quick x, but when you get often in training, Chambers said Thats sad. Theres still that
caught, the punishments will be of his 2006 training partner. [stigma] around the topic of drugs
far worse. Its an easy trap to fall Based on my performances in sport.
into but its not worth it at the of 6.64 [over 60 m] indoor, that At the end of the day, Im
end of the day. These are things equates to about 9.89 [over 100 routinely tested. Theres no reason
you hear upon the grapevine but m], which would have got me the for me to lie any more.
Im prepared to talk and expose silver medal. It doesnt make no Scorned by the British public
the experiences and give an sense; Im the best this countrys and the national selectors,
insight into my life. got and they continue to put Chambers had relatively
Not all of the book is heavy individuals far slower than me into unsuccessful stints with American
reading. One of the chapter titles positions theyre not capable to football and rugby league sides.
is Girls, Girls, Girls. handle. But theres no point crying However, he has returned to the
We talk about all sorts of over spilt milk. Thats gone and sport in which he made his name
females. In track. Out of track. well never know what would have and aims to win a medal in the
Those not in the public eye. I will happened if wed got out there. World Championships.
leave that to your [imagination], I hope to race [Bolt] this year. Im a sprinter, Im not
he said. Boasting a personal best time anything else, he said.
Chambers had hoped to join of 9.97 seconds over 100 metres, Source: Adrian Proszenko, The Sydney
Bolt at the starting blocks of the Chambers says he can run a 9.8. Morning Herald, 25 January 2009
NEWS
Shahid Afridi suspended to two games for ball-biting
Pakistans Shahid Afridi has been banned for two Afridi was caught on camera biting into the ball
Twenty20 internationals for ball-tampering in the during the dying overs of Australias two-wicket
two-wicket loss to Australia in Perth. victory at the WACA Ground on Sunday night.
The International Cricket Council said Afridi was He apologised this morning.
guilty of changing the condition of the ball. I am ashamed. I did it in the heat of the moment
Afridi was captain of Pakistan in the absence of as the match was a close one, but I should not have
Mohammad Yousuf. done that, its a serious offence, Afridi said.
The ban means the hard-hitting all-rounder will I apologise to all and everyone involved in the
be unavailable for the tourists in Fridays Twenty20 match and to the fans around the world. This will
xture against Australia at the MCG. never happen again.
Chapter 12Interpersonal and individual influences on equity and sports participation ///// 393
Pakistan coach Intikhab Alam said Afridi deserved 50 defeat in the one-day series against Australia in
to be charged. Perth.
Its unacceptable, Intikhab said. I am very disappointed, like millions of
It shouldnt have happened but it happened and I Pakistanis, over the manner in which the Pakistan
feel sorry for him. team lost the Test series 30 and one-day series 50,
Being a captain you should be above everything Qasim said.
but unfortunately its happened and its up to the As I am responsible for the selection of the team,
referee what sort of charges hes going to level I quit from my post.
against him. Pakistan won the World Twenty20 last year but
When asked why Afridi may have bit into the have since suffered a number of defeats. The Pakistan
ball, Intikhab replied: It just happened, probably was Cricket Board has said it will appoint a new captain
eating apple you know. to replace current skipper Mohammad Yousuf after
I have no idea. the Australia tour.
Source: The Courier-Mail, 1 February, 2010
The match was also marred when a spectator ran
on to the eld late in Australias innings and tackled Using illegally modified or prohibited equipment
Pakistan eldsman Khalid Latif,
leaving him with a stiff neck.
I thought it was disgraceful,
12020 l 1/4
Australian paceman Clint McKay
said of the incident.
Something you dont want to
see ever.
For someone to go out there
and to touch one of their players
is not on.
Hopefully it all gets put to
bed and he gets a right whack.
Its not something you want
to happen.
Its probably the worst thing
that can happen on a cricket eld
... so hopefully it gets stamped
out and we dont see it again.
Pakistans selection chairman
Iqbal Qasim has resigned, saying
he was disappointed with the
teams performance.
Iqbal Qasim announced his Figure 12.15 Pakistans Shahid Afridi was captured on camera biting
resignation soon after Pakistans into the ball in a one-dayer against Australia in Perth.
394 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
It is not uncommon for athletes to try to use illegally modied or prohibited equipment to gain an unfair
advantage over their opponents. In tenpin bowling, for example, balls are often checked to ensure they
comply with the rules set down by the sports governing body, as players have been known to illegally
weight balls to increase their chances of getting a strike.
Another example can be seen in a Twenty20 international cricket match between Australia and
Pakistan. Pakistans captain, Shahid Afridi, was found guilty of trying to give his team an unfair advantage by
modifying the cricket ball. He bit into the ball before handing it to his bowler.
Advances in equipment technology have seen signicant improvements in athletic performance. In some
cases, the latest technology is not allowed in competition to ensure that all players and teams have equal
equipment and no one has an unfair advantage.
This issue has been controversial, particularly in the case of the technological advances in swimsuit
design (see pages 115-116). Because not all swimmers had access to the new designs, some people
questioned the unfair advantage that swimmers who had the suits obtained. Many swimmers and coaches
called for restrictions in technological advances to ensure an even playing eld for all competitors. From
January 2010, the suits were controlled by new rules that restricted body coverage, buoyancy and the
materials used. The rule changes also put a stop to customised suits for individual athletes.
Opportunistic behaviour
Some behaviour falls into an ethical grey area. Such behaviour is believed to give individuals or teams an
unfair advantage; however, it is not listed in the rules as illegal.
Opportunistic behaviour is any behaviour that takes immediate advantage of a situation for gain, often
at the expense of principles or ethics. These situations are usually discretionary, meaning that an individuals
values and morals determine whether they act to gain an advantage. Apart from an individuals values,
inuences from coaches, teammates and parents are also contributing factors in the decision to behave
opportunistically.
Chapter 12Interpersonal and individual influences on equity and sports participation ///// 395
396 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Sledging
Sledging is a term that encompasses verbal taunts, name calling or insults. Sledging is a tactic often
employed by athletes to upset the mental focus of an opponent in a bid to put them off their game.
Some would argue that whether sledging is an unethical practice in sport very much depends on its
context. For example, sledging in sports such as tennis and golf would be universally deemed unethical and
such an offence would incur a hefty ne. On the other hand, sledging in sports like cricket and Australian
rules football is generally accepted as part of the spirit of the game, unless the taunts cross certain lines.
In a few cases athletes have taken the sledging personally, and the incidents have been reported in the
media, causing public outrage. A famous case was the Andrew Symonds incident in India in 2008, when his
ethnic background was the subject of taunts. Even in the sports where sledging is tolerated, racist insults are
not.
Although the rules and regulations of many sports do not forbid sledging, people often consider the act
to be unsportsmanlike. An individuals values and beliefs will determine the extent to which they engage in or
accept such behaviour.
Would you ever sledge an opponent?
Faking injury
Unfortunately, getting injured is a consequence of playing sport. To allow injured players to receive
treatment, time needs to be provided so a trainer or medical staff member can make an initial assessment.
Sometimes, if the injury is serious, the player will need to be removed from the eld.
By faking an injury, a team or individual athlete gains an advantage by:
receiving extra time to recuperate
running the clock down (depending on the timing rules)
causing a penalty
breaking the oppositions momentum.
Some soccer players have gained a reputation for taking dives in their opponents penalty area to gain a
direct penalty in front of the goals.
Have you ever faked an injury? What was your motivation for doing so?
Click to watch footage of the dive that is believed to have caused the Socceroos exit from
the 2006 World Cup.
Chapter 12Interpersonal and individual influences on equity and sports participation ///// 397
Individuals physical
build
Your body will be a major factor when
considering which sport or physical
activity you are best suited to. Like it or
not, we cannot change the physical traits
that are determined by the genes we
inherit from our biological parents.
Everybody has genetic
predispositions, which are certain
physical and mental qualities that each
person is born with. Although people
can to a degree change their bodies (for
example, by training to improve tness)
certain characteristics are impossible to
change. For example, each persons adult
height is primarily determined by genes,
except when poor diet or malnutrition
during childhood stunt growth. Peoples
genes can affect many different aspects
of their physical buildfor example, their
height, the length of their limbs and their
eyesight. It can even determine peoples
reactions to pain.
The inherited traits can make
people more suited to one sport over
another. Individuals natural differences
in body shape can predispose them to
Figure 12.18 Athletic abilities, such as those in the Ablett
family, can be passed from parent tochild. different athletic abilities. These link to
different sports and may inuence the
type of sport a person pursues. For example, a person from a very tall family is more likely to be well suited
to basketball; the same person might nd that they are less suited to gymnastics. A short and stocky build
might not suit basketball, but would be helpful for rugby union props. Even so, it should be noted that having
the ideal body type does not guarantee or preclude success.
How would you describe your body shape? Does it help or hinder your performance in the sport you are
currently studying?
Athletic abilities can be passed from parent to child. Some children who demonstrate athletic abilities are
identied early by coaches or teachers, who may encourage them to take up a particular sport. For example,
a child who is tall at an early age may be encouraged to take up a sport such as basketball or volleyball.
Another child with a muscular build may be encouraged to take up a sport such as rugby.
Inherited traits can also discourage some children from taking up sport. For example, children who are
relatively small or who have a genetically determined late growth spurt nd that they are competing against
children much larger than themselves. They can nd the size differences intimidating and either avoid sport
altogether or choose non-contact sports where their size is less important.
398 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Chapter 12Interpersonal and individual influences on equity and sports participation ///// 399
PRACTICAL
The Australian Sports Commission
runs a national talent identification
program to try to identify and
develop future sporting champions.
Use their online testing tools to
identify which sports your physical
characteristics are best suited to:
cycling, rowing, canoeing, triathlon,
athletics or beach volleyball.
Follow the directions online and
complete the survey.
1 Which physical activities did the
test suggest that you are best
suited to?
2 Reflect on your chosen four
physical activities. Do these
reflect your strengths?
3 In your current physical activity,
are you more suited to a specific
position? Explain why, using
examples from the battery of
tests completed.
4 If given the opportunity, which
four sports would you choose?
400 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Figure 12.21 Skill, determination and talent are all evident in todays Paralympians.
visual impairments, persons with physical disabilities, amputee athletes, people with cerebral palsy, people
with spinal cord injuries, and les autres (French for others)athletes with disabilities that are not included in
the other categories (such as muscular dystrophy).
The Paralympics are held in summer and winter. Athletes with disabilities have been competing in the
winter games since 1976. Sweden hosted the rst winter games, which included twelve countries competing
in alpine and cross-country skiing events. In 1992, the four-year cycle was modied so that the winter and
summer Paralympic Games coincided with the Olympics.
Many people believe that the sportsmanship of the Paralympics reects the real spirit of the Olympic
Games as athletes demonstrate the true meaning of Pierre de Coubertins Olympic creed:
The most important thing in the Olympic Games is not to win but to take part, just as the most
important thing in life is not the triumph but the struggle. The essential thing is not to have
conquered but to have fought well.
The value of sport in the lives of athletes with disabilities extends far beyond its rehabilitative benets.
Sportsmanship, camaraderie and an active lifestyle are other important benets. The athletic talents of
competitors with disabilities are becoming recognised worldwide. The skill, determination and talent of high-
performance athletics and competition are evident in the performance of todays Paralympians.
At a grassroots level, many sporting associations and schools have recognised that everyone should have
opportunities to participate in sports and physical activity. School sport provides opportunities through the
Able with Disability (AWD) competitions for students with recognised disabilities. However, some sporting
groups still have to undergo further cultural change to be willing to welcome athletes with disabilities.
Chapter 12Interpersonal and individual influences on equity and sports participation ///// 401
As an eight-year-old he was told by a coach that I got married earlier this year and Im sure my
he could not join the local football team unless he wife (Karen) has plenty of things planned to keep me
could kick the ball with his right foot as well as his occupied, he joked.
lefta rule not enforced with other players. Source: Alex Murdoch, The Courier-Mail, 29 September 2008
402 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Preamble Preamble
During the term you participated in a series of drills and The decisions about whether to participate in sport and
games. Statistics were taken on each class members physical activity are inuenced by many sociological
performance, and each person was ranked according to factors. As part of this unit, you have studied the process of
ability. To put pressure on individuals to perform well, the socialisation and the effects of socialising factors from all ve
results were publicly posted, rewards and incentives were levels of Figueroas frameworks. You have conducted a survey
offered to the top performers, and low-ranked individuals that investigated the sociological factors that inuence
were given additional tasks. Under this pressure to achieve student participation in sport at school and in the local
and succeed, how did you react? community.
404 \\\\\ Focus area CSport and physical activity in Australian society
Learning requirements
To successfully complete this task you will need to:
analyse the factors that inuence the selection of physical
activities.
Task
Justify the process you would endorse to select the four
physical activities for your cohort. Apply the relevant factors
from Figueroas framework to support your ideal selection
process.
Additional information
Prepare PowerPoint slides to accompany your speech.
Use palm cards when presenting your speech.