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STUDY MATERIAL
ELECTRONIC COMMERCE
DEPARTMENT OF IT
R S
Vel Tech
Vel Tech Multi Tech Dr.Rangarajan Dr.Sakunthala Engineering
College
Vel Tech High Tech Dr. Rangarajan Dr.Sakunthala Engineering
College
SEM - VIII
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INDEX
I. Unit - I 24
II. Unit - II 30
IV. Unit - IV 42
V. Unit V 49
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Student Strength of Vel Tech increased from 413 to 10579, between 1997 and 2010.
Our heartfelt gratitude to AICTE for sanctioning highest number of seats and highest number of courses for the
academic year 2009 2010 in Tamil Nadu, India.
Consistent success on academic performance by achieving 97% - 100% in University examination results during
the past 4 academic years.
Tie-up with Oracle Corporation for conducting training programmes & qualifying our students for International
Certifications.
Permission obtained to start Cisco Networking Academy Programmes in our College campus.
Satyam Ventures R&D Centre located in Vel Tech Engineering College premises.
Signed MOU with FL Smidth for placements, Project and Training.
Signed MOU with British Council for Promotion of High Proficiency in Business English, of the University of
Cambridge, UK (BEC).
Signed MOU with NASSCOM.
Signed MOU with INVICTUS TECHNOLOGY for projects & Placements.
Signed MOU with SUTHERLAND GLOBAL SERVICES for Training & Placements.
Signed MOU with Tmi First for Training & Placements.
Companies Such as TCS, INFOSYS TECHNOLOGIES, IBM, WIPRO TECHNOLOGIES, KEANE SOFTWARE & T
INFOTECH, ACCENTURE, HCL TECHNOLOGIES, TCE Consulting Engineers, SIEMENS, BIRLASOFT,
MPHASIS(EDS), APOLLO HOSPITALS, CLAYTON, ASHOK LEYLAND, IDEA AE & E, SATYAM VENTURES,
UNITED ENGINEERS, ETA-ASCON, CARBORANDUM UNIVERSAL, CIPLA, FUTURE GROUP, DELPHI-TVS
DIESEL SYSTEMS, ICICI PRULIFE, ICICI LOMBARD, HWASHIN, HYUNDAI, TATA CHEMICAL LTD, RECKITT
BENKIZER, MURUGAPPA GROUP, POLARIS, FOXCONN, LIONBRIDGE, USHA FIRE SAFETY, MALCO,
YOUTELECOM, HONEYWELL, MANDOBRAKES, DEXTERITY, HEXAWARE, TEMENOS, RBS, NAVIA MARKETS,
EUREKHA FORBES, RELIANCE INFOCOMM, NUMERIC POWER SYSTEMS, ORCHID CHEMICALS, JEEVAN
DIESEL, AMALGAMATION CLUTCH VALEO, SAINT GOBAIN, SONA GROUP, NOKIA, NICHOLAS PHARIMAL,
SKH METALS, ASIA MOTOR WORKS, PEROT, BRITANNIA, YOKAGAWA FED BY, JEEVAN DIESEL visit our
campus annually to recruit our final year Engineering, Diploma, Medical and Management Students.
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This edition is a sincere and co-ordinated effort which we hope has made a
great difference in the quality of the material. Giving the best to the students,
making optimum use of available technical facilities & intellectual strength has
always been the motto of our institutions. In this edition the best staff across the
group of colleges has been chosen to develop specific units. Hence the material, as a
whole is the merge of the intellectual capacities of our faculties across the group of
Institutions. 45 to 60, two mark questions and 15 to 20, sixteen mark questions for
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UNIT I 9
UNIT II 9
Electronic Payment Systems, Interorganizational Commerce and EDI, EDI Implementation, MIME
and Value added Networks.
UNIT III 9
Advertising and Marketing on the Internet, Computer Based Education and Training,
Technological Components of Education on-Demand, Digital Copy rights and Electronic
Commerce, Software Agent.
UNIT IV 9
The Corporate Digital Library Dimensions of Internal Electronics Commerce Systems, Making a
Business case for a document Library, Types of Digital documents, Issues behind document
Infrastructure, Corporate data warehouses, Documents Active / Compound document
architecture.
UNIT V 9
Multimedia and Digital Video Broad band Telecommunications Mobile and Wireless
Computing Fundamentals.
TEXT BOOK
1. Frontiers of Electronic Commerce, Kalakota & Whinston, Pearson Education, 2002.
REFERENCES
1. Kamalesh K. Bajaj, E-Commerce: The Cutting Edge & Business, Tata McGraw-Hill, 2003.
2. Brenda Kennan, Managing your E-Commerce Business, PHI, 2001.
3. Electronic Commerce from Vision to Fulfillment, PHI, Elias M. Awad, Feb-2003.
4. Electronic Commerce Framework, Technology and Application, TMH, Bharat Bhaskar,
2003.
5. Effy Oz, Foundations of E-Commerce, PHI, 2001.
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ELECTRONIC COMMERCE
Introduction
eCommerce, consists of the buying and selling of products or services over electronic systems
such as the Internet and other computer networks. The amount of trade conducted electronically
has grown extraordinarily with widespread Internet usage. The use of commerce is conducted in
this way, spurring and drawing on innovations in electronic funds transfer, supply chain
management, Internet marketing, online transaction processing, electronic data interchange (EDI),
inventory management systems, and automated data collection systems. Modern electronic
commerce typically uses the World Wide Web at least at some point in the transaction's lifecycle,
A large percentage of electronic commerce is conducted entirely electronically for virtual items
such as access to premium content on a website, but most electronic commerce involves the
transportation of physical items in some way. Online retailers are sometimes known as e-tailers
and online retail is sometimes known as e-tail. Almost all big retailers have electronic commerce
B2B. B2B can be open to all interested parties (e.g. commodity exchange) or limited to specific, pre-
qualified participants (private electronic market). Electronic commerce that is conducted between
businesses and consumers, on the other hand, is referred to as business-to-consumer or B2C. This
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Electronic commerce is generally considered to be the sales aspect of e-business. It also consists of
the exchange of data to facilitate the financing and payment aspects of the business transactions.
Early development
The meaning of electronic commerce has changed over the last 30 years. Originally, electronic
commerce meant the facilitation of commercial transactions electronically, using technology such
as Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) and Electronic Funds Transfer (EFT). These were both
introduced in the late 1970s, allowing businesses to send commercial documents like purchase
orders or invoices electronically. The growth and acceptance of credit cards, automated teller
machines (ATM) and telephone banking in the 1980s were also forms of electronic commerce.
Another form of e-commerce was the airline reservation system typified by Sabre in the USA and
Online shopping is an important component of electronic commerce. From the 1990s onwards,
electronic commerce would additionally include enterprise resource planning systems (ERP), data
An early example of many-to-many electronic commerce in physical goods was the Boston
Computer Exchange, a marketplace for used computers launched in 1982. An early online
information marketplace, including online consulting, was the American Information Exchange,
In 1990 Tim Berners-Lee invented the WorldWideWeb web browser and transformed an academic
internet/www. Commercial enterprise on the Internet was strictly prohibited until 1991 .[1]
Although the Internet became popular worldwide around 1994 when the first internet online
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shopping started, it took about five years to introduce security protocols and DSL allowing
continual connection to the Internet. By the end of 2000, many European and American business
companies offered their services through the World Wide Web. Since then people began to
associate a word "ecommerce" with the ability of purchasing various goods through the Internet
Timeline
1982: Minitel was introduced nationwide in France by France Telecom and used for online
ordering.
1987: Swreg begins to provide software and shareware authors means to sell their products
1990: Tim Berners-Lee writes the first web browser, WorldWideWeb, using a NeXT
computer.
1992: J.H. Snider and Terra Ziporyn publish Future Shop: How New Technologies Will
Change the Way We Shop and What We Buy. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 0312063598.
1994: Netscape releases the Navigator browser in October under the code name Mozilla.
Pizza Hut offers pizza ordering on its Web page. The first online bank opens. Attempts to
offer flower delivery and magazine subscriptions online. Adult materials also become
commercially available, as do cars and bikes. Netscape 1.0 is introduced in late 1994 SSL
1995: Jeff Bezos launches Amazon.com and the first commercial-free 24 hour, internet-only
radio stations, Radio HK and NetRadio start broadcasting. Dell and Cisco begin to
1998: Electronic postal stamps can be purchased and downloaded for printing from the
Web.
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1999: Business.com sold for US $7.5 million to eCompanies, which was purchased in 1997
for US $149,000. The peer-to-peer filesharing software Napster launches. ATG Stores
NetShops are founded with the concept of selling products through several targeted
2008: US eCommerce and Online Retail sales projected to have reached $204 billion, an
Business applications
Instant messaging
Newsgroups
Online banking
Teleconferencing
Electronic tickets
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Forms
Contemporary electronic commerce involves everything from ordering "digital" content for
immediate online consumption, to ordering conventional goods and services, to "meta" services to
On the consumer level, electronic commerce is mostly conducted on the World Wide Web.
An individual can go online to purchase anything from books or groceries, to expensive items like
real estate. Another example would be online banking, i.e. online bill payments, buying stocks,
transferring funds from one account to another, and initiating wire payment to another country.
All of these activities can be done with a few strokes of the keyboard.
On the institutional level, big corporations and financial institutions use the internet to exchange
financial data to facilitate domestic and international business. Data integrity and security are very
Example applications
Electronic mail, most commonly abbreviated email and e-mail, is a method of exchanging
digital messages. E-mail systems are based on a store-and-forward model in which e-mail
computer server systems accept, forward, deliver and store messages on behalf of users, who only
need to connect to the e-mail infrastructure, typically an e-mail server, with a network-enabled
device for the duration of message submission or retrieval. Originally, e-mail was always
transmitted directly from one user's device to another's; nowadays this is rarely the case.
An electronic mail message consists of two components, the message header, and the message body,
which is the email's content. The message header contains control information, including,
minimally, an originator's email address and one or more recipient addresses. Usually additional
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media content attachments, which were standardized in with RFC 2045 through RFC 2049,
The foundation for today's global Internet e-mail service was created in the early ARPANET and
standards for encoding of messages were proposed as early as 1973 (RFC 561). An e-mail sent in
the early 1970s looked very similar to one sent on the Internet today. Conversion from the
ARPANET to the Internet in the early 1980s produced the core of the current service.
Network-based email was initially exchanged on the ARPANET in extensions to the File Transfer
Protocol (FTP), but is today carried by the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), first published as
Internet standard 10 (RFC 821) in 1982. In the process of transporting e-mail messages between
systems, SMTP communicates delivery parameters using a message envelope separately from the
Operation overview
The diagram to the right shows a typical sequence of event that takes place when Alice
composes a message
"send" button.
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1. Here MUA formats the message in e-mail format and uses the Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol (SMTP) to send the message to the local mail transfer agent (MTA), in this case
2. The MTA looks at the destination address provided in the SMTP protocol (not from the
message header), in this case bob@b.org. An Internet e-mail address is a string of the form
localpart@exampledomain. The part before the @ sign is the local part of the address, often
the username of the recipient, and the part after the @ sign is a domain name or a fully
qualified domain name. The MTA resolves a domain name to determine the fully qualified
domain name of the mail exchange server in the Domain Name System (DNS).
3. The DNS server for the b.org domain, ns.b.org, responds with any MX records listing the
mail exchange servers for that domain, in this case mx.b.org, a server run by Bob's ISP.
4. smtp.a.org sends the message to mx.b.org using SMTP, which delivers it to the mailbox of
5. Bob presses the "get mail" button in his MUA, which picks up the message using the Post
That sequence of events applies to the majority of e-mail users. However, there are many
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Alice or Bob may use a client connected to a corporate e-mail system, such as IBM Lotus
Notes or Microsoft Exchange. These systems often have their own internal e-mail format
and their clients typically communicate with the e-mail server using a vendor-specific,
proprietary protocol. The server sends or receives e-mail via the Internet through the
product's Internet mail gateway which also does any necessary reformatting. If Alice and
Bob work for the same company, the entire transaction may happen completely within a
Alice may not have a MUA on her computer but instead may connect to a webmail service.
Alice's computer may run its own MTA, so avoiding the transfer at step 1.
Bob may pick up his e-mail in many ways, for example using the Internet Message Access
Protocol, by logging into mx.b.org and reading it directly, or by using a webmail service.
Domains usually have several mail exchange servers so that they can continue to accept
E-mail messages are not secure if e-mail encryption is not used correctly.
Many MTAs used to accept messages for any recipient on the Internet and do their best to deliver
them. Such MTAs are called open mail relays. This was very important in the early days of the
Internet when network connections were unreliable. If an MTA couldn't reach the destination, it
could at least deliver it to a relay closer to the destination. The relay stood a better chance of
delivering the message at a later time. However, this mechanism proved to be exploitable by
people sending unsolicited bulk e-mail and as a consequence very few modern MTAs are open
mail relays, and many MTAs don't accept messages from open mail relays because such messages
Message format
The Internet e-mail message format is defined in RFC 5322 and a series of RFCs, RFC 2045
through RFC 2049, collectively called, Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions, or MIME. Although as
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of July 13, 2005, RFC 2822 is technically a proposed IETF standard and the MIME RFCs are draft
IETF standards,[23] these documents are the standards for the format of Internet e-mail. Prior to the
introduction of RFC 2822 in 2001, the format described by RFC 822 was the standard for Internet e-
mail for nearly 20 years; it is still the official IETF standard. The IETF reserved the numbers 5321
and 5322 for the updated versions of RFC 2821 (SMTP) and RFC 2822, as it previously did with
RFC 821 and RFC 822, honoring the extreme importance of these two RFCs. RFC 822 was
Header Structured into fields such as summary, sender, receiver, and other information
Body The message itself as unstructured text; sometimes containing a signature block at
the end. This is exactly the same as the body of a regular letter.
Message header
Each message has exactly one header, which is structured into fields. Each field has a name
Informally, each line of text in the header that begins with a printable character begins a separate
field. The field name starts in the first character of the line and ends before the separator character
":". The separator is then followed by the field value (the "body" of the field). The value is
continued onto subsequent lines if those lines have a space or tab as their first character. Field
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names and values are restricted to 7-bit ASCII characters. Non-ASCII values may be represented
Header fields
From: The e-mail address, and optionally the name of the author(s). In many e-mail clients
To: The e-mail address(es), and optionally name(s) of the message's recipient(s). Indicates
primary recipients (multiple allowed), for secondary recipients see Cc: and Bcc: below.
Subject: A brief summary of the topic of the message. Certain abbreviations are commonly
used in the subject, including "RE:" and "FW:" Date: The local time and date when the
message was written. Like the From: field, many email clients fill this in automatically when
sending. The recipient's client may then display the time in the format and time zone local
to her.
Message-ID: Also an automatically generated field; used to prevent multiple delivery and for
Note that the To: field is not necessarily related to the addresses to which the message is delivered.
The actual delivery list is supplied separately to the transport protocol, SMTP, which may or may
not originally have been extracted from the header content. The "To:" field is similar to the
addressing at the top of a conventional letter which is delivered according to the address on the
outer envelope. Also note that the "From:" field does not have to be the real sender of the e-mail
message. One reason is that it is very easy to fake the "From:" field and let a message seem to be
from any mail address. It is possible to digitally sign e-mail, which is much harder to fake, but
such signatures require extra programming and often external programs to verify. Some Internet
service providers do not relay e-mail claiming to come from a domain not hosted by them, but
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very few (if any) check to make sure that the person or even e-mail address named in the "From:"
field is the one associated with the connection. Some Internet service providers apply e-mail
authentication systems to e-mail being sent through their MTA to allow other MTAs to detect
RFC 3864 describes registration procedures for message header fields at the IANA; it provides for
permanent and provisional message header field names, including also fields defined for MIME,
netnews, and http, and referencing relevant RFCs. Common header fields for email include:
Bcc: Blind Carbon Copy; addresses added to the SMTP delivery list but not (usually) listed
Cc: Carbon copy; Many e-mail clients will mark e-mail in your inbox differently depending
Content-Type: Information about how the message is to be displayed, usually a MIME type.
In-Reply-To: Message-ID of the message that this is a reply to. Used to link related messages
together.
Precedence: commonly with values "bulk", "junk", or "list"; used to indicate that automated
"vacation" or "out of office" responses should not be returned for this mail, eg. to prevent
Received: Tracking information generated by mail servers that have previously handled a
References: Message-ID of the message that this is a reply to, and the message-id of the
Sender: Address of the actual sender acting on behalf of the author listed in the From: field
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Content encoding
E-mail was originally designed for 7-bit ASCII. Much e-mail software is 8-bit clean but must
assume it will communicate with 8-bit servers and mail readers. The MIME standard introduced
character set specifiers and two content transfer encodings to enable transmission of non-ASCII
data: quoted printable for mostly 7 bit content with a few characters outside that range and base64
for arbitrary binary data. The 8BITMIME extension was introduced to allow transmission of mail
without the need for these encodings but many mail transport agents still do not support it fully.
In some countries, several encoding schemes coexist; as the result, by default, the message in a
non-Latin alphabet language appears in non-readable form (the only exception is coincidence,
when the sender and receiver use the same encoding scheme). Therefore, for international
Most modern graphic e-mail clients allow the use of either plain text or HTML for the
message body at the option of the user. HTML e-mail messages often include an automatically-
Advantages of HTML include the ability to include inline links and images, set apart
previous messages in block quotes, wrap naturally on any display, use emphasis such as
underlines and italics, and change font styles. Disadvantages include the increased size of the
email, privacy concerns about web bugs, abuse of HTML email as a vector for phishing attacks
Mailing lists commonly insist that all posts to be made in plain-text [27][28][29] for all the above
reasons, but also because they have a significant number of readers using text-based e-mail clients
such as Mutt.
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Some Microsoft e-mail clients have allowed richer formatting by using RTF rather than
HTML, but unless the recipient is guaranteed to have a compatible e-mail client this should be
avoided.
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Messages are exchanged between hosts using the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol with
software programs called mail transfer agents. Users can retrieve their messages from servers
using standard protocols such as POP or IMAP, or, as is more likely in a large corporate
environment, with a proprietary protocol specific to Lotus Notes or Microsoft Exchange Servers.
Webmail interfaces allow users to access their mail with any standard web browser, from any
Mail can be stored on the client, on the server side, or in both places. Standard formats for
mailboxes include Maildir and mbox. Several prominent e-mail clients use their own proprietary
Accepting a message obliges an MTA to deliver it, and when a message cannot be
delivered, that MTA must send a bounce message back to the sender, indicating the problem.
Filename extensions
Upon reception of e-mail messages, e-mail client applications save message in operating
system files in the filesystem. Some clients save individual messages as separate files, while others
use various database formats, often proprietary, for collective storage. A historical standard of
storage is the mbox format. The specific format used is often indicated by special filename
extensions:
eml
Used by many e-mail clients including Microsoft Outlook Express, Windows Mail and
Mozilla Thunderbird.[31] The files are plain text in MIME format, containing the e-mail
header as well as the message contents and attachments in one or more of several formats.
emlx
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msg
mbx
Used by Opera Mail, KMail, and Apple Mail based on the mbox format.
Some applications (like Apple Mail) also encode attachments into messages for searching while
also producing a physical copy of the files on a disk. Others separate attachments from messages
The URI scheme, as registered with the IANA, defines the mailto: scheme for SMTP email
addresses. Though its use is not strictly defined, URLs of this form are intended to be used to open
the new message window of the user's mail client when the URL is activated, with the address as
Teleconference
A teleconference or teleseminar is the live exchange and mass articulation of information among
several persons and machines remote from one another but linked by a telecommunications
system. Terms such as audio conferencing, telephone conferencing and phone conferencing are
The telecommunications system may support the teleconference by providing one or more of the
following audio, video, and/or data services by one or more means, such as telephone, computer,
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Internet telephony involves conducting a teleconference over the Internet or a Wide Area Network.
One key technology in this area is Voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP). Popular software for
personal use includes Skype, Google Talk, Windows Live Messenger and Yahoo Messenger.
Electronic ticket
E-ticket" redirects here. For the former Disneyland and Disney World tickets, see E ticket.
airline, usually through a website or by telephone. This form of airline ticket has rapidly replaced
the old multi-layered paper tickets (from close to zero to 100% in about 10 years) and became
mandatory for IATA members as of June 1, 2008. During the last few years, where paper tickets
were still available, airlines frequently charged extra for issuing them. E-tickets are also available
Once a reservation is made, an e-ticket exists only as a digital record in the airline
computers. Customers usually print out a copy of their receipt which contains the record locator or
Ticketing in the Airline Industry, an industry where global electronic ticket sales (the industry
standard) accounts for over $400 Billion (US) a year (2007). See Patents for Electronic Ticketing
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Electronic tickets have been introduced in road, urban or rail public transport as well.
To check in with an e-ticket, the passenger usually comes to the check-in counter and presents the
e-ticket itinerary receipt which contains a confirmation or reservation code. In some airports and
airlines it's not even necessary to present this document or quote the confirmation code or e-ticket
number as the reservation is confirmed solely on the basis of the passenger's identity, which may
be proven by a passport or the matching credit card. Other than that the rest of the check-in
process remains the same from when paper tickets were still the norm. That is, the passenger
checks-in his/her luggage. It is important to note the the e-ticket is not a substitute for the
boarding pass which must still be issued at the end of the check-in process which will usually say
E-tickets are very popular because they allow extra services like:
early check-in
printing boarding passes at airport kiosks and at locations other than an airport
Several web sites exist to help people holding e-tickets accomplish online check-ins in advance of
the twenty-four-hour airline restriction. These sites store a passenger's flight information and then
when the airline opens up for online check-in the data is transferred to the airline and the boarding
E-ticket limitations
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E-tickets are sometimes not available for some flights from an airline which usually offers them.
This can be due to a number of reasons, the most common being software incompatibility. If an
airline issues tickets for a codeshare flight with another company, and there is no e-ticket
interlining agreement, the operating carrier would not be able to see the issuing carrier's ticket.
Therefore, the carrier that books the flight needs to provide hard copy versions of the tickets so
that the ticket can be processed. Similarly, if the destination airport does not have access to the
Industry discount (ID) tickets also tend to be issued on paper if they are valid for more than one
airline, and if the airlines that the tickets are valid for do not have an interlining agreement. Since
e-ticket interlining is still the exception rather than the rule, tickets valid for more than one airline
Currently the ticketing systems of most airlines are only able to produce e-tickets for itineraries of
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UNIT I
PART A
1. Define E Commerce.
The act of conducting business on-line, e-commerce may include buying and selling products
with digital cash and via electronic data interchange.
3. Define Telecommuting
The Web is helping people work more effectively is by enabling employees of many different kinds
of companies to work at home. In this arrangement is called Telecommuting or Telework.
4. Define C2C.
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5. Define B2G
It includes business transaction with government agencies, such as paying taxes and filing
required reports.
6. Define EFT
7. Define EDI
Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) occurs when one business transmit computer readable
data in a standard format to another business.
8. Define VAN
A Value added network is an independent firm that offers connection and transaction
forwarding services to buyers and sellers engaged on EDI.
9. Define Commerce
10. What are the elements of traditional commerce for buyers side?
11. What are the elements of traditional commerce for Sellers side?
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The group of logical, related, and sequential activities and transaction in which business
engage are often collectively referred to as business processes.
A commodity item is a product or service that is hard to distinguish from the same
products or services provided by other sellers.
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All the advantages of electronics commerce for business can be summarized in one statement:
Electronic commerce can increase sales and decrease costs.
Some business processes may never land themselves to electronics commerce. For example,
perishable foods and high cost, unique items, such as custom designed jewelry and antiques,
may be impossible to inspect adequately from a remote location, regardless of any technologies
that might be devised in the future. Most of the disadvantages of electronic commerce today,
however stem from newness and rapidly developing pace of the underlying technologies.
Transaction costs are the total of all that a buyer and seller incur as they gather information
and negotiate a purchase sale transaction.
The practice of an existing firm replace one or more of its supplier markets with its own
hierarchical structure for creating the supplied product is called vertical Integration.
Network economic structure, companies coordinate their strategies, resources, and skill sets by
forming long term, stable relationships with other companies and individuals based on shared
purpose. These relationships are often called strategic alliances or strategic partnership.
Economists have found that most activities yield less value as the amount of consumption
increases. This characteristic of economic activity is called the law of diminishing returns.
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A strategic business unit, or simply business unit, is one particular combination of product,
distribution channel, and customer type.
A value chain is a way of organizing the activities that each strategic business unit
undertakes to design, produce, promote, market, deliver, and support the products or services it
sells.
A computer network is any technology that allows people to connect computers to each other.
The Internet is a large system of interconnected computer networks than spans the globe.
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A mailing list is an e mail address that forwards any message it receives to any user who
has subscribed to that list.
A hypertext server is a computer that stores files written in the hypertext markup languages
and lets other computers connect to it and read these files.
A hypertext server is a computer that stores files written in the hypertext markup languages
and lets other computers connect to it and read these files. Hypertext server used on the web today
are usually called Web server.
A web browser is a software interface that lets users read HTML documents and move from
one HTML format to another through text formatted with hypertext link tags in each file.
35. Define Hypertext.
System in which text on one page links to text on other pages. This is called Hypertext.
A Graphical user interface is a way of presenting program control functions and program
output to users. It uses pictures, icons, and other graphical elements instead of displaying just text.
A hypertext link, or hyperlink, points to another location in the same or another HTML
document. It is an important type of tag.
WWW or Web is a subset of the computers on the Internet that are connected to each other in
a specific way that makes them and their contents easily accessible to each other.
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UNIT II
PART A
1. Define LAN.
A network of computers that are located close together is called a local area network(LAN).
2. Define WAN
Networks of computers that are connected over greater distances are called wide area
networks(WAN)
3. Define MAN.
A man is not generally owned by a signle organization. The Man, its communication links
and equipment are generally owned by either a consortium of users or by a single network
provides who sells the service to the users.
This circuit forms a single electrical path between caller and receiver. This single path of
connected circuits switched into each other is maintained for the entire length of the call. This type
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5. Define Circuit .
The combination of telephone lines and the closed switches that connect them to each other is
called a circuit.
Any message exceeding a network defines maximum length is broken up into shorter units,
known as packets, for transmission; the packets, each with an associated header, are the
transmitted individually through the network.
This is the store and forward the message. Sometimes there is no need for a circuit to be
established all the way from source to the destination. Consider a connection between the users (A
and B). the connection represented by a series of link (AB, BC and CD).
8. Define Router.
A device that forwards data packets along networks. A router is connected to at least two
networks, commonly two LANOR WANS or a LAN and is ISPs network. It located at gate ways.
The programs on router computers that determine the best path on which to send each packet
contains rules called routing algorithms.
A gateway is a network point that acts asan entrance to another network. On the Internet,
anode or stopping point canbe either a gateway node or a host node.
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A protocol is a collection of rules for formatting, ordering, and error-Checking data sent across
a network.
The routers are very large computers that can each handle more than 50 million packets per
second! These routers are sometimes called backbone routers.
It uses a 32 nit number to identify the computers connected to the Internet. This address is
called an IP address.
Domain names are sets of words that are assigned to specific IP addresses. Domain names can
contain two or more words groups separated by periods.
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Web client software sends requests for web page files to other computers web server
E-mail that is sent across the Internet must also be formatted according to a common set of
rules.
A text markup language specifies a set of tags that are inserted into the text. These markup
tags, also called tags.
The markup language most commonly used on the web is HTML, which is a subset of a much
older and far more complex text markup language called Standard Generalized Markup Language
(SGML)
A markup language that was derived from SGML for use on the web is Extensible markup
language( XML),
The World Wide Web consortium(W3C), a not-for-profit group that maintains standards for
the web, presented its first draft from of XML in 1996.
In 2000, the W3C released the first version of a recommendation for a new markup language
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26. Define Markup languages and what are the elements for the Hypertext?
The text elements that are related to each other are called hypertext elements.
In a hierarchical hyperlink structure, the web user opens an introductory page called a home
page or start page..
Cascading style sheets(CSS) are sets of instructions that give web developers more control over
the format of displayed pages.
The Internet is a large system of interconnected computer networks than spans the globe.
Corporate networks that house internal memos, corporate policy handbooks, expense account
worksheets, budgets, newsletters and a variety of other corporate documents
Intranets that allow certain authorized parties outside the company to access certain parts of
the information stored in the system
The private network is a private, leased-line connection between two companies that
physically connects their intranets to one another.
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A virtual private network (VPN) is an extranet that uses public networks and their
protocols to send sensitive data to partners, customers, suppliers, and employees using a system
called IP tunneling or encapsulation.
The passageway is created by VPN software that encrypts the packet content and then places
the encrypted packets inside another packet in a process called encapsulation.
The passageway is created by VPN software that encrypts the packet content and then places
the encrypted packets inside another packet in a process called encapsulation. The outer packet is
called an IP Wrapper.
Larger firms that provide Internet access to other businesses, called Internet access providers
(IAPs). Information that can travel from the Internet to a user in a given amount of time.
38. Define bandwidth.
Bandwidth is the amount of data that can travel through a communication line per unit of
time.
Traffic on the Internet and at your local service provider greatly affects net bandwidth
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Connections that operate at speeds of greater than about 200 Kbps are called broadband
services.
A wireless access point (WAP) is a device that transmits network packets between WI-Fi
equipped computers and other devices that are within its range.
These small Bluetooth networks are called personal area networks (PANs)
UNIT III
PART - A
Hardware
Operating system software
Web server software
Development site
Extranet
Intranet
Transaction processing sites
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Simple sites that companies use to evaluate different web designs with little initial investment.
A development site can reside on an existing PC running web server software. Multiple testers
access the site through their client computers on an existing LAN.
Sites that deliver content such as news, histories, summaries, and other digital information.
Visitors must be able to locate articles quickly with a fast and precise search engine.
A dynamic page is a web page whose content is shaped by a program in response to use
requests.
In server-side scripting, programs running on the web server create the web pages before
sending them back to the requesting web clients as parts of response messages.
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The software that the server computer uses to make these files and programs available to the
other computers is sometime called server software.
The server computer on which database management software runs is often called a database
server.
The message that a web client sends to request a file or files from a web server is called a
request message.
The server does this by retrieving the web page file from its disk and then creating a properly
formatted response message.
The response header line indicates the HTTP version used by the server, the status of the
response and an explanation of the status information.
A response header field returns information describing the servers attributes. The entity body
returns information describing the servers attributes.
16. What is mean by 3 tier architecture?
Higher-order architectures that is , those that have more than three tiers-are usually called
n-tier architectures.
Tracert (TRACE RouTe) sends data packets to every computer on the path (Internet)
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between one computer and another computer and clocks the packets round-trip times.
E-mail does have some drawbacks. One significant annoyance is spam. Spam, also known as
unsolicited commercial e-mail
Telnet is a program that allows users to long on to a computer that is connected to the
Internet. mounted frame.
The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the part of the TCP/IP rules that defines the formats used
to transfer files between TCP/IP connected computers.
An FRP connection to a computer on which the user has an account is called full privilege FTP.
One way to access a remote computer is called anonymous FTP. It allows the user to log on as
a guest.
An orphan file is a file on the web site that is not linked to any page.
A recent innovation in server computer design is to put small server computers on a single
computer board and then install many of those boards into a rack- mounted frame. These servers-
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A virtual server or virtual host is a feature that maintains more than one server on one
machine.
Benchmarking is testing that is used to compare the performance of hardware and software.
Throughput is the number of HTTP requests that a particular hardware and software
combination can process in a unit of time.
Response time is the amount of time a server requires to process one request.
If use a large number of less powerful computers and divide the workload among them.
This is sometimes called a distributed architecture.
33. What are the types of hosting?
Self hosting
Shared hosting
Dedicated hosting
When companies need to incorporate electronic commerce components, they may opt to run
servers in-house; this is called self-hosting.
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Shared hosting means that the clients web site is on a server that hosts other web sites
simultaneously and is operated by the service provider at its location.
Dedicated hosting, the service provider makes a web server available to the client, but the
client does not share the server with other clients of the service provider .
Best hosting services provide web server hardware and software combination that are scalable,
which means that they can be adapted to meet changing requirements when their clients grow.
Larger companies usually establish the connections between their electronic commerce
software and their existing accounting system by using a type of software called middleware.
An application server is a computer that takes the request messages received by the web
server and runs application programs that perform some kind of action based on the contents of
the request messages.
The actions that the application server software performs are determined by the rules used in
the business. These rules are called business logic.
Large information systems that store the same data in many different physical location are
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Large information systems that store the same data in many different physical location are
called distributed information systems The databases within those systems are called distributed
database systems.
The Simple Object Access Protocol (SOAP) is a message-passing protocol that defines how to
send marked up data from one software application to another across a network.
Enterprise resource planning (ERP) software packages are business systems that integrate all
facets of a business, including accounting, logistics, manufacturing, marketing, planning, project
management and treasury functions.
UNIT IV
PART - A
* Secrecy
* Integrity
* Availability
* Key management
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* Nonrepudiation
* Authentication
2. Define secrecy?
Secrecy refers to protecting against unauthorized data disclosure and ensuring the
authenticity of data source
3. Define integrity?
4. Define necessity?
A security policy is a written statement describing which assets to protect and why are they
protected and who are responsible for that protection and what behaviors are acceptable
* Authentication
* Access control
* Secrecy
* Data integrity
* Audit
Cyber squatting is the practice of registering a domain name that is trade mark of another
person in hope that the owner will pay huge amount to acquire the URL.
Java script is a scripting language that is developed by Netscape to enable Web page
developers to build active amount.
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9. Define virus?
A virus is software that attaches itself to another program and cause damage when host
program is activated.
A worm is a type of virus that replicates itself on the computer it infects and it can spread
quickly through INTERNET.
A micro virus is a type of virus that is coded as small program called macro and is
embedded in a file.
Domain name servers are the computers on internet that maintains directories that link
domain name to IP address.
Masquerading or spoofing pretending to be someone you are not ,or representing a website
as an original when it is fake is one means of distributing web sites.
The purpose of a necessity threat, also known as by other names such as a delay, denial, or
denial of service threat (DoS), is to disrupt normal computer processing, or deny processing
entirely.
15. What is meant by buffer?
A buffer is an area of memory set aside to hold data read from a file or database. A buffer is
necessary whenever any input or output operation takes place because a computer can process file
information much faster than the information can be read from input devices or written to output
devices. A buffer serves as a holding area for incoming or outgoing data.
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Provide delivery assurance for each message segment so that message or message segments
cannot be lost undetectably.
Provide undeniable, end to end proof of each messages origin and recipient.
Securely identify clients and server with digital signatures and certificates.
Copy control is an electronic mechanism for limiting number of copies that one can make of
a digital work.
(i).Certificate owners identifying information, such as name, organization, address, and so on.
(ii)Certificate owners public key.
(iii)Dates between which the certificate is valid.
(iv)Serial number of the certificate.
(v)Name of the certificate issuer
(vi)Digital signature of the certificate issuer.
23. What are the options for the security setting level?
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Cryptography is the science of creating message that only the sender and receiver can read.
Cryptography does not hide text; it converts it to other text that is visible, but does not appear to
have any meaning.
The program that transforms normal text, called clear text into cipher text (the
unintelligible string of characters) is called encryption program.
(i)Hash Coding
(ii)Asymmetric encryption (public key encryption)
(iii) Symmetric encryption.
Hash coding is a process that uses a hash algorithm to calculate a number, called a hash
value, from a message of any length. It is a fingerprint for the message because it is almost certain
to be unique for each message.
Symmetric encryption also known as private key encryption, encodes a message by using
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a single numeric key, such as 456839420783, to encode and decode data. Because the same key is
used, both the message sender and the message receiver must know the key. Encoding and
decoding message using symmetric encryption is very fast and efficient.
31. How is public key encryption advantageous over private key encryption?
Public key systems provide several advantages over private key encryption methods. First,
the combination of key required to provide private message between enormous numbers of people
is small. Second, key distribution is not a problem. Each persons public key can be posted
anywhere and does not require any special handling to distribute. Third, public key systems make
implementation of digital signatures possible.
A firewall is a computer and software combination that is installed at the Internet entry
point of a networked system.
(i)All traffic from inside to outside and from outside to inside the network must pass through it.
(ii)Only authorized traffic, as defined by the local security policy, is allowed to pass through it.
(iii)The firewall itself is immune to penetration.
Those networks inside the firewall are often called trusted, whereas networks outside the
firewall are called untrusted.
Packet filter firewalls examine all data flowing back and forth between the trusted
network(within the firewall) and the Internet. Packet filtering examines the source and destination
addresses and ports of incoming packets and denies or permits entrance to the packets based on a
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Gateway server are firewalls that filter traffic based on the application requested. Gateway
server limit access to specific applications such as Telnet, FTP, and HTTP. A gateway firewall
provides a central point where all requests can be classified, logged, and later analyzed.
Proxy servers are firewalls that communicate with the internet on the private networks behalf.
When a browser is configured to use a proxy server firewall, the firewall passes the browser
request to the internet. When the internet sends back a response, the proxy server relays it back to
the browser. Proxy server are also used to serve as a huge cache for web pages.
An Integrity threat, also known as active wiretapping, exists when an unauthorized party can
alter a message stream of information.
Cyber vandalism is the electronic defacing of an existing web sites page. The electronic
equivalent of destroying property or placing graffiti on objects, cyber vandalism occurs whenever
someone replaces a web sites regular content with his or her own content.
1. Session cookies.
2. Persistent cookies.
Session cookies, which exist until the web client ends the connection(or session).
Persistent cookies, which remain on the client computer indefinitely. Electronic commerce
sites use both kinds of cookies.
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Ethical hackers, these computer sleuths are hired to probe PCs and locate information that can
be used in legal proceedings.
The field of computer forensics is responsible for the collection, preservation, and analysis of
computer related evidence.
UNIT V
PART - A
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An Intelligent agent is software that assists people and acts on their behalf. Intelligent
agents work by allowing people to delegate work that they could have done, to the agent software.
2. Define Agent?
Agents are seen as a way of supplying software that acts as the representative of the users
goals in the complex environment. Agent software can provide the glue between the applications,
freeing the user from the complexity of dealing with the separate application environments.
A single agent system is one in which the problem domain is encapsulated within the
system. Single agent systems are not configured to interface with other agents.
Multi Agent systems, on the other hand, are much more complex to design and test, but
they provide greater potential for electronic commerce applications since the interaction between
agents of multiple systems is possible. A multi agent environment necessitates that cooperation
(i)The ability to solve problems that have hitherto been beyond the scope of automation either
because no existing technology could be used to solve the problem, or because it was considered
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too expensive.
(ii)The ability to solve problems that can already be solved in a significantly better way.
(i) Agency
(ii) Intelligence.
(iii) Mobility.
8. Define Agency?
The degree of autonomous action that can be taken; that is actions performed without the
need for direct human intervention or intervention by other agents. The agent have control over
the actions performed within its system, ie., not have actions imposed by other agents. Actions can
be requested by other agents, but the agent itself decides whether to approve and allow the action.
9. Define Intelligence?
The extend to which an agent understand its own internal state and its external
environment. The level of intelligence is further classified according to its ability to respond, to
Agents should have the ability to detect changes in users environment and the relevant
environment.
Agents should be able to determine when new or different goal directed behavior is
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Agent mobility refers to the ability of software to travel from machine to machine and
perform tasks or processes on foreign computers. When necessary, agents should be able to
interact with other agents and humans, both to perform their own activities and to help others
A system or environment where multiple agents work together to achieve multiple, but
interdependent goals is called an agent society.
(i) openness
(ii) complexity of society
(iii) interfacing techniques
(iv) negotiation
(v) internal control methods.
Openness of a system refers to the capability of the system to dynamically change in response
to its environment.
Complexity of society involves the manner in which tasks are decomposed into manageable
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Interfacing techniques help the various agents in the society to connect and communicate.
Autonomous or semi autonomous agents, or nodes in a society must employ some agreed upon
interfaces.
Negotiation between agents is a key component of societies, and the method used to negotiate
Internal controls over the data used by agents and the actual knowledge base contained by the
agent are another feature of agent societies.
Continuous reliability assurance is the type of assurance service that accountants can perform
A Java Knowledge Query and Manipulation Language (JKQML) has been developed and used
in mobile agents written in applets, called aglets.
Marketing is the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion, and
distribution of ideas, goods, and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and
organizational goals.
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A product is a good service that a business offers to its customers. Without some sort of viable
product to offer, a business cannot survive.
Service product generally involves the performance of a task for the customer; examples
The pricing of goods refers to the processes involved in determining the amount to charge for
a specific physical good or service. Pricing models are typically used to determine a firms price.
The distribution task entails moving the product from the producer to the customer. The
product may travel directly from the producer to the consumer or it may be channeled through
One way channels send a message to the potential customer, but do not provide a direct
mechanism for communication to the business. Eg., radio, roadside bulletin boards, television,
magazines, newspapers.
Two- way channels send the message to the potential customer and provide a direct
mechanism for communication from the potential customer to the business. Eg., direct mail via
phone responses and inquiries, telemarketing web site advertising via forms based input.
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Search engines take user defined strings and Boolean expressions(such as AND and OR) and
return a list of closely matched web sites in the order of closeness of match.
Typically rectangular in shape, banner advertisements contain text and graphics that are
placed on the screens of search engines, web browser software, and web sites to attract the
The Click through advertisements, meaning they contain hypertext links to the site about
which the banner is advertising. The banners can contain static text or animation.
(i) Transport
(ii) Language
(iii) Policy
(iv) Architecture
Physical goods generally have a physical, tangible presence and include items such as
automobiles, grocery items, and printed newspapers.
Pull or pull technology refers to requesting data from another program or server. The WWW
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is based on pull technology, where a client's browser must request a web page before it is sent.
Push or push technology refers to sending data to a client without the client requesting it.
Information is sent out, regardless of whether anyone is tuned in. PointCast, which delivers
On the Internet, a router is a device or, in some cases, software in a computer, that directs
information packets to the next point toward their destination. The router is connected to at least
two networks and decides which way to send each information packet based on its current
understanding of the state of the networks it is connected to. A router is located at any juncture of
TCP/IP is the acronym for Transport Control Protocol/Internet Protocol, the suite of
communications protocols used to connect hosts on the Internet. TCP/IP uses several protocols,
the two main ones being TCP and IP. TCP/IP is built into the UNIX operating system and is used
by the Internet, making it the de facto standard for transmitting data over networks. Even network
operating systems that have their own protocols, such as NetWare, also support TCP/IP.
A server is a computer on a LAN that provides services or resources to client (stand alone)
computers by sharing its resources. Servers may be dedicated, in which case they share their
resources but don't use them themselves, except in performing administrative tasks. Servers may
also be used to run applications for users, in which case the server is called an application server.
Peer-to-peer or workgroup servers, such as servers created by using PCs running Windows NT
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A workstation is a client computer (stand alone machine) on a (Local Area Network) or Wide
Area Network that is used to run applications and is connected to a server from which it obtains
data shared with other computers. Workstation is also used to describe a high-priced PC that uses
"open" system.
Internet Explorer is Microsoft's Web browser. Like Netscape Navigator, Internet Explorer
enables you to view Web pages. The major differences between Internet Explorer and Navigator
are: Internet Explorer supports ActiveX and VBScript, while Navigator does not. Internet Explorer
runs only under Windows and on Macintoshes whereas Navigator runs on these platforms as well
as UNIX. Otherwise, the two browsers are very similar. Both support Java and JavaScript.
communicating information via intranets and the Internet. Communicator includes components
for navigation, (Navigator), email, (Messenger), discussion groups, (Collabra), HTML authoring,
calendar and scheduling, (Calendar), IBM host communications, and Communicator management.
NetWare is a software product that runs on a variety of different types of LANs, from Ethernet to
IBM token-ring networks. It provides users and programmers with a consistent interface that is
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PART - B
system known as the Standard Generalized Markup Language (SGML). SGML is an international
texts in electronic form. This chapter presents a brief tutorial guide to its main features, for those
readers who have not encountered it before. For a more technical account of TEI practice in using
the SGML standard, for a more technical description of the subset of SGML used by the TEI
encoding scheme, Formal Grammar for the TEI Interchange Format Subset of SGML .
SGML is an international standard for the description of marked-up electronic text. More
exactly, SGML is a metalanguage, that is, a means of formally describing a language, in this case, a
markup language. Before going any further we should define these terms.
The word markup has been used to describe annotation or other marks within a text
intended to instruct a compositor or typist how a particular passage should be printed or laid out.
Examples include wavy underlining to indicate boldface, special symbols for passages to be
omitted or printed in a particular font and so forth. As the formatting and printing of texts was
automated, the term was extended to cover all sorts of special markup codes inserted into electronic
Generalizing from that sense, we define markup, or (synonymously) encoding, as any means
of making explicit an interpretation of a text. At a banal level, all printed texts are encoded in this
sense: punctuation marks, use of capitalization, disposition of letters around the page, even the
spaces between words, might be regarded as a kind of markup, the function of which is to help the
human reader determine where one word ends and another begins, or how to identify gross
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structural features such as headings or simple syntactic units such as dependent clauses or
sentences. Encoding a text for computer processing is in principle, like transcribing a manuscript
from scriptio continua, a process of making explicit what is conjectural or implicit, a process of
directing the user as to how the content of the text should be interpreted.
By markup language we mean a set of markup conventions used together for encoding texts.
A markup language must specify what markup is allowed, what markup is required, how markup
is to be distinguished from text, and what the markup means. SGML provides the means for doing
the first three; documentation such as these Guidelines is required for the last.
The present chapter attempts to give an informal introduction---much less formal than the
standard itself---to those parts of SGML of which a proper understanding is necessary to make
products and services. Companies in every field are doing business on-line. Networking through
electronic commerce can be applied to any facet of a company's operations, including marketing
and sales; purchasing and logistics; production; design and engineering. The most effective use of
electronic commerce is when several of these functions are combined: information flows from sales
to purchasing, to production.
Promote: Businesses are using web pages to advise clients and potential clients about their
business and its value. Web pages keep clients informed about products, services, and
developments, and they provide the opportunity to answer client questions. They may also
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use their web sites to solicit market research information from clients or guests who visit
sales -- to sell products, seven days a week, 24 hours per day throughout the globe; product
awareness -- online marketing and advertising; customer service -- customer support and
effectiveness -- due to the speed of communication; it offers the opportunity to work out of
the home; to compete globally without setting up offices in other countries; because small
companies can compete against much larger companies as no one can tell how large or
young your company is based on your Internet presence; to find information, conduct
Link
private network inside a company or organization. Intranets are used to organize internal
Externally - Improve communications with suppliers, customers and partners and integrate
your business processes using an Extranet. Extranet: connecting of two or more intranets,
Creating New Business Models: Sharing resource with new partners to create virtual global
enterprises. The Net has the potential to act as a central nervous system coordinating the
If I don't want to sell electronically, why use electronic commerce? What arethebenefits?
You can improve customer service by providing new avenues for promotion and distribution, by
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responding more quickly to orders, and by offering more responsive after sales service.
You can cut costs and save time by improving the quality of supply chain management, by
integrating back-end production and logistics with front-end marketing and sales, and by letting
You can cut costs and save time by improving internal functions, by cutting down on meetings,
by sharing information, by eliminating endless trails of paper, and by assuring that internal
The aspects of SGML discussed so far are all concerned with the markup of structural
elements within a document. SGML also provides a simple and flexible method of encoding and
naming arbitrary parts of the actual content of a document in a portable way. In SGML the word
entity has a special sense: it means a named part of a marked up document, irrespective of any
include it in a document, we use a construction known as an entity reference. For example, the
following declaration
defines an entity whose name is tei and whose value is the string ``Text Encoding Initiative.'' This
is an instance of an entity declaration, which declares an internal entity. The following declaration,
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This defines a system entity whose name is ChapTwo and whose value is the text associated
with the system identifier --- in this case, the system identifier is the name of an operating system
file and the replacement text of the entity is the contents of the file.
Once an entity has been declared, it may be referenced anywhere within a document. This
is done by supplying its name prefixed with the ampersand character and followed by the
semicolon. The semicolon may be omitted if the entity reference is followed by a space or record
end.
When an SGML parser encounters such an entity reference, it immediately substitutes the
value declared for the entity name. Thus, the passage ``The work of the &tei has only just begun''
will be interpreted by an SGML processor exactly as if it read ``The work of the Text Encoding
Initiative has only just begun''. In the case of a system entity, it is, of course, the contents of the
operating system file which are substituted, so that the passage ``The following text has been
suppressed: will be expanded to include the whole of whatever the system finds in the file
sgmlmkup.txt.
This obviously saves typing, and simplifies the task of maintaining consistency in a set of
documents. If the printing of a complex document is to be done at many sites, the document body
itself might use an entity reference, such as &site;, wherever the name of the site is required.
Different entity declarations could then be added at different sites to supply the appropriate string
to be substituted for this name, with no need to change the text of the document itself.
This string substitution mechanism has many other applications. It can be used to
circumvent the notorious inadequacies of many computer systems for representing the full range
of graphic characters needed for the display of modern English (let alone the requirements of
other modern scripts or of ancient languages). So-called`special characters' not directly accessible
from the keyboard (or if accessible not correctly translated when transmitted) may be represented
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by an entity reference.
Suppose, for example, that we wish to encode the use of ligatures in early printed texts. The
ligatured form of `ct' might be distinguished from the non-ligatured form by encoding it as &ctlig;
rather than ct. Other special typographic features such as leafstops or rules could equally well be
represented by mnemonic entity references in the text. When processing such texts, an entity
declaration would be added giving the desired representation for such textual elements. If, for
example, ligatured letters are of no interest, we would simply add a declaration such as
and the distinction present in the source document would be removed. If, on the other hand, a
the entity declaration to give whatever sequence of characters such a program requires as the
expansion.
A list of entity declarations is known as an entity set. Standard entity sets are provided for
use with most SGML processors, in which the names used will normally be taken from the lists of
such names published as an annex to the SGML standard and elsewhere, as mentioned above.
The replacement values given in an entity declaration are, of course, highly system
dependent. If the characters to be used in them cannot be typed in directly, SGML provides a
mechanism to specify characters by their numeric values, known as character references. A character
reference is distinguished from other characters in the replacement string by the fact that it begins
with a special symbol, conventionally the sequence `&#', and ends with the normal semicolon. For
example, if the formatter to be used represents the ligatured form of ct by the characters c and t
prefixed by the character with decimal value 102, the entity declaration would read:
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Note that character references will generally not make sense if transferred to another
hardware or software environment: for this reason, their use is only recommended in situations
like this.
Useful though the entity reference mechanism is for dealing with occasional departures
from the expected character set, no one would consider using it to encode extended passages, such
as quotations in Greek or Russian in an English text. In such situations, different mechanisms are
A special form of entities, parameter entities, may be used within SGML markup declarations;
these differ from the entities discussed above (which technically are known as general entities) in
two ways:
Parameter entities are used only within SGML markup declarations; with some special
exceptions which will not be discussed here, they will normally not be found within the
document itself.
Parameter entities are delimited by percent sign and semicolon, rather than by ampersand
and semicolon.
Declarations for parameter entities take the same form as those for general entities, but insert a
percent sign between the keyword ENTITY and the name of the entity itself. White space (blanks,
tabs, or line breaks) must occur on both sides of the percent sign. An internal parameter entity
named TEI.prose, with an expansion of INCLUDE, and an external parameter entity named
TEI.extensions.dtd, which refers to the system file mystuff.dtd, could be declared thus:
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The TEI document type definition makes extensive use of parameter entities to control the
selection of different tag sets and to make it easier to modify the TEI DTD.
The simple and consistent mechanism for the markup or identification of structural textual units
which is provided by SGML. It also describes the methods SGML provides for the expression of rules
defining how combinations of such units can meaningfully occur in any text.
4.1 Elements
The technical term used in the SGML standard for a textual unit, viewed as a structural
component, is element. Different types of elements are given different names, but SGML provides
no way of expressing the meaning of a particular type of element, other than its relationship to
other element types. That is, all one can say about an element called (for instance) <blort> is that
instances of it may (or may not) occur within elements of type <farble>, and that it may (or may
not) be decomposed into elements of type <blortette>. It should be stressed that the SGML
standard is entirely unconcerned with the semantics of textual elements: these are application
dependent. It is up to the creators of SGML conformant tag sets (such as these Guidelines) to
choose intelligible names for the elements they identify and to document their proper use in text
markup. That is one purpose of this document. From the need to choose element names indicative
of function comes the technical term for the name of an element type, which is generic identifier, or
GI.
Within a marked up text (a document instance), each element must be explicitly marked or
tagged in some way. The standard provides for a variety of different ways of doing this, the most
commonly used being to insert a tag at the beginning of the element (a start-tag) and another at its
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end (an end-tag). The start- and end- tag pair are used to bracket off the element occurrences
within the running text, in rather the same way as different types of parentheses or quotation
marks are used in conventional punctuation. For example, a quotation element in a text might be
tagged as follows:
As this example shows, a start-tag takes the form <name>, where the opening angle bracket
indicates the start of the start-tag, ``name'' is the generic identifier of the element which is being
delimited, and the closing angle bracket indicates the end of a tag. An end-tag takes an identical
form, except that the opening angle bracket is followed by a solidus (slash) character, so that the
An element may be empty, that is, it may have no content at all, or it may contain simple
text. More usually, however, elements of one type will be embedded (contained entirely) within
To illustrate this, we will consider a very simple structural model. Let us assume that we
wish to identify within an anthology only poems, their titles, and the stanzas and lines of which
they are composed. In SGML terms, our document type is the anthology, and it consists of a series
of poems. Each poem has embedded within it one element, a title, and several occurrences of
another, a stanza, each stanza having embedded within it a number of line elements. Fully marked
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<anthology>
<stanza>
</stanza>
<stanza>
</stanza>
</poem>
</anthology>
It should be stressed that this example does not use the same names as are proposed for
corresponding elements elsewhere in these Guidelines: the above is not a valid TEI
document. It will however serve as an introduction to the basic notions of SGML. White
space and line breaks have been added to the example for the sake of visual clarity
only; they have no particular significance in the SGML encoding itself. Also, the line
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This example makes no assumptions about the rules governing, for example, whether or not a
title can appear in places other than preceding the first stanza, or whether lines can appear which
are not included in a stanza: that is why its markup appears so verbose. In such cases, the
beginning and end of every element must be explicitly marked, because there are no identifiable
rules about which elements can appear where. In practice, however, rules can usually be
formulated to reduce the need for so much tagging. For example, considering our greatly over-
A poem always has a single title element which precedes the first stanza and contains no
other elements.
Nothing can follow a stanza except another stanza or the end of a poem.
Nothing can follow a line except another line or the start of a new stanza.
From these rules, it may be inferred that we do not need to mark the ends of stanzas or lines
explicitly. From rule 2 it follows that we do not need to mark the end of the title---it is implied by
the start of the first stanza. Similarly, from rules 3 and 1 it follows that we need not mark the end of
the poem: since poems cannot occur within poems but must occur within anthologies, the end of a
poem is implied by the start of the next poem, or by the end of the anthology. Applying these
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<anthology>
<stanza>
<stanza>
<poem>
</anthology>
The ability to use rules stating which elements can be nested within others to simplify markup
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