Chapter II

AC to DC CONVERSION
(RECTIFIER)
Single-phase, half wave rectifier
Uncontrolled
R load
R-L load
R-C load
Controlled
Free wheeling diode

Single-phase, full wave rectifier

R load
R-L load,
Controlled R, R-L load
continuous and discontinuous current mode

Three-phase rectifier
uncontrolled
controlled

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 Rectifiers
DEFINITION: Converting AC (from
mains or other AC source) to DC power by
using power diodes or by controlling the
firing angles of thyristors/controllable
switches.

Basic block diagram

AC input DC output

Input can be single or multi-phase (e.g. 3-

phase).
Output can be made fixed or variable

Applications: DC welder, DC motor drive,

Battery charger,DC power supply

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Single-phase, half-wave with
R-load

+
+
vs
vo
_
_

vs

t
vo
io

Output voltage (average),

Vo = Vavg = Vm sin(t )dt
0
Vm
= = 0.318Vm

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 RMS voltage
Output voltage (RMS)
1 Vm
Vo, RMS = (Vm sin( t ) ) d t =2
0 2
Output current (DC),
Vo 0.318Vm
Io = =
R R

DC voltage is fixed at 0.318 or 31.8% of

the peak value

RMS voltage is reduced from 0.707

(normal sinusoidal RMS) to 0.5 or 50%
of peak value.

Half wave is not practical because of

high distortion supply current. The
supply current contains DC component
that may saturate the input transformer
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 Half-wave with R-L load
i

+
vR +
+ _
vTNB vo
_ +
vL _
_

vs = vR + vL
di (t )
Vm sin( t ) = i (t ) R + L
dt
This is a first order differenti al equation.
Solution is in the form of :

i (t ) = i f (t ) + in (t )

where : i f , in are known as " forced" and

" natural" response, respective ly.
From diagram, forced response is :

Vm
i f (t ) = sin( t )
Z
where :
L
Z= R 2 + ( L ) 2 and = tan 1
R
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 R-L load
Natural response is when source = 0,
di (t )
i (t ) R + L =0
dt
which results in :

in (t ) = Aet ; = L R

Hence
i (t ) = i f (t ) + in (t ) = m sin( t ) + Ae t
V
Z

A can be solved by realising inductor current

is zero before the diode starts conducting, i.e :

Vm
i (0) = sin(0 ) + Ae 0
Z
Vm Vm
A= sin( ) = sin( )
Z Z

Therefore the current is given as,

i (t ) = m [sin( t ) + sin( )e t ]
V
Z
or
i ( t ) = m [sin( t ) + sin( )e t ]
V
Z
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 R-L waveform
vs,

io

vo

vR

vL

t
0 2 3 4

Note :
vL is negative because the current is
decreasing, i.e :
di
vL = L
dt
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 Extinction angle
Note that the diode remains in forward biased
longer than radians (although the source is
negative during that duration)
The point when current reaches zero is when
diode turns OFF. This point is known as the
extinction angle, .

Vm
i( ) = [sin( ) + sin( )e ] = 0
Z
which reduces to :

sin( ) + sin( )e
= 0
can only be solved numerically.
Therefore, the diode conducts between 0 and
To summarise the rectfier with R - L load,

Vm
Z
[
sin( t ) + sin( )e t ]

i ( t ) = for 0 t
0
otherwise

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 RMS current, Power Factor
The average (DC) current is :

1 2 1
Io = i ( t )d t = i ( t ) d t
2 0 2 0

The RMS current is :

1 2 2 1 2
I RMS = i ( t )d t = i ( t )d t
2 0 2 0

Power absorbed by the load is :

Po = (I RMS )2 R

Power Factor is computed from definition :

P
pf =
S
where P is the real power supplied by the source,
which equal to the power absorbed by the load.
S is the apparent power supplied by the
source, i.e
S = (Vs, RMS ).(I RMS )

P
pf =
(Vs, RMS ).(I RMS )
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Half wave rectifier, R-C Load

+ iD +
vs vo
_ _

vs
Vm

/2 2 3 /2 3 4

Vmax vo
Vmin Vo
iD

Vm sin( t ) w hen diode is ON

vo = ( t ) / RC
V
e when diode is OFF
v = Vm sin

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 Operation
Let C initially After t= /2, C
uncharged. Circuit discharges into
is energised at load (R).
t=0
The source
Diode becomes becomes less than
forward biased as the output voltage
the source become
positive Diode reverse
biased; isolating
When diode is ON the load from
the output is the source.
same as source
voltage. C charges The output voltage
until Vm decays
exponentially.

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 Estimation of
The slope of the functions are :

d (Vm sin t )
= Vm cos t
d ( t )
and
d (Vm sin e ( t ) / RC )
d ( t )
1 ( t ) / RC
= Vm sin e
RC

At t = , the slopes are equal,

1 ( ) / RC
Vm cos = Vm sin e
RC

Vm cos 1
=
Vm sin RC

1 1
=
tan RC

= tan 1 ( RC ) = tan 1 ( RC ) +
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 Estimation of

For practical circuits, RC is large, then :

= -tan( ) + = + =
2 2
and Vm sin = Vm

At t = 2 + ,

Vm sin(2 + ) = (Vm sin )e ( 2 + ) RC

or

sin( (sin )e ( 2 + ) RC = 0

This equation must be solved numerically for

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 Ripple Voltage
Max output voltage is Vmax .

Min output voltage occurs at t = 2 +

Reffering to diagram, the ripple is :

Vo = Vmax Vmin

= Vm Vm sin( 2 + ) = Vm Vm sin

If V = Vm and = 2, and C is large such that

DC output voltage is constant, then 2.

The output voltage evaluated at t = 2 + is :

2 + 2 2 2

RC RC
vo (2 + ) = Vm e = Vm e

The ripple voltage is approximated as :

2 2

RC RC
Vo Vm Vm e = Vm 1 e

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 Voltage ripple-contd
Approximation of exponent term yields :

2 RC 2
e 1
RC

Substituting,

2 Vm
Vo Vm =
RC fRC
The output voltage ripple is reduced
by increasing C.
As C is increased, the conduction interval
for diode increases.

Therefore, reduction in output voltage

ripple results in larger peak diode current.

EXAMPLE:
The half wave rectifier has 120V RMS source at
60Hz. R=500 Ohm and C=100uF. Determine (a)
the expression for output voltage, (b) voltage ripple.
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 Controlled half-wave
ig ia
vo
ia

+ +
t
vs vo vs
_ _

ig

t
Average voltage :

1 Vm
Vo = Vm sin ( t )d t = [1 + cos ]
2 2

RMS volatge

2
1
VRMS = [Vm sin ( t )] d t
2

Vm2 Vm sin (2 )
= [1 cos(2 t ] d t = 1 +
4 2 2

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 Controlled h/w, R-L load
i

+
vR
+ +
_
vs vo
_ +
vL _
_

vs

2 t

vo

io

2 t

i ( t ) = i f ( t ) + in ( t ) = m sin ( t ) + Ae
V
Z
Initial condition : i ( ) = 0,

Vm
i ( ) = 0 = sin ( ) + Ae
Z


A =
Vm
sin ( )
e
Z
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 Extinction angle
Substituti ng for A and simplifying,
( t )

Vm
sin ( t ) sin ( )e
Z

i ( t ) = for t
0 otherwise

Extinction angle, is defined when i = 0,

(
Vm
i( ) = 0 = sin ( ) sin ( )e
Z

which can only be solved numerically.

Angle ( ) is called the conduction angel.

i.e the diode conducts for degrees.

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 RMS voltage and current
Averagevoltage:

1 Vm
Vo = Vm sin(t )dt = [cos cos ]
2 2

Averagecurrent RMScurrent

1 1 2
Io = i(t )d I RMS = i (t )d
2 2

Thepowerabsorbedby theloadis :

Po = I RMS2 R

EXAMPLES
1. Design a circuit to produce an average voltage of 40V
across a 100 ohm load from a 120V RMS, 60Hz supply.
Determine the power factor absorbed by the resistance.

2. A half wave rectifier has a source of 120V RMS at

60Hz. R=20 ohm, L=0.04H, and the delay angle is 45
degrees. Determine: (a) the expression for i(t), (b)
average current, (c) the power absorbed by the load.
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 Freewheeling diode (FWD)
Note that for single-phase, half wave
rectifier with R-L load, the load (output)
current is NOT continuos.

A FWD (sometimes known as

commutation diode) can be placed as
shown below to make it continuos
io

+
vR
+ +
_
vs vo
_ +
vL _
_

io io
vo = 0
+ v o = vs +
+
vs vo
vo io
_
_
_

D1 is on, D2 is off D2 is on, D1 is off

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 Operation of FWD
Note that both D1 and D2 cannot be turned
on at the same time.
For a positive cycle voltage source,
D1 is on, D2 is off
The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure (b)
The voltage across the R-L load is the same as
the source voltage.

For a negative cycle voltage source,

D1 is off, D2 is on
The equivalent circuit is shown in Figure (c)
The voltage across the R-L load is zero.
However, the inductor contains energy from
positive cycle. The load current still circulates
through the R-L path.
But in contrast with the normal half wave
rectifier, the circuit in Figure (c) does not
consist of supply voltage in its loop.
Hence the negative part of vo as shown in the
normal half-wave disappear.

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 FWD- Continuous load
current

The inclusion of FWD results in continuos

load current, as shown below.

Note also the output voltage has no

negative part.

output vo

io
iD1 t
Diode
current
iD2

0 2 3 4

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Full wave rectifier with R load

iD1

io
is
+ +
vs vo
_ _

Bridge circuit
is iD1

+
vs1
+ _ vo +
vs
_ + io
vs2
_

iD2

Center-tapped circuit

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 Notes on full-wave
Center-tapped rectifier requires center-tap
transformer. Bridge does not.

Center tap requires only two diodes,

compared to four for bridge. Hence, per
half-cycle only one diode volt-drop is
experienced. Conduction losses is half of
bridge.

However, the diodes ratings for center-

tapped is twice than bridge.

For both circuits,

vo = {V Vsinsin t t
m
m
0 t
t 2

DC voltage :
1 2Vm
Vo = Vm sin ( t )d t = = 0.637Vm
0
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 Bridge waveforms

vs
Vm

2 3 4

vo
Vm

vD1
vD2
-Vm
vD3 vD4

-Vm
io

iD1 iD2

iD3
iD4
is

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Center-tapped waveforms
vs
Vm

2 3 4

vo
Vm

vD1

-2Vm
vD2

-2Vm
io

iD1

iD2

is

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 Full wave bridge, R-L load
io

iD1
is +
vR +
+
vs
_
_ vo
+
_
vL
_

iD1 , iD2

2 3 4
iD3 ,iD4

vo
output io

vs is
supply

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 R-L load analysis:
approximation with large L
Using Fourier Series, output voltage
is described as :

vo ( t ) = Vo + Vn cos(n t + )
n = 2, 4...
where
2Vm
Vo =

2Vm 1 1
Vn =
n 1 n + 1

The DC and harmonic currents are :

Vo Vn Vn
Io = In = =
R Z n R + jn L

Note that as n increases, voltage

amplitude for the nth harmonic decreases.
This makes I n decreases rapidly for
increasing n. Only a few terms sufficient
to approximate output.

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 R-L load analysis
If Lis large enough, it is possible to drop all the
harmonic terms, i.e. :
Vo 2Vm
i( t ) I o = = , for L >> R,
R R
The approximation with large L is shown below.

iD1 , iD2 exact approx.

2 3 4
iD3 ,iD4

vo
output io

2Vm/R
is
supply

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 Examples
I RMS = I o 2 + (I n, RMS 2 ) = I o

Power delivered to the load : Po = I RMS 2 R

EXAMPLE: Given a bridge rectifier has an

AC source Vm=100V at 50Hz, and R-L
load with R=10ohm, L=10mH

a) determine the average current in the load

b) determine the first two higher order
harmonics of the load current
c) determine the power absorbed by the load

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Controlled full wave, R load

iD1

io
is
+ +
vs vo
_ _

1 Vm
Vo = Vm sin ( t )d t = [1 + cos ]


2
1
VRMS =

[Vm sin ( t )] d t

1 sin (2 )
= Vm +
2 2 4
The power absorbed by the R load is :

VRMS 2
Po =
R
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 Controlled, R-L load io

iD1
is +
vR +
+
vs
_
_ vo
+
_
vL
_

io
2
+

vo

Discontinuous mode
+
io
2

vo

Continuous mode

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 Discontinuous mode
Analysis similar to controlled half wave with
R - L load :

i ( t ) = m [sin( t ) sin( )e ( t ) ]
V
Z

for t
Z = R 2 + ( L) 2
1
L L
and = tan ; =
R R
For discontinous mode, need to ensure :

< ( + )
Note that is the extinction angle and
must be solved numerically with condition :
io ( ) = 0

The boundary between continous and

discontinous current mode is when in
the output current expression is ( + ).

For continous operation current at

t = ( + ) must be greater than zero.
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 Continuous mode
i ( + ) 0
sin( + ) sin( + )e ( + ) 0

Using Trigonometry identity :

sin( + ) = sin( ),

sin( )[1 e ( )
] 0,
Solving for

1
L
= tan
R

Thus for continuous current mode,

1 L
tan
R

Average (DC) output voltage is given as :

1 + 2Vm
Vo =

Vm sin ( t )d t = cos

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 Single-phase diode groups
D1
io

D3 vp
+
vs +
_ vo
D4 _

D2 vn
vo =vp vn

In the top group (D1, D3), the cathodes (-) of the two
diodes are at a common potential. Therefore, the
diode with its anode (+) at the highest potential will
conduct (carry) id.

For example, when vs is ( +), D1 conducts id and D3

reverses (by taking loop around vs, D1 and D3).
When vs is (-), D3 conducts, D1 reverses.

In the bottom group, the anodes of the two diodes

are at common potential. Therefore the diode with
its cathode at the lowest potential conducts id.

For example, when vs (+), D2 carry id. D4 reverses.

When vs is (-), D4 carry id. D2 reverses.

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 Three-phase rectifiers
D1
+ van - io
D3

+ vbn - D5
n vpn
+
vo
+ vcn -
D2 _

D6 vnn vo =vp vn

D4

van vbn vcn

Vm

vp
Vm

vn

vo =vp - vn

0 2 3 4
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 Three-phase waveforms
Top group: diode with its anode at the
highest potential will conduct. The other
two will be reversed.

Bottom group: diode with the its cathode at

the lowest potential will conduct. The other
two will be reversed.

For example, if D1 (of the top group)

conducts, vp is connected to van.. If D6 (of the
bottom group) conducts, vn connects to vbn .
All other diodes are off.

The resulting output waveform is given as:

vo=vp-vn

For peak of the output voltage is equal to

the peak of the line to line voltage vab .

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 Three-phase, average voltage
vo
vo

/3
Vm, L-L

/3 2/3

Considers only one of the six segments. Obtain

its average over 60 degrees or 3 radians.
Average voltage :
2 3
1
Vo = Vm, L L sin( t )d t
3 3
3Vm, L L
= [cos( t )]2 33

3Vm, L L
= = 0.955Vm, L L

Note that the output DC voltage component of

a three - phase rectifier is much higher than of a
single - phase.
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 Controlled, three-phase
D1

+ van - io
D3

+ vbn -
D5 vpn
n
+
+ vcn - vo
D2 _

D6 vnn

D4

van vbn vcn

Vm

vo

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 Output voltage of controlled
three phase rectifier
From the previous Figure, let be the
delay angle of the SCR.

Average voltage can be computed as :

2 3+
1
Vo = Vm, L L sin( t )d t
3 3+

3Vm, L L
= cos

EXAMPLE: A three-phase controlled rectifier has

an input voltage of 415V RMS at 50Hz. The load
R=10 ohm. Determine the delay angle required to
produce current of 50A.

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