CC - 2016 Compendium (Fire, Cover, WaterRetaining, Masonry) PDF

Structural Design of
Concrete and Masonry:

A compendium of technical papers
Structural Design of Concrete and Masonry
Contents
4 How to calculate anchorage and lap lengths to Eurocode 2
12 Deflection the span-to-effective-depth method and Eurocode 2
17 Fire Design of concrete columns and walls to Eurocode 2
23 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures for vertical loads
29 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures for lateral loads and other factors
34 Design of post-tensioned slabs
40 Guidance on the design of liquid-retaining structures
45 An introduction to strut-and-tie modelling
About The Concrete Centre

The Concrete Centre provides material, design and construction guidance with the aim
of enabling those involved in the design, use and performance of concrete and masonry
to realise the potential of the material.
Through funding from the cement, aggregates, ready-mixed and precast concrete
sectors, The Concrete Centre is able to invest in the development of services and
resources that support the design and construction of robust, sustainable, cost-effective
structures throughout the built environment.
Resources available for structural engineers are highlighted on the inside back cover
of this document (page 51) and there is a wealth of material available at
www.concretecentre.com.
2 I www.concretecentre.com

This compendium includes articles that were first Acknowledgements
published in the renowned journal The Structural
The Concrete Centre would like to thank the authors
Engineer following its invitation to The Concrete Centre
and peer reviewers for their contribution to these
to write a series of technical papers on structural design
technical papers including:
in concrete.
John Roberts; RS Narayanan; Robert Vollum,
The series includes topics chosen represent topical issues
Imperial College.
and respond to frequently asked questions that we
receive from designers, such as guidance on anchorage
and lap lengths, post-tensioning and column fire design.
The compendium also includes papers on deflections,
Eurocode 6, liquid retaining structures and strut-and-tie.
www.concretecentre.com I 3
How to calculate anchorage and lap

lengths to Eurocode 2
This article provides guidance on how to calculate

anchorage and lap lengths to Eurocode 2.
Introduction In EC2, anchorage and lap lengths are proportional to the stress in the
bar at the start of the anchorage or lap. Therefore, if the bar is stressed
EC2 provides information about reinforcement detailing in Sections 8
to only half its ultimate capacity, the lap or anchorage length will be half
and 9 of Part 1-1 (BS EN 1992-1-1)1. Section 8 provides information on
what it would have needed to be if the bar were fully stressed.
the general aspects of detailing and this is where the rules for anchorage
and lap lengths are given. Section 9 sets out the rules for detailing
different types of elements, such as beams, slabs and columns.
The calculation for anchorage and lap lengths is as described in EC2

and is fairly extensive. There are shortcuts to the process, the first
being to use one of the tables produced by others24. These are based
on the bar being fully stressed and the cover being 25mm or normal.
These assumptions are conservative, particularly the assumption that
the bar is fully stressed, as bars are normally anchored or lapped away
from the points of high stress. Engineering judgement should be used
when applying any of the tables to ensure that the assumptions are
reasonable and not overly conservative.
This article discusses how to calculate an anchorage and lap length for
steel ribbed reinforcement subjected to predominantly static loading
using the information in Section 8. Coated steel bars (e.g. coated with
paint, epoxy or zinc) are not considered. The rules are applicable to
normal buildings and bridges.
Figure 1 Tension Anchorage
An anchorage length is the length of bar required to transfer the force in
the bar into the concrete. A lap length is the length required to transfer
Ultimate bond stress
the force in one bar to another bar. Anchorage and lap lengths are
both calculated slightly differently depending on whether the bar is in Both anchorage and lap lengths are determined by the ultimate bond
compression or tension. stress fbd which depends on the concrete strength and whether the
anchorage or lap length is in a good or poor bond condition.
For bars in tension, the anchorage length is measured along the
centreline of the bar. Figure 1 shows a tension anchorage for a bar bd = 2.2512ctd (Expression 8.2 from BS EN 1992-1-1)
in a pad base. The anchorage length for bars in tension can include
where:
bends and hooks (Figure 2), but bends and hooks do not contribute to
compression anchorages. For a foundation, such as a pile cap or pad ctd is the design tensile strength of concrete, ctd = ctctk,0,05/C
base, this can affect the depth of concrete that has to be provided. ctk,0,05 is the characteristic tensile strength of concrete,
ctk,0,05 = 0.7 ctm
Most tables that have been produced in the UK for anchorage and lap
ctm is the mean tensile strength of concrete, ctm = 0.3 ck (2/3)
lengths have been based on the assumption that the bar is fully stressed
ck is the characteristic cylinder strength of concrete
at the start of the anchorage or at the lap length. This is rarely the case,
C is the partial safety factor for concrete
as good detailing principles put laps at locations of low stress and the
(C = 1.5 in UK National Annex5)
area of steel provided tends to be greater than the area of steel required.
ct is a coefficient taking account of long-term effects on the
tensile strength and of unfavourable effects resulting from
the way the load is applied (ct = 1.0 in UK National Annex)
5
5
5
5 150
150
a
a
90 a
90 a<
< 150
150
a) Bend
a) Bend or
or L
L bar
bar b) Hook
b) Hook c) Loop
c) Loop or
or U
U bar
bar
Source: EC2-1-1 Figure 8.1, b, c and d.
Figure 2 Typical bends and hooks bent through 90o or more
Confinement of concrete results in the characteristic compression

Direction of concreting Direction of concreting strength being greater than ck and is known as ck.c. If the concrete
surrounding a steel reinforcing bar is confined, the characteristic
strength of the concrete is increased and so will be the ultimate bond
a stress between the bar and the concrete. Increasing the ultimate bond
250
stress will reduce the anchorage length. Concrete can be confined by
a) 45 < a < 90 c) h > 250 mm external pressure, internal stresses or reinforcement.
Direction of concreting Anchorage lengths

Direction of concreting
Figure 4 gives the basic design procedure for calculating the anchorage
300
length for a bar. There are various shortcuts, such as making all
h h coefficients = 1, that can be made to this procedure in order to ease the
design process, although this will result in a more conservative answer.
b) h < 250 mm d) h > 600 mm Both anchorage and lap lengths are determined from the ultimate bond
strength bd. The basic required anchorage length lb,rqd can be calculated
Key
from:
Good bond conditions Poor bond conditions
lb,rqd = (/4) (sd/bd)
Figure 3 Good and Poor bond conditions where sd is the design stress in the bar at the position from where the
anchorage is measured. If the design stress sd is taken as the maximum
Table 1 gives the design tensile strengths for structural concretes up to allowable design stress:
C50/60.
sd = yd = yk/s = 500/1.15 = 435MPa
1 is the coefficient relating to the bond condition and
1 = 1 when the bond condition is good and 1 = 0.7 when This number is used for most of the published anchorage and lap length
the bond condition is poor tables, but the design stress in the bar is seldom the maximum allowable
design stress, as bars are normally anchored and lapped away from
It has been found by experiment that the top section of a concrete pour positions of maximum stress and the As,prov is normally greater than As,req.
provides less bond capacity than the rest of the concrete and therefore
the coefficient reduces in the top of a section. Figure 8.2 in BS EN 1992- The design anchorage length lbd is taken from the basic required
1-1 gives the locations where the bond condition can be considered anchorage length lb,rqd multiplied by up to five coefficients, 1 to 5.
poor (Figure 3). Any reinforcement that is vertical or in the bottom of a lbd = 1 2 3 4 5 lb,rqd lb,min
section can be considered to be in good bond condition. Any horizontal
reinforcement in a slab 275mm thick or thinner can be considered to where the coefficients 1 to 5 are influenced by:
be in good bond condition. Any horizontal reinforcement in the top 1 shape of the bar
of a thicker slab or beam should be considered as being in poor bond
condition.
2 = 1.0 for bar diameters 32mm

2 = (132)/100 for > 32mm (2 = 0.92 for 40mm bars)
is the diameter of the bar
Figure 4: flow chart for anchorage lengths.
1, 2, 3 and
Start 5=1.0 No
Determine fctd from Table 1

Yes Is the bar in
compression?
No
Is the bar in good 1= 0.7
position?
4 = 0.7 4 = 1.0
Yes
No
1 = 1.0
Yes Does the bar have

transverse reinforcement
No welded to it?
Is bar diameter 2 = (132)/100
32mm
Take lbd = lb,rqd
Yes
Determine the coefficients 1 to 5 (see Table 2)
2 = 1.0
No
Determine ultimate bond stress
fbd = 2.25 1 2 fctd
Yes
Can lb,rqd be used as the design
anchorage length lbd?
Determine As,req and As,prov where the anchorage starts
Determine basic anchorage length

Determine ultimate design stress in bar lb,rqd = (/4) (sd/fbd)
sd = 435 As,req / As,prov (This can be conservatively used as the design anchorage length, lbd)
Figure 4 Flow chart for anchorage lengths
2 concrete cover To calculate the values of 1 and 2 the value of cd is needed. cd is

obtained from Figure 8.3 in BS EN 1992-1-1 and shown here in Figure 5.
3 confinement by transverse reinforcement
cd is often the nominal cover to the bars. In any published anchorage
4 confinement by welded transverse reinforcement
tables, a conservative value for the nominal bar cover has to be assumed
5 confinement by transverse pressure and 25mm is used in the Concrete Centre tables. If the cover is larger
than 25mm, the anchorage length may be less than the value quoted in
The minimum anchorage length lb,min is:
most published tables. For hooked or bent bars in wide elements, such
max {0.3lb,rqd; 10; 100mm} for a tension anchorage as slabs or walls, cd is governed by the spacing between the bars.
max {0.6lb,rqd; 10; 100mm} for a compression anchorage
In Table 8.2 of BS EN 1992-1-1 anchorage length alpha coefficients
The maximum value of all the five alpha coefficients is 1.0. The minimum are given for bars in tension and compression. The alpha values for a
is never less than 0.7. The value to use is given in Table 8.2 of BS EN 1992- compression anchorage are all 1.0, the maximum value, except for 4
1-1. In this table there are different values for 1 and 2 for straight bars which is 0.7, the same as a tension anchorage. Hence, the anchorage
and bars called other than straight. The other shapes are bars with length for a compression anchorage can always conservatively be used
a bend of 90 or more in the anchorage length. Any benefit in the as the anchorage length for a bar in tension.
coefficients from the bent bars is often negated by the effects of cover.
Note that the product of 2 3 and 5 has to be 0.7.
Yes Is the bar

straight?
1 = 1.0
2 =10.15(cd)/ No END
0.7 2 1.0
1= 0.7 if cd > 3
Check lbd >
1=1.0 if cd 3
max{0.3lb,rqd;10;100mm}
2 =1 0.15 (cd3)/
0.7 2 1.0
lbd = 12345lb,rqd
Does the bar have

another bar between the
surface of the concrete
and itself? Take 235 = 0.7
Yes
Yes
3 = 1 K
0.7 3 1.0 No No
Is 235 < 0.7
3 = 1.0
5=1 0.04p
Is the bar confined 0.7 5 1.0
5=1.0
by transverse
pressure?
Yes
No
Alpha values for tension anchorage Table 1: Design tensile strength, ctd
Alpha values for tension anchorage are provided in Table 8.2 of BS EN
C20/25 C25/30 C28/35 C30/37 C32/40 C35/45 C40/50 C50/60
1992-1-1.
ctm 2.21 2.56 2.77 2.90 3.02 3.21 3.51 4.07
1 shape of the bar
ctk, 0.05 1.55 1.80 1.94 2.03 2.12 2.25 2.46 2.85
Straight bar, 1 = 1.0
ctd 1.03 1.20 1.29 1.35 1.41 1.50 1.64 1.90
There is no benefit for straight bars; 1 is the maximum value of 1.0.
Bars other than straight, 1 = 0.7 if cd > 3; otherwise 1 = 1.0
If we assume that the value of cd is 25mm, then the only benefit for bars
other than straight is for bars that are 8mm in diameter or less. For bars
larger than 8mm, 1 = 1.0. However, for hooked or bobbed bars in wide
elements, where cd is based on the spacing of the bars, 1 will be 0.7 if
the spacing of the bars is equal to or greater than 7.
2 concrete cover
Straight bar, 2 = 1 0.15(cd )/ 0.7 1.0
There is no benefit in the value of 2 for straight bars unless (cd ) is

positive, which it will be for small diameter bars. If cd is 25mm, then
there will be some benefit for bars less than 25mm in diameter, i.e. for
20mm diameter bars and smaller, 2 will be less than 1.0. Bars other than
straight, 2 = 1 0.15(cd 3)/ 0.7 1.0
C1
a a
C1
C C
a) Straight bars b) Bent or hooked bars c) Looped bars

cd = min (a/2, c1, c) cd = min (a/2, c1) cd = c
Source: EC2-1-1, Figure 8.3.
Figure 5 Values of cd (c and c1 are taken to be cnom)
As t, Ast As t, Ast As t, Ast
K = 0.1 K = 0.05 K=0
Figure 6 Values of K
Table 2: Anchorage and lap lengths for locations of maximum stress
Bond Reinforcement in tension, bar diameter, (mm) Reinforcement

Condition 8 10 12 16 20 25 32 40 in compression
Straight Good 230 320 410 600 780 1010 1300 1760 40
bars only Poor 330 450 580 850 1120 1450 1850 2510 58
Anchorage
length, lbd Good 320 410 490 650 810 1010 1300 1760 40
Other
bars only Poor 460 580 700 930 1160 1450 1850 2510 58
50% lapped Good 320 440 570 830 1090 1420 1810 2460 57
in one
location
(a6=1.4) Poor 460 630 820 1190 1560 2020 2590 3520 81
Lap length,
lo 100%
lapped Good 340 470 610 890 1170 1520 1940 2640 61
in one
location Poor 490 680 870 1270 1670 2170 2770 3770 87
(a6=1.5)
Notes
1) Nominal cover to all sides and distance between bars 2mm (i.e. 2<1). At laps, clear distance between bars 50mm.
2) 1 = 3 = 4 = 5 = 1.0. For the beneficial effects of shape of bar, cover and confinement see Eurocode 2, Table 8.2.
3) Design stress has been taken as 435MPa. Where the design stress in the bar at the position from where the anchorage is measured,
sd, is less than 435MPa the figures in this table can be factored by sd/435. The minimum lap length is given in cl. 8.7.3 of Eurocode 2.
4) The anchorage and lap lengths have been rounded up to the nearest 10mm.
5) Where 33% of bars are lapped in one location, decrease the lap lengths for 50% lapped in one location by a factor of 0.82.
6) The figures in this table have been prepared for concrete class C25/30.
Concrete class C20/25 C28/35 C30/37 C32/40 C35/45 C40/50 C45/55 C50/60
Factor 1.16 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.80 0.73 0.68 0.63
For example, if anchoring an H25 bar in a beam with H10 links at 300mm
centres:
As = 491mm2 for a 25mm diameter bar

lbd Ast,min = 0.25 491 = 123mm2
Ast = 4 78.5 = 314mm2, assuming links will provide at least four 10mm
diameter transverse bars in the anchorage length
= (Ast Ast,min)/ As = (314 123)/491 = 0.38

3 = 1 K = 1 0.1 0.38 = 0.96
Figure 7 Anchorage of bottom reinforcement at end supports in beams and slabs where
directly supported by wall or column
Figure 8 Plan view of slab illustrating transverse tension
There is no benefit in the value of 2 for bars other than straight unless 4 confinement by welded transverse reinforcement
(cd 3) is positive. If we assume that the value of cd is 25mm, then 4 = 0.7 if the welded transverse reinforcement satisfies the requirements
the only benefit for bars other than straight is for bars that are 8mm in given in Figure 8.1e of BS EN 1992-1-1. Otherwise 4 = 1.0.
diameter or less. For bars larger than 8mm 2 = 1.0. Again, for hooked
5 confinement by transverse pressure
or bobbed bars in wide elements, where cd is based on the spacing of
All bar types, 5 = 1 0.04p 0.7 1.0 where p is the transverse pressure
the bars, 2 will be less than 1.0 if the spacing of the bars is equal to or
(MPa) at the ultimate limit state along the design anchorage length, lbd.
greater than 7.
One place where the benefit of 5 can be used is when calculating the
3 confinement by transverse reinforcement
design anchorage length lbd of bottom bars at end supports. This benefit
All bar types, 3 = 1 K 0.7 1.0 is given in BS EN 1992-1-1 cl. 9.2.1.4(3) and Figure 9.3, and is shown here
in Figure 7. It applies to beams and slabs.
where:
Lap lengths
K depends on the position of the confining reinforcement.
The value of K is given in Figure 8.4 of BS EN 1991-1-1 and A lap length is the length two bars need to overlap each other to transfer
shown here in Figure 6. A corner bar in a beam has the a force F from one bar to the other. If the bars are of different diameter,
highest value for K of 0.1. Bars which are in the outermost the lap length is based on the smaller bar. The bars are typically placed
layer in a slab are not confined and the K value is zero next to each other with no gap between them. There can be a gap, but
if the gap is greater than 50mm or four times the bar diameter, the gap
is the amount of transverse reinforcement providing
distance is added to the lap length.
confinement to a single anchored bar of area
As = (Ast Ast,min) / As Lapping bars, transferring a force from one bar to another via concrete,
results in transverse tension and this is illustrated in Figure 8 which is a
Ast is the cross-sectional area of the transverse reinforcement
plan view of a slab. Cl.8.7.4.1 of BS EN 1992-1-1 gives guidance on the
with diameter t along the design anchorage length
amount and position of the transverse reinforcement that should be
lbd
provided. Following these rules can cause practical detailing issues if you
Ast,min is the cross-sectional area of the minimum transverse have to lap bars where the stress in the bar is at its maximum. If possible,
reinforcement = 0.25 As for beams and zero for slabs lapping bars where they are fully stressed should be avoided and, in
Figure 9: flow chart for lap lengths.
Start
Determine fctd from Table 1
END
Is the bar in No
good position? 1 = 0.7
Yes
1 = 1.0 Check l0 >

max{0.36lb,rqd; 15; 200mm}
Is smaller bar diameter No

2 = (132-)/100
32mm
l0 = 12356lb,rqd
Yes
2 = 1.0
Determine ultimate bond stress

fbd = 2.25 1 2 fctd
Take 235 = 0.7

Determine As,req and As,prov where the lap starts
Yes
Determine ultimate design stress in bar
sd = 435 As,req / As,prov
No
Is 235 < 0.7
Determine basic anchorage length

lb,rqd = (/4) (sd/fbd)
5 =1.0
Determine 6
5 = 1 0.04p
6 = 1.4 for 50% lapped at a section
No 0.751.0
6 = 1.5 for 100% lapped at a section
Yes
Is the bar confined
Is lb,rqd 6 by transverse
Yes pressure?
satisfactory as the
lap length?
Take l0 = lb,rqd6
No
3 =1.0
Determine the coefficients 1, 2, 3 and 5
3 = 1 K
(see Table 2) No
0.7 3 1.0
Does the bar have

Yes
Is the bar in another bar between the
compression? surface of the concrete
Yes and itself?
No
1, 2, 3 and
5=1.0
Yes Is the bar
straight? 1 = 0.7 if cd > 3
1 = 1.0 if cd 3
2 = 1 0.15(cd3)/
1 =1.0 0.7 2 1.0
2 = 1-0.15(cd)/ No
0.7 2 1.0
Figure 9 Flow chart for lap lengths
The largest possible savings in lap and anchorage length can be obtained
by considering the stress in the bar where it is lapped or anchored.
typical building structures, there is usually no need to lap bars where Recommendations
they are fully stressed, e.g lapping bars in the bottom of a beam or slab
The largest possible savings in lap and anchorage length can be
near mid-span. Examples where bars are fully stressed and laps are
obtained by considering the stress in the bar where it is lapped or
needed are in raft foundations and in long-span bridges.
anchored.
The wording of this clause regarding guidance on the provision of
For most locations, the old rule of thumb of lap lengths being equal to
transverse reinforcement is that it should be followed rather than
40 should be sufficient. For this to be the case, the engineer should
it must be followed. This may allow the designer some scope to use
use their judgement and should satisfy themselves that the lap and
engineering judgement when detailing the transverse reinforcement,
anchorage locations are away from locations of high stress for the bars
e.g increasing the lap length may reduce the amount of transverse
being lapped or anchored. Where it is not possible to lap or anchor away
reinforcement.
from those areas of high stress, the lengths will need to be up to the
All the bars in a section can be lapped at one location if the bars are in values given in Table 2.
one layer. If more than one layer is required, then the laps should be
This article presents the rules currently set out in EC2. However, there
staggered.
has been significant recent research which may find its way into the
A design procedure to determine a lap length is given in Figure 9 and, next revision of the Eurocode. For example, research into the effect of
as can be seen in the flow chart, the initial steps are the same as for the staggering on the strength of the lap (6) was discussed by John Cairns
calculation of an anchorage length. in Structural Concrete (the fib journal) in 20146. In the review of the
Eurocodes, the detailing rules have been the subject of 208 comments
Design lap length, l0 = 1 2 3 5 6 lb,rqd l0,min
(18% of the total for EC2) and it is acknowledged that the rules need to
(Eq. 8.10 in BS EN 1992-1-1) be simplified in the next revision.
The coefficients 1, 2, and 5 are calculated in the same way as for

anchorage lengths and, again, all the coefficients can be taken as = 1.0
as a simplification. References:
3 is calculated slightly differently. When calculating 3 for a lap length 1) British Standards Institution (2004) BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Design of
Ast,min = As(sd /fyd), with As = area of one lapped bar. concrete structures. General rules and rules for buildings, London, UK: BSI
The design lap length can therefore be determined by multiplying the 2) Bond A. J., Brooker O., Harris A. J. et al. (2011) How to Design Concrete
design anchorage length by one more alpha coefficient 6, provided 3 Structures using Eurocode 2, Camberley, UK: MPA The Concrete Centre
has been calculated for a lap rather than an anchorage.
3) The Institution of Structural Engineers and the Concrete Society
Design lap length, l0 = 6 lbd l0,min (2006) Standard method of detailing structural concrete: A manual
for best practice. (3rd ed.), London, UK: The Institution of Structural
Minimum anchorage length, l0,min = max {0.3 6 lb,rqd; 15; 200mm}
Engineers
6 coefficient based on the percentage of lapped bars in one
4) The Institution of Structural Engineers (2006) Manual for the
lapped section, 1
design of concrete building structures to Eurocode 2, London, UK: The
6 = (1/25)0.5 1.0 1.5
Institution of Structural Engineers
where:
5) British Standards Institution (2005) NA to BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 UK
1 is the percentage of reinforcement lapped within 0.65l0 from
National Annex to Eurocode 2. Design of concrete structures. General
the centre of the lap length considered
rules and rules for buildings, London, UK: BSI
In most cases either the laps will all occur at the same location, which is
6) Cairns J. (2014) Staggered lap joints for tension reinforcement,
100% lapped and where 6 = 1.5, or the laps will be staggered, which is
Structural Concrete, 15 (1), pp 4554
50% lapped and where 6 = 1.4.
For vertically cast columns, good bond conditions exist at laps.
Deflection the span-to-effective-depth

method and EC2
The span-to-effective-depth (L/d) method is a very

popular way of verifying the limit state of deformation
(i.e. deflection) of concrete slabs and beams.
Introduction F1 = factor to account for flanged sections. When beff/bw = 1.0, factor
F1 = 1.0. When beff/bw > 3.0, factor F1 = 0.80. For values of beff/bw
Essentially, the span-to-effective-depth method is a hand method
between 1.0 and 3.0, interpolation may be used
based on experience, justified by various reports1,2. The L/d method also
serves as a very useful and valuable hand check on computer outputs. F2 = factor to account for brittle partitions in association with long
According to Section 7.4.2 of BS EN 1992-1-13 (Eurocode 2) and fib Model spans. Generally F2 = 1.0 but if brittle partitions are liable to be
Code 20104, its use will be adequate for avoiding deflection problems damaged by excessive deflection, F2 should be determined as
in normal circumstances. The main attraction of the method is that it follows:
avoids the need to undertake laborious calculations. a) in flat slabs in which the longer span is greater than 8.5m,
F2 = 8.5/leff
While according to Eurocode 05, deflection limits should be agreed with
b) in beams and other slabs with spans in excess of 7.0m,
clients, generally the limits implicit in the L/d verification of deflection
F2 = 7.0/leff
of concrete structures are L/250 overall and L/500 post partitions (i.e. for
deflection affecting partitions, brittle finishes, etc.). F3 = factor to account for service stress in tensile reinforcement =
310/s. It is considered conservative to assume that
The current L/d method
310/s = 500As,prov/(ykAs,req) where:
In simple terms, the current BS EN 1992 L/d method means verifying s = tensile stress in reinforcement at mid-span (at support
that: for cantilevers) under design load at serviceability limit state
(SLS) calculated using the characteristic value of serviceability
Allowable L/d = N x K x F1 x F2 x F3 actual L/d (1)
load6
where: F3 is restricted to 1.56
N = basic span-to-effective-depth ratio derived for K = 1.0 from the Notes

formulae:
Factors F1, F2 and F3 have been used here for convenience, they are
if 0
not symbols used in BS EN 1992-1-1. According to the notes to Table
N = L/d = K[11 + 1.5ck0.5 0/ + 3.2ck0.5 (0 / 1)1.5] (2a) NA.5 of the UK National Annex (NA)6 warnings are given that the values
of K may not be appropriate when formwork is struck at an early age.
or if > 0
L/d may not exceed 40K
N = L/d = K[11 + 1.5ck0.5 0/( ) + ck0.5 ( / 0)0.5 /12] (2b)
Basis and current issues
for = 0, N may be determined from Figure 1
The L/d method is outlined in Eurocode 2 Commentary7. The method is
where:
based on parametric studies by Corres et al.2, rather than theory. There
L = span
have been many comments relating to the soundness of the method,
d = effective depth
which is now acknowledged to have some limitations and deficiencies8,9:
ck = characteristic compressive cylinder strength of
concrete at 28 days The expressions (7.16a) and (7.16b) in BS EN 1992-1-1 (Equations
0 = fck0.5/1000 2a and 2b) assume a certain ratio between total load and dead
= As,req/bd load, superimposed dead load (SDL) and imposed load (IL).
= As2req/bd It would be desirable to introduce different possibilities for these
K = factor to account for structural system (Table 1) ratios in order to widen the application field of these formulae
Notes
1 For two-way spanning slabs, the check should be
carried out on the basis of the shorter span.
2 This graph assumes simply supported span
condition (K = 1.0).
K = 1.5 for interior span condition
K = 1.3 for end span condition
K = 0.4 for cantilevers
3 Compression reinforcement, r, has been taken as 0.
4 Curves based on the following expressions:
[ ( )]
1.5
l 1.5 fck r 0 fck
r0
= K 11 + + 3.2 1
d r r
where r r 0
and
l
d [
= K 11 +
1.5 fck r 0
( r r )
+
fck
12
r
r0 ]
where r > r 0 .
Percentage of tension reinforcement (As,req/bd)
Figure 1 Basic span-to-effective-depth ratios, N, for K = 1, = 0 Figure 2 Typical loading and deflection history for slab in multistorey building
Figure 3 L/d for simply supported slabs Figure 4 L/d for simply supported slabs supporting imposed load of 2.5kN/m2
The expressions do not account for excess reinforcement in tension The analysis of the section to determine whether the section was
or compression. (UK practice allowed up to 100% additional cracked or not looked at the centre span of the beam only, and
reinforcement.) This parameter should be included conservatively used those properties throughout
The expressions do not account for peak loading during The assessment of Ec,eff (effective modulus) was questionable
construction and the cracking induced during that process
The relative humidity (RH) was taken as 70%. In the UK, RH is
(Figure 2). This parameter should also be introduced
often taken as being 50% internally and 80% or 85% externally
The effects of ctm,l (mean flexural tensile strength of concrete)
Results using this method do not give a good match with span-to-
were ignored in the background document, whereas the effects
depth ratios derived by calculating deflections rigorously under
are very noticeable for sections with <0.6% reinforcement, i.e.
quasi-permanent loading (Figures 3 and 4)
they are very noticeable in slabs. The mean 28-day direct
concrete tensile strength was used in deflection calculations No allowance appears to have been made for the use of loading
expressions (6.10a) and (6.10b) in BS EN 1990
Table 1: K factors to be applied to basic ratios of span to effective depth for The method for adjustment when providing more reinforcement
different structural systems than required for flexure (based on steel service stress) is not
Element K conservative
Simply supported beams or slabs 1.0
The most substantiated comments came from Vollum10. The significant
End span of continuous beams or slabs 1.3 reductions in slab thickness initially allowed by BS EN 1992-1-1,
Interior spans of continuous beams or slabs 1.5 compared to those allowed by BS 8110, were met with some scepticism
Flat slabs (based on longer span) 1.2 in the UK and modifications were made via the UK NA to EC26 (as
Cantilevers 0.4 outlined earlier). Vollum showed that the EC2 span-to-depth rules do
not account for cracking during construction; variations in effective
depth over thickness (d/h), varying serviceability/ultimate loading ratio
(w/wu) or the effect of restraint at the external supports.
These issues have led some to suggest that the L/d method should be Default assumptions for rigorous analysis
deleted from standards. However, to do so would be to deny designers
Deflections depend significantly on cracking, material properties and
a valuable tool and feel for their designs, although there is clearly room
loading: all of which makes for difficulties and uncertainties at the
for improvement.
design stage.
Rigorous method of assessing deflection
However, Vollum10 suggested that in the absence of better information,
Here, it is worth explaining the rigorous method according to BS EN the following assumptions should be made in deflection calculations of
1992-1-1, Cl. 7.4.3. A section will crack if it experiences a serviceability slabs in multistorey construction:
moment exceeding its moment capacity at the time Mcr(t). If a section
The slab is struck at seven days; the superimposed dead load is
is cracked, then its inertia is much less than that of the uncracked section
applied at 60 days
and so curvature is much greater in cracked sections. Cracked sections
and greater degrees of cracking lead to larger curvatures and deflections Creep and shrinkage strains are calculated with a relative humidity
(Figure 5). of 50% (internal environment assumed)
Economically designed horizontal elements act somewhere between Two levels of backprops are used
wholly uncracked and wholly cracked. Slabs tend to be less highly
The floor above is cast after 10 days
stressed and are cracked along only part of their spans. Beams tend
to be more highly stressed and crack along much more of their spans. When slabs are supported by slabs below during construction, the
Actions are applied at different times and these actions may or may peak construction load peak is the peak UDL action for the SLS,
not cause cracking depending upon the flexural tensile strength of the which should be taken as 0.04h kN/m2 where h is the slab thickness
concrete at the time. Once cracked, a section is assumed to stay cracked in mm
but some tensile stiffening occurs in the concrete between cracks. So
The permanent load perm should be taken as the quasi permanent
the mean inertia of the segment is somewhere between those for wholly
load combination and be applied at one year
uncracked or wholly cracked sections. When considering curvatures,
these different actions incur different creep coefficients, which affect
Peak deflections are calculated under the frequent load case; the
the applicable effective modulus of the concrete used in assessing increment in load freq perm should be treated as an instantaneous
curvatures. load in the calculation of ELT
where:
BS EN 1992-1-1 (and MC2010) state that an adequate prediction of
freq = the frequent UDL action for the SLS and
behaviour and the mean curvature in a discreet element (Figure 6) is
perm = the permanent UDL action, including quasi-permanent
given by:
variable actions, for the SLS
1/rm = (2 + 2cs) + (1 )(1 + 1cs) ELT = the equivalent long-term modulus of the concrete, dependant
on loading and age at time of loading11,12
where:
rm = mean radius It is difficult to assess the effective tensile strength of concrete in
= 1 (Mcr/M)2 slabs due to its inherent variability, and there are uncertainties in
the tensile stress induced by internal and external restraint and
where:
shrinkage. However, back-analysis of deflection data showed that
= 1.0 for short-term and = 0.5 for long-term loading. For
the effective flexural strength of concrete in reinforced concrete
construction loads, conservatively10 = 0.70
slabs typically lies somewhere between the indirect and flexural
Mcr = cracking moment
strengths
M = SLS moment
1 = M/EceffI1 = curvature of uncracked section Using these default values, rigorous methods of calculating deflection
2 = M/EceffI2 = curvature of cracked section can be applied in order to judge the span-to-depth method. The
differences between the L/d and the rigorous methods can then be
where:
compared.
Eceff = Ecm/(1 + )
Differences in values between methods
where:
Ecm = modulus at 28 days The data in Table 2 were derived for simply supported slabs by using:
= creep coefficient
spreadsheet TCC31R15 to determine outcome L/d ratios using the
I1, I2 = inertias of the uncracked and cracked sections
rigorous method (Section 7.4.3 of BS EN 1992-1-1) and the default
1cs, 2cs = shrinkage curvature
values described earlier, and
This rigorous method is described in greater detail elsewhere11,12
spreadsheet TCC3115 to determine those using the L/d method in
and is supported by site-based research10,13,14.
Section 7.4.2 of BS EN 1992-1-1
Greater accuracy may be achieved by considering small increments of
For each span and imposed load the depth of the slab was iterated
span and computing relevant curvatures and thus overall deflections.
such that all design criteria were met and As,prov = As,req.
The method involves numerical integration, which is tedious by hand
but can, of course, be undertaken by computer, notably by spreadsheet
software.
www.thestructuralengineer.org
33
EC2 Moment curvature response
Uncracked
Moment
response Mu
E=0.5
Tension stiffening
Fully cracked
response
\cs1 \cs2 Curvature \
Figure 5 Typical momentcurvature response Figure 6 Curvature in simply supported slab

As may
Figure 5
Typical momentcurvature response
been seen from Fig. 3, the agreement between the current L/d
Figure 6
Curvature in simply supported slab
Conclusion
method and the current rigorous analysis method is not good at low
Given the complexity and variability of concrete as a material, loading
spans or low imposed
construction deection loads.
wouldAs may be seen
be L/487. Forfrom Fig. 4, the
non-brittle currentL/190
nishes, Cl. current L/d method itisisinaccurate. Nonetheless, as current
discussed,
and the environment, perhaps unsurprising that the L/d
7.4.2(2) method appears to underestimate the L/d required
compares with limits of L/200 for variable actions for steel beams and by as much it appears that the use of L/d methods will be adequate
method is inaccurate. Nonetheless, as discussed, it appears that the use
as 15%for
L/150 fortimber.
an imposedL/487load
wouldof 2.5kN/m 2
at about 8m.Actual deections
appear acceptable. for avoiding deection problems in normal circumstances.
of L/d methods will be adequate for avoiding deflection problems in
are often moderated by end restraints, stronger concrete, lower loads, Compliance with span-to-depth ratios means that deections
Using this case as a worse case and using the L/d = 26 indicated by normal circumstances. Compliance with span-to-depth ratios means
etc. in members may be considered not to exceed the implicit limits
Cl.The
7.4.2(2)
datawould lead theoretically
and graphs to long-term
show an apparent deflection
anomaly. The L/dof 42mm
required that deflections in members may be considered not to exceed the
stated.
or L/190
for in a 2340mm
2.5kN/m thick
is smaller simply
than supported
for 5.0kN/m 2 slab (d = 308mm). Post-
(Fig. 4). Close examination implicit limits more
However, stated.rigorous methods are necessary in unusual
construction
revealed that,deflection would
in line with be L/487.
Vollum, For non-brittle
construction load was finishes, L/190
critical. If the circumstances or where deection limits other than those
However, more rigorous methods are necessary in unusual
compares
slabs werewith
the limits
sameof L/200 for variable
thickness, crackingactions
duringfor steel beamswould
construction and be implicit in the simplied methods are appropriate.
circumstances or where deflection limits other than those implicit in the
L/150
the for timber.
same, but the L/487 would
effect appear
of lower acceptable.
cracked inertiaActual
of thedeflections
2.5kN/m2 slab are Work continues to provide a more accurate L/d method
simplified methods are appropriate.
is greater than the additional creep in the more
often moderated by end restraints, stronger concrete, lower heavily reinforced
loads, etc. and particularly at low imposed loads. Part of that process is
loaded slab. to consider
Work continuesthe
toharmonisation of deection
provide a more accurate limits
L/d method across all at
particularly
The datarespect
With and graphs show an apparent
to continuity, rigorous anomaly. The L/d required
analysis showed good materials.
low imposed loads. Part of that process is to consider the harmonisation
for 2.5kN/m2with
correlation is smaller than for in
the K factors 5.0kN/m
Table 1. (Fig. 4). Close examination
2
of deflection limits across all materials.
revealed that, in line with Vollum, construction load was critical. If the Acknowledgement
Conclusion
slabs were the same thickness, cracking during construction would be Acknowledgement
Parts of this paper were included in: Goodchild C., Vollum R.
Given thebut
the same, complexity
the effect and variability
of lower crackedofinertia
concrete
of theas a material,
2.5kN/m 2
slab and Webster R. (2014) Improving the L/d method, b-Congress,
loading and the environment, it is perhaps unsurprising that the Parts of thisIndia
Mumbai, paper were included in: Goodchild C., Vollum R. and Webster
is greater than the additional creep in the more heavily reinforced and
R. (2014) Improving the L/d method, fib-Congress, Mumbai, India
loaded slab.
With respect
Table to continuity,
2: Basic L/d ratiosrigorous analysis showed good correlation
with the K factors in Table 1.
Span (m) 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0
L/d ratio using rigorous analysis:
Imposed load = 2.5kN/m2 37.8 30.7 27.1 24.3 22.2 20.7 19.6 18.4 17.8 17.2 16.7
Table 2: Basic L/d ratios
Imposed load = 5kN/m 2
37.8 31.2 27.6 25.0 22.9 21.4 20.1 18.9 18.2 17.6 17.2
Span (m) 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 14.0
Imposed load = 7.5kN/m2 30.3 27.5 25.4 23.6 22.0 20.5 19.4 18.4 17.7 17.2 16.8
L/d ratio using rigorous analysis:
Imposed load = 10kN/m2 24.6 23.2 22.5 21.5 20.4 19.5 18.6 17.8 17.2 16.7 16.3
Imposed load = 2.5kN/m2 37.8 30.7 27.1 24.3 22.2 20.7 19.6 18.4 17.8 17.2 16.7
L/d ratio using Cl 7.4.2(2):
Imposed load = 5kN/m
2
37.8 31.2 27.6 25.0 22.9 21.4 20.1 18.9 18.2 17.6 17.2
Imposed load = 2.5kN/m2
Imposed load = 7.5kN/m2
31.9
30.3
30.6
27.5
29.3
25.4
28.2
23.6
26.0
22.0
23.9
20.5
22.2
19.4
20.8
18.4
19.5
17.7
18.3
17.2
17.3
16.8
Imposed
Imposed loadload = 5kN/m
= 10kN/m 2
2
28.3
24.6 27.3
23. 26.5
22.5 25.6
21.5 23.8
20.4 22.3
19.5 20.9
18.6 19.6
17.8 18.5
17.2 17.5
16.7 16.4
16.3
Imposed
L/d load
ratio using = 7.5kN/m
Cl 7.4.2(2):
2
25.9 25.2 24.5 23.9 22.3 20.9 19.7 18.6 17.6 16.7 15.9
Imposed
Imposed loadload = 10kN/m
= 2.5kN/m 2 2
24.1
31.9 23.5
30.6 23.0
29.3 22.4
28.2 21.0
26.0 19.7
23.9 18.6
22.2 17.6
20.8 16.7
19.5 15.9
18.3 15.1
17.3
Notes: fload
Imposed ck = =
30MPa;
5kN/m2 fyk = 500MPa; As,prov = As,req; SDL =27.3
28.3 1.5kN/m2 and
26.5 long-term
25.6deection
23.8limit L/250,
22.3 post-construction
20.9 deection limit
19.6 18.5 L/500 17.5 16.4
Imposed load = 7.5kN/m2 25.9 25.2 24.5 23.9 22.3 20.9 19.7 18.6 17.6 16.7 15.9
Imposed load = 10kN/m2 24.1 23.5 23.0 22.4 21.0 19.7 18.6 17.6 16.7 15.9 15.1
Notes: ck = 30MPa; yk = 500MPa; As,prov = As,req; SDL = 1.5kN/m2 and long-term deflection limit L/250, post-construction deflection limit L/500
TSE44_30-34 CDG v1.indd 33 24/07/2015 09:10
Reinforced concrete frame residential building. Courtesy of Coinford Construction.
References:
1) Beeby A. W. (1971) TR456: Modified Proposals for Controlling 9) Goodchild C. and Webster R. (2012) BSI Committee B525/2 paper:
Deflections by Means of Ratios of Span to Effective Depth, Wexham Interpretation of BS EN 1992-1-1 with respect to span:depth (L/d) ratios
Springs, UK: Cement and Concrete Association (Unpublished)
2) Corres Peiretti H., Prez Caldentey A., Lpez Ag J. C. and Edtbauer 10) Vollum R. L. (2009) Comparison of deflection calculations and
J. (2002) EC2 serviceability limit states: deflections. Supporting span-to-depth ratios in BS 8110 and Eurocode 2, Magazine of Concrete
document: first draft, 15 June 2002, Madrid, Spain: Grupo de Hormign Research, 61 (6), pp. 465476
Estructural ETSICCP UPM
11) The Concrete Society (2005) TR58: Deflections in concrete slabs
3) British Standards Institution (2004) BS EN 1992-1-1:2004+A1:2014 and beams, Camberley, UK: Concrete Society
Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for
12) Webster R. and Brooker O. (2006) How to design concrete
buildings, London, UK: BSI
structures using Eurocode 2: No. 8. Deflection calculations, Camberley,
4) fib (2013) Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010, Berlin, Germany: UK: The Concrete Centre
Ernst & Sohn
13) Vollum R. L., Moss R. M. and Hossain T. R. (2002) Slab deflections
5) British Standards Institution (2002) BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005 in the Cardington in-situ concrete frame building, Magazine of Concrete
Eurocode 0. Basis of structural design, London, UK: BSI Research, 54 (1), pp. 2334
6) British Standards Institution (2004) BS EN 1992-1-1:2004+A1:2014 UK 14) Vollum R. L. (2003) Investigation into backprop forces and
National Annex to Eurocode 2. Design of concrete structures. General rules deflections at St George Wharf, Magazine of Concrete Research, 55 (5),
and rules for buildings, London, UK: BSI pp. 449460
7) European Concrete Platform (2008) Eurocode 2 Commentary [Online] 15) Goodchild C. H. and Webster R. M. (2006) User Guide to RC
Available at: www.europeanconcrete.eu/publications/ Spreadsheets: v3, Camberley, UK: The Concrete Centre
eurocodes/114-commentarytoeurocode2 (Accessed: June 2015)
8) Beal A. N. (2009) Eurocode 2: Span/depth ratios for RC slabs and

beams, The Structural Engineer, 87 (20), pp. 3540
Fire design of concrete columns and

walls to Eurocode 2
In fire, concrete does not burn and performs well, both as

an engineered structure and as a material.
Introduction Most of the columns that have been tested have been square columns;
therefore, the tabulated data for columns assume square or circular
Concrete does not normally need any further protection against fire due
columns. Rectangular columns are not covered in Method B, but can be
to its thermal conductivity properties and the fact that it does not burn.
modelled, to a certain extent, in Method A.
The design of concrete slabs and beams is not generally affected by fire
design requirements. However, fire design requirements can be Fin or blade columns are not covered by the tabulated data until they
a governing factor in the sizing of columns, particularly in multistorey are greater than a width-to-thickness ratio of 4:1 (h:b). At this point,
buildings. This article therefore concentrates on the guidance given EC2 part 1-1 (BS EN 1992-1-1)2 states that they are walls, and the column
in Eurocode 2 on the sizing of concrete columns for different fire should be designed as a wall at both normal temperatures and in a fire.
resistance periods. If a column needs to be designed to fit into a partition, the use of blade
columns with a ratio of 4:1 or greater has been common for many years,
Methods
as by definition these are walls.
Guidance on fire design to EC2 is given in part 1-2 (BS EN 1992-1-2)1
The tabulated data are given for braced structures only. However, the
and is much more extensive than in the previous codes. For the design
background document for the UK, PD 6687-13, states that the tabulated
of columns and walls there are basically three design methods available
data can be used to size unbraced columns, at the discretion of the
to the engineer:
designer. In critical cases it recommends that Annex B, which details
tabular data the simplified methods, be used. It justifies the use of tabulated data for
simplified calculation methods both braced and unbraced columns on historical grounds.
advanced calculation methods
This article covers some of the tabular methods and simplified 0.8
calculation methods for columns and walls. Table 1 shows limitations

0.7
on the different tabulated data for columns. Outside these limitations fi = 0.9
Reduction factor fi
the simplified calculation methods can be used. 0.6

0.7
The tabulated data for columns are given in Chapter 5 of part 1-2, split 0.5
into Method A and Method B. Both methods are based on tests and 0.5
either can be used for the design of columns, but they have 0.4
slightly different limitations on their use. G = 1.35 0.2
0.3
Q = 1.50
The two simplified methods given in Annex B are the 500C isotherm
method and the zone method. The zone method gives a more accurate 0.2
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
analysis of the effect of the fire on the element than the 500C isotherm Qk,1/Gk
method, but both can provide savings to the sizing of columns
compared to the tabulated data in Methods A and B. Figure 1 Reduction factor fi when Exp. 6.10 of EC2 has been used
For all the different method types, the axial load on the element
compared to the capacity of the column or wall is key to the design.
A lightly loaded column will be able to resist a fire for a much longer
period than the same column when fully loaded.
T
bfi
T - Tension C
a) Fire exposure on three sides b) Fire expos
with tension zone exposed the compr
Previous codes did not distinguish between braced and
unbraced columns and the tabulated data from BS EN 1992-1-2 give
larger column sizes than those from previous codes. There is also an
argument that, in most unbraced structures, the fire will only affect
o
a few of the columns at any one time. The columns in the fire can 500 C
therefore be said to be braced by the columns unaffected by the fire. hfi h
Loading
The load under fire conditions can be reduced from the loads taken
for normal temperature design. Generally, the effect of the loads
bfi
Ed, = Ed where Ed is the design moment, axial load, shear force, etc.
under normal temperature loads. b
The factor can simply be taken as 0.7, or can be calculated:
i) If Expression 6.10 of EC04 has been used in the normal c) Fire exposure on four sides (beam or column)
Figure 2 Reduced concrete section for column exposed on four sides
temperature design (Figure 1)
Gk + 1,1 Qk,1
=
1.35Gk + 1.5 Qk,1 the first order eccentricity M0Ed, / N0Ed, 0.15h or 0.15b, where
M0Ed, is the first order bending moment for the fire condition and
ii) If Expression 6.10b of EC0 has been used in the normal
N0Ed, is the axial load under the fire condition
temperature design
the amount of reinforcement As < 0.04Ac
Gk + 1,1 Qk,1
= The fire resistance period is based on the degree of utilisation
1.25Gk + 1.5 Qk,1
= NEd, / NRd and the table gives values for = 0.2, 0.5 and 0.7. Table
where: 5.2a in BS EN 1992-1-2 assumes that cc = 1.0. In the UK a value of cc =
0.85 for bending and compression has been chosen5. However, the
Qk,1 is the main variable action under consideration. Only one variable
values in the table are conservative for the UK so can be used.
action need be considered in the fire design
Table 2 gives values for the UK.
1,1 is the appropriate factor for the frequent value of the main
variable action Other values can be calculated from BS EN 1992-1-2 Expression
5.7, and this expression and method can be used for rectangular
Tabular methods
columns:
Columns: Method A
Method A has the more stringent limitations of the two tabulated R = 120((R + Ra+ Rl + Rb + Rn) / 120)1.8
data methods:
the effective length of column under fire conditions l0, 3m. where R is the fire resistance period in minutes
For a braced structure, the effective length can be taken as
0.5l, i.e. l 6m for intermediate floors and 0.5l l0, 0.7l, i.e. l
4.2m for top floors, where l is the actual length of the column
Table 1: Summary of the tabulated data for columns in BS EN 1992-1-2

Slenderness ratio Effective length 3m 30 30 80 30 80 30 80
Minimum dimensions 200 b 450 150 b 600 150 b 600 150 b 600 150 b 600
Eccentricity e 0.15b Jenny Burridge

e 0.25b e 0.025b but e 0.25b but e 0.5b but
Concrete & Fire e 10mm e 100mm e 200mm
= 0.1 Version 1 Table C1 Table C2 Table C3

Table 5.2a*
Chap 7 Fig 7.7
Table 5.2b
= 0.5 Table C4 Table C5 Table C6
10.09.08
= 1.0 Amendments Table C7 Table C8 Table C9
Note 23.02.09, 25.06.09
* 4% reinforcement
All columns must be braced
b is the smallest dimension of a rectangular column, or the diameter of the column
Asfyd
Mechanical reinforcement ratio =
Acfcd
Lofi
Slenderness ratio =
i
Table 2: Minimum column dimensions and axis distances for square and circular columns
Exposed condition Load level fi Fire resistance period (minutes)
R 30 R 60 R 90 R 120 R 180 R 240
More than one side 0.2 200/25 200/25 200/30 250/38 350/52 350/68
exposed 300/25 350/33 450/47
0.5 200/25 200/32 300/40 350/49 350/68 450/78

300/27 400/35 450/43 450/62
0.7 200/26 250/40 350/48 350/59 450/75

300/25 350/35 450/43 450/54 450/73
Only one side 0.7 155/25 155/25 155/25 175/35 230/55 295/70
exposed
(1 + ) fcd,fi (20)
R, = 83 1
(0.85 / acc) + Fs = As fscd,fi ( m )
xbfifcd,fi (20)
x x
This simplifies to R, =83(1) in the UK as cc = 0.85. As
Ra = 1.6(a30), where a is the axis distance
z dfi z
Rl = 9.6(5l0,) where 2.0m l0, 6.0m z
Rn = 0 for columns with four longitudinal bars and Rn = 12 for columns As

with more than four bars
Rb = 0.09b where b is the modified column width
As1fsd,fi ( Fs = As2fsd,fi ( m)
m)
b = 2Ac/(b + h) for rectangular sections and the diameter for circular bfi
sections Mu = Mu1 + Mu2
h is limited to h 1.5b and 200mm b 450mm As = As1 + As2
However, as proved by tests, blade columns have a longer period

Figure 3 Stress distribution at ultimate limit state for rectangular concrete cross-section
of fire resistance than columns of the same thickness but less width.
with compression reinforcement
It therefore seems reasonable to use Exp. 5.7 for columns where
h > 1.5b, but to limit b in this expression. If h > 1.5b then b should
The restrictions on the use of Table 5.2b are that:
be limited to 2b 1.5b/(b + 1.5b) = 1.2b. This will give a conservative
the slenderness of the column under fire conditions should be
answer for the fire resistance.
= l0, / i 30, where i is the minimum radius of inertia
the first order eccentricity under fire conditions should satisfy the
Example: Blade column design limit: e = M0Ed, / N0Ed, emax, where emax = 100mm, e/b 0.25 and
b = minimum column dimension
Assume a 600 200 column, fully loaded in the normal
temperature design condition, designed in the UK (cc = 0.85) The load level at normal temperature conditions, n, is used in the
with an effective length in fire of 2m (4m floor-to-floor height). determination of the minimum values (Table 3).
= 0.7 as the column is fully loaded R = 83(1) = 24.9 n = N0Ed, / [0.7(Ac cd + As yd)]
Axis distance a = 25mm cover + 10mm link + 8mm (H16 bar) =
Note that in the table the mechanical reinforcement ratio, , is one
43mm
of the required parameters:
Ra = 1.6(a30) = 20.8
l0, = 2m Rl = 9.6(5l0,) = 28.8 = ASyd / Ac cd
b is kept to 1.2b = 240mm Rb = 0.09b = 21.6
In BS EN 1992-1-1, a conservative value in the determination of
Rn = 12 as there are more than four bars in the column
limiting slenderness for the column takes = 0.1. For a class C30/37
R = 120 ((R + Ra + Rl + Rb + Rn)/120)1.8
concrete, this represents approximately 0.4% reinforcement,
R = 120((24.9 + 20.8 + 28.8 + 21.6 + 12)/120)1.8 = 99min
whereas when = 1.0, the column would require approximately 4%
reinforcement.
Columns: Method B
Walls
Method B provides a more comprehensive method for the design Tabulated data for load-bearing walls are given in Table 5.4 of BS EN
of columns in that the restrictions on eccentricity of the first order 1992-1-2 (Table 4). The degree of utilisation is the same as that for
moments are less onerous. For most columns Table 5.2b willJenny be Burridge Method A for columns. Another restriction is that:
adequate, but there are tables in Annex C of EC2 which give Concrete
more & Fire
Version 1 clear wall height
options where the limitations of Table 5.2b are exceeded. Chap 7 Fig 7.8 40
Amendments wall thickness
24.02.09, 26.02.09, 29.06.09, 13.11.09
Simplified calculation methods
500C isotherm method Wall Wall end

In the isotherm method, concrete at a temperature above 500C is M1
neglected in the calculation of section resistance, while concrete at kc ( m1)
or below 500C is assumed to retain its full, ambient temperature a z1
strength. In BS EN 1992-1-2 the method is illustrated with reference
to rectangular sections. Thus, the calculation process is to first a z1 a z1 a z1
check that the section meets the minimum cross-sectional width a z1
requirements in Table 5. W1 W1 W1 W1
If the minimum requirements are met, the area not damaged by

heat, i.e. within the 500C isotherm, is determined to give a reduced Column
section size (b, d) where the concrete retains its original properties.
kc ( m1)
All the reinforcement can be taken as acting with the section,
including the reinforcement in the zone outside the 500C isotherm,
but the strength of the bars is reduced. The strength can be taken a z1
from Figure 4.2a of BS EN 1992-1-2. a z1
a z1
While the temperature gradient through a section denoted by
W1 W1
isotherms may be determined from testing, BS EN 1992-1-2 provides
temperature profiles for a number of typical member types and
Figure 4 Reduction of cross-section when using zone method
cross-sections in Annex A.
The rounded corners of the residual section reflect the real profile The section resistance may then be determined using conventional
of the isotherm and may be approximated to a rectangle (Figure 2); calculation methods (Figure 3) and compared against the design
some interpretation may be required. load in the fire situation in this figure, where:
Table 2: Minimum column dimensions and axis distances for square and circular columns
Load level at normal Reinforcement ratio Fire resistance period (minutes)
temperature
R 30 R 60 R 90 R 120 R 180 R 240
conditions
(n)
0.15 0.1% 150/25 150/30 200/40 250/50 400/50 500/60

200/25 250/25 350/25 500/25 550/25
0.5% 150/25 150/25 150/35 200/45 300/45 450/45

200/25 300/25 450/25 500/25
1.0% 150/25 150/25 200/25 200/40 300/35 400/45

250/25 400/25 500/25
0.3 0.1% 150/25 200/40 300/40 400/50 500/60 550/40

300/25 400/25 550/25 550/25 600/25
0.5% 150/25 150/35 200/45 300/45 450/50 550/55

200/25 300/25 550/25 600/25 600/25
1.0% 150/25 150/30 200/40 250/50 450/50 500/40

200/25 300/25 400/25 550/25 600/30
0.5 0.1% 200/30 300/40 500/50 550/25 550/60 600/75

250/25 500/25 550/25 600/30
0.5% 150/25 250/35 300/45 450/50 500/60 600/70

350/25 550/25 600/25 600/50
1.0% 150/25 250/40 250/40 450/45 500/60 600/60

400/25 550/25 600/30 600/45
0.7 0.1% 300/30 500/25 550/40 550/60 >600 >600

350/25 600/25 600/45
0.5% 200/30 350/40 500/50 500/60 600/75 >600

250/25 550/25 600/40 600/50
1.0% 200/30 300/50 500/50 600/60 >600 >600

300/25 600/30 600/45
Jenny Burridge
Concrete & Fire
Version 1
20 I www.concretecentre.com Chap 7 Fig 7.9
05.09.08
Amendments
80
70
FRR 1.0
60
240 min
FRR
30 min
50 0.8
180 min
40 60 min
az
0.6
120 min
k c ( m )
30 90 min
90 min
0.4
20 60 min 120 min
30 min
0.2
10 180 min
240 min
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250
w (mm)
w (mm)
Figure 5 Fire damaged zone az Figure 6 Reduction of compression strength
Table 4: Tabulated data for load-bearing walls

Exposed condition Load level fi Fire resistance period (minutes)
REI 30 REI 60 REI 90 REI 120 REI 180 REI 240
One side exposed 0.35 100/10* 110/10* 120/20* 150/25 180/40 230/55
0.7 120/10* 130/10* 140/25 160/35 210/50 270/60
Both sides exposed 0.35 120/10* 120/10* 140/10* 160/25 200/45 250/55
0.7 120/10* 140/10* 170/25 220/35 270/55 350/60

Note
* Normally the cover required by BE EN 1992-1-1 will control
Design notes according to 5.4.2 of BS EN 1992-1-2:
A. The tabular data can be used for plain concrete walls
B. For calcareous aggregates, the minimum wall thickness can be reduced by 10%
C. To prevent excessive thermal deformation and subsequent integrity failure between wall and slab, the ratio of clear wall height to wall thickness should not exceed 40
b = width of reduced cross-section scd,(m) = design value of compression reinforcement strength in the
fire situation at mean temperature m in that layer
d = effective depth of reduced cross-section
Fs = total force in compression reinforcement in the fire situation,
z= lever arm between tension reinforcement and concrete
and is equal to part of the total force in the tension
z = lever arm between tension and compression reinforcement reinforcement
As = area of tension reinforcement For UK design: = 0.8 for fck 50MPa, or = 0.8 (fck 50)/400 for
50 < fck 90MPa, = 1.0 for fck 50MPa, or = 1.0 (fck 50)/200 for
As1 = part of tension reinforcement in equilibrium with concrete
50 < fck 90MPa, x is as defined for normal temperature design and
compression block
c, = 1.0.
ge
ire As2 = part of tension reinforcement in equilibrium with
Zone method
.12 compression reinforcement
In the zone method, the cross-section is divided up into several zones
As = area of compression reinforcement
which are ascribed different temperatures. The strength of each zone
Jenny Burridge
cd,(20) = design value of compression strength concrete
Concretein&the
Firefire is assessed and the strengths are aggregated to give an assessment of
situation at normal temperature = ck/c, Version 1 the strength of the whole section. The zone method is more accurate
Chap 7 Fig 7.11
08.09.08 than the 500C isotherm method, but is more complicated.
sd,(m) = design value of tension reinforcement strength in the fire
Amendments
situation at mean temperature m in that 09.02.09,
layer 24.02.09 The design procedure for the zone method can be summarised as
follows:
Table 5: Minimum cross-sectional width of columns or walls

References:
Fire resistance R 60 R 90 R 120 R 180 R 240
1) British Standards Institution (2010) BS EN 1992-1-2:2004 Eurocode 2.
Minimum 90 120 160 200 280
Design of concrete structures. General rules. Structural fire design,
width of cross-
section (mm)
London, UK: BSI
2) British Standards Institution (2014) BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Eurocode 2:

1. The cross-section is divided into three or more parallel zones of equal Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for buildings,
thickness. London, UK: BSI
2. The corresponding mean temperature of each of the zones is checked,
3) British Standards Institution (2010) PD 6687-1:2010 Background
using the temperature graphs in BS EN 1992-1-2 AnnexA, and the
paper to the National Annexes to BS EN 1992-1 and BS EN 1992-3,
corresponding concrete compressive strength fcd() and elastic
London, UK: BSI
modulus (if applicable) of each zone is calculated.
3. The fire-damaged zone az (Figures 4 and 5) is calculated; this will be 4) British Standards Institution (2010) BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005
ignored in the strength and stiff ness calculation. When calculating Eurocode. Basis of structural design, London, UK: BSI
the fire-damaged zone, the width w is taken as either the thickness
of a wall or column that is exposed on one side, half the thickness
of a two-sided exposed wall or column, or half the smallest dimension
rules and rules for buildings, London, UK, BSI
of a four-sided exposed column.
4. All the reinforcement, including that in the fire-damaged zone, can be Further reading
taken into account in the analysis of the section, but with a reduced The Concrete Centre (2011) How to design concrete structures using
strength calculated using Figure 4.2a of BS EN 1992-1-2. Eurocode 2, Camberley, UK: MPA The Concrete Centre
5. The load-bearing capacity and stiffness are determined based on Bailey C. G. and Khoury G. A. (2011) Performance of concrete structures
the reduced cross-section and strength (Figure 6), using normal in fire, Camberley, UK: MPA The Concrete Centre
temperature design procedures.
The impact of a major fire at Tytherington County High School, Cheshire was limited due to the fire resistance of the concrete structure.
Concrete Design Guide Structural Design of Concrete and Masonry
No. Eurocode
2: Eurocode6:6:Design
Design of
ofmasonry
masonry
structures for vertical loads
structures for vertical loads
This series is produced by The Concrete Centre to enable designers to realise the potential
of concrete.
The Concrete Centre, part of the Mineral Products Association (MPA), is a team of qualied
professionals with expertise in concrete construction, engineering and architecture.
www.concretecentre.com
roduction
ight seem strange that a series on BS EN 1996-2 and encompasses Thethedesign
usefulof masonry,
associated whether blockwork or brickwork,
test methods.
crete design should include articles design information previously contained is coveredinin Eurocode The standards
6. supporting EC6 were
out masonry design. However, much BS 56281012, which does not conict with the developed within a common framework but it
sonry design in the UK uses concrete principles contained in EC6. did not prove possible to standardise all the
cks, made by members of the Concrete EC6 has been developed to enable test methods used by the different materials
ck Association, which is affiliated to the
Introduction the designer to use the following types
units are made. Wordsfrom whichand
like brick masonry units
block have are made.from
disappeared Words
the
eral Products Association. of masonry unit: clay, calcium silicate,European vocabularylikeandbrick
they are and block have
all referred disappeared
to as masonry units. from
BS EN 1996 BS(Eurocode
EN 1996 (Eurocode
6) covers6) covers
the the design of masonryconcrete,
aggregate for buildings and
autoclaved aerated the European vocabulary and they are all
civil engineering
ign of masonry worksand
for buildings andcivil
is organised into four parts.
concrete In common
(aircrete), with
manufactured Newstone
methods were introduced
referred to foras
determining
masonry the compressive
units.
the other material Eurocodes,
gineering works and is organised into four Part 1-1 covers the structural design rules 1
strength
and natural stone. European Standards for of masonry units
New methods were introducedthe
and the method of determining for
and Part
ts. In common 1-2the
with covers
otherstructural
material fire design2.these
Thereafter, there ishave
materials somebeen published
characteristic
by thecompressive strengththe
determining of masonry changed
compressive from testing
strength
ocodes, Partdivergence fromthe
1-1 covers other Eurocodes in that Part
structural BSI 2and
covers
formaspects
part of
ofdesign,
an array ofstorey-height
standards panelsof to masonry
much smallerunitsmasonry
and thewallette specimens.
method of
materials
ign rules1 and Partand
1-2workmanship
3
covers structural while Part 3 relating
looks aftertothe German need
masonry-related products and the determining the characteristic compressive
for simplifiedthere
design2. Thereafter, calculation
is somemethods4. Masonry bridges are not covered
ergence from by EC6. Each
other part has a corresponding
Eurocodes in that UK national annex58.
t 2 coversBS aspects of design,
EN 1996-1-1 was firstmaterials
published in 2005 along with BS EN 1996-1-2.
workmanship 3
while Part 3 looks after
E
BS EN 1996-2 and 1996-3 were published in 2006. The corresponding
German need for simpli ed calculation
National Annexes bear the same dates. Corrigenda
Figure 1
were issued
Modi cations to K for units
thods . Masonry
4
bridges
to Part 1-1 in 2006areandnot covered
2009, and in 2012 laid
a newwith generalwas
version purpose mortar
published
EC6. Eachincorporating
part has a corresponding
Amendment 1. While UK the 2012 changes to BS EN 1996-
onal annex 58
. relatively small, the opportunity was taken to update the
1-1 are
BS EN 1996-1-1 was rstUK
corresponding published in
National Annex based on feedback from use and
05 along with BS EN 1996-1-2.
recalibration of some ofBS the EN
outcomes. The discussion and observations
6-2 and 1996-3 were
that follow arepublished in 2006.
therefore related to the 2012 version of the UK National
e corresponding
Annex to BS EN 1996-1-1. bear
National Annexes
same dates. Corrigenda were issued
A further
Part 1-1 in 2006 andBritish
2009, Standards Institution (BSI) publication, PD 66979,
and in 2012
ew versionwas was published
published in 2010. This covers recommendations for the design
incorporating
endment 1.ofWhile
masonry thestructures to BS EN 1996-1-1 and BS EN 1996-2 and
2012 changes
encompasses
BS EN 1996-1-1 the useful
are relatively design information previously contained
small,
opportunity was taken to updatenot
in BS 5628 , which does theconflict with the principles contained
1012
responding in UK
EC6.National Annex based
feedback from
EC6 hasuse and
been recalibration
developed to enable the designer to use the following
ome of the outcomes. The
types of masonry unit: discussion
clay, calcium silicate, aggregate concrete,
observations that follow
autoclaved aeratedare therefore
concrete (aircrete), manufactured stone and natural
ted to thestone.
2012European
version of the UKfor these materials have been published
Standards
ional Annex to BS
by the BSI EN
and 1996-1-1.
form part of an array of standards relating to masonry-
A further British Standards
related products and Institution (BSI)test methods.
the associated
blication, PD 66979, was published in 2010.
The standards supporting
s covers recommendations EC6design
for the were developed within a common
framework to
masonry structures butBS
it did
ENnot prove possible
1996-1-1 and to standardise all the
test methods used by the different materials from which masonry Figure 1 Modifications to K for units laid with general purpose mortar
Concrete v3.indd 38 22/01/2015 12:26
Ancillary components are dealt with in a coherent way within the Table 1: Value of partial factors for materials for ultimate limit states
standards and in BS EN 1996-1-1 suitable values of partial factors have
Material Class of execution control M
been introduced. The partial factors for use with masonry are given
1* 2*
in National Annex Table NA.1 and shown here in Table 1. Two levels of
Masonry
attestation of conformity are recognised: Category I and Category II. This
forms part of the declaration made by the manufacturer of the masonry When in a state of direct of flexural compression
units. Two classes of execution control are also recognised: 1 and 2. Unreinforced masonry made with:
Units of category I 2.3 2.7

Vertical load design
Units of category II 2.6 3.0
Strength
Reinforced masonry made with mortar M6 or M12:
During the drafting of EC6, a way had to be found to deal with the wide
Units of category I 2.0 _
range of masonry units used across Europe. This range not only includes
Units of category II 2.3 _
different materials such as clay, concrete and stone, but also a variety of
configurations based upon the proportion and direction of any holes When in a state of flexural tension
or perforations, web thickness etc. This has resulted in four groupings of Units of category I and II 2.3 2.7
masonry units according to the percentage size and orientation of holes but in laterally loaded wall
panels when removal of
in the units when laid. The UK only has experience of Group 1 and Group
the panel would not affect
2 masonry units, but no doubt Group 3 and Group 4 units will find their the overall stability of the 2.0 2.4
way to the UK. In the UK National Annex, information is only provided for building
Group 1 and Group 2 units because of this lack of a UK national database When in a state of shear
for Groups 3 and 4. Properties for Groups 3 and 4 would normally be Unreinforced masonry made with:
established by testing. Two levels of quality assurance for the
Units of category I and II 2.5 2.5
manufacture of masonry units are specified:
Reinforced masonry made with mortar M6 or M12:
Category I masonry units, which have a declared compressive Units of category I and II 2.0 _
strength with a probability of failure to reach it not exceeding 5% Steel and other components
Category II masonry units, which are not intended to comply with Anchorage of reinforcing 1.5 _
the level of confidence of Category I units steel
Reinforcing steel and 2.0 _

In addition the UK National Annex requires that the coefficient of prestressing steel
variation for the compressive strength of masonry units should not Ancillary components 3.0 3.0
exceed 25%. wall ties
The characteristic compressive strength of masonry is presented in Ancillary components 1.5** 1.5**
straps
BS EN 1996-1-1 as Equation 3.1. This equation includes the normalised
Lintels in accordance with See NA to BS EN 845-2 See NA to BS EN 845-2
strength of the masonry unit b and the strength of the mortar m. The
EN 845-213
UK National Annex places limits on the use of this equation for general
*
Class 1 of execution control should be assumed whenever the work is carried out following the
purpose mortar as follows: recommendations for workmanship in BS EN 19962, including appropriate supervision and inspection, and
in addition:
b is not to be taken to be greater than 110N/mm2 i) the specification, supervision and control ensure that the construction is compatible with the use of the
appropriate partial safety factors given in BS EN 199611
m is not to be taken to be greater than b or 12N/mm2 ii) the mortar conforms to BS EN 998-2, if it is factory made mortar. If the mortar is site mixed, preliminary
compressive strength tests, in accordance with BS EN 1015-2 and 1015-11, are carried on the mixture of sand,
lime (if any) and cement that is intended to be used (the proportions given in Table NA.2 may be used initially
the coefficient of variation of the strength of the masonry units is for the tests) in order to confirm that the strength requirements of the specification can be met; the proportions
not more than 25% may need to be changed to achieve the required strengths and the new proportions are then to be used for the
work on site. Regular compressive strength testing is carried out on samples from the site mortar to check that
the required strengths are being achieved.
Class 2 of execution control should be assumed whenever the work is carried out following the
recommendations for workmanship in BS EN 19962, including appropriate supervision.

When considering the effects of misuse or accident these values may be halved.

Class 2 of execution control is not considered appropriate for reinforced masonry and should not be used.
However, masonry wall panels reinforced with bed joint reinforcement used:
i) to enhance the lateral strength of the masonry panel or
ii) to limit or control shrinkage or expansion of the masonry can be considered to be unreinforced masonry for
the purpose of class of execution control and the unreinforced masonry direct or flexural compression M values
are appropriate for use.

When considering the effects of misuse or accident these values should be taken as 1.0.
For horizontal restraint straps, unless otherwise specified, the declared ultimate load capacity depends
**
on there being a design compressive stress in the masonry of at least 0.4N/mm2. When a lower stress due to
design loads may be acting, for example when autoclaved aerated concrete or lightweight aggregate concrete
masonry is used, the manufacturers advice should be sought and a partial safety factor of 3 should be used.

Number 2
40 TheStructuralEngineer Technical
February 2015 Concrete design
The normalised strength is new to the UK and relates the compressive

strength
fm is of
notthe unit
to be determined
taken by test
to be greater than to
fb a standardised shape
andormoisture
12N/mm2content. The normalised compressive strength is the
the coefficient of variation of the strength
compressive strength of the units converted to the airdried compressive
of the masonry units is not more than 25%
strength of an equivalent 100mm wide by 100mm high masonry
E Figure 2
Wall stiffened
unit. The
Thedetail
and772-1
is contained
normalised
relates
strength in the test
is new methods
to the
14 the compressive strength of the
UK for masonry units in
by piers
BS EN . The advantage to the designer is that the normalised
unit determined by test to a standardised
Figure 2 Wall stiffened by piers
strength
shapeis independent
and of theThe
moisture content. sizenormalised
of the units used in the final
Table 2: Values of K to be used with Equation 3.1
construction
compressive thereby
strengthobviating the need for recalculation if a different
is the compressive
Masonry unit General Thin layer Lightweight mortar of density d sizestrength
of unit isofselected.
the units converted to the air-
purpose mortar (bed joint (kg/m3) dried compressive strength of an equivalent
mortar 0.5mm and
Table 2: Values of K to be used with Equation 3.1
3mm) The100mm wide by 100mm
characteristic compressive high masonry
strength of masonry (other than shell-
unit. The detail is contained in the test
Masonry unit General Thin layer 600
Lightweight bedded masonry) is determined from the results of tests in accordance
d 800 mortar800<
of density d
d 1300 methods for masonry units in BS EN 772-
purpose mortar mortar (bed (kg/m3) with114BS
. The 1052-115. to
ENadvantage Thethetests are carried
designer is that out on small wallette
Clay joint 0.5mm the normalised
specimens rather strength
than theisstorey-height
independent panels used in BS 5628. The
600 d 800 800< d 1300
and 3mm) of the size of the units used in the nal
Group 1 0.50 0.75 0.30 0.40 designer has the option of either having the units intended to be used
construction thereby obviating the need
Clay in afor
project tested or
recalculation if ato
diffuse
erentthe values
size determined
of unit is from the UK national
Group Group
2 1 0.40 0.50 0.70 0.75 0.25
0.30 0.40 0.30 database.
selected.The latter values are provided in the UK National Annex in the
The characteristic compressive strength
Group 2 0.40 0.70 0.25 0.30 form of the constants to be used in the following equation:
Group 3 and 4 * * * * of masonry (other than shell-bedded
Group 3 and 4 * * * * k =masonry)
K b m is determined
[Equationfrom the results of
3.1 of BS EN 151996-1-1]
tests in accordance with BS EN 1052-1 .
Calcium silicate
Calcium silicate The tests are carried out on small wallette
where:
Group Group
1 1 0.50 0.50 0.80 0.80 * * specimens rather than the storey-height
Group 2 0.40 0.70 *

* k panels used
is the in BS 5628. compressive
characteristic The designer has
strength of the masonry,
the option of2either having the units intended
Group 2 0.40 0.70 in N/mm
to be used in a project tested or to use the
Aggregate concrete
K values
is a constant
determined from the UK national
Group 1 0.75 0.90 0.45 0.45
Aggregate concrete , database. The latter values are provided
are constants
Group 1 (units 0.50 0.70 0.40 0.40 in the UK National Annex in the form of
Group 1 0.75 0.90 0.45 0.45 b theisconstants
the normalised mean compressive strength of the units,
to be used in the following
laid flat)
in the direction of the applied action effect, in N/mm2
equation:
Group 2 0.70 0.76 0.45 0.45
Group 1 (units 0.50 0.70 0.40 0.40 m is the compressive strength of the mortar, in N/mm2
laid at)
Group 3 and 4 * * * * fk = K fb fm [Equation 3.1 of BS EN
Group Autoclaved
2 0.70 0.76 0.45 0.45 Values of K to be used1996-1-1]
with Equation 3.1 are provided in the UK National
aerated concrete
Annex Table NA.4 and are shown in Table 2.
Group 1 0.75 0.90 0.45 0.45 where:
Group 3 and 4 * * * * fk is the characteristic compressive
Manufactured stone The value of K is reduced by multiplying by 0.8 when a mortar joint runs
strength of the masonry, in N/mm2
Group aerated
1 0.75 0.90 * * continuously
K is a or intermittently through the masonry at right angles to
constant
Autoclaved concrete
, joints,
the cross as shown in Figure 1. Note also that for blocks laid flat,
are constants
Dimensioned natural stone fb contains
is the normalised mean
Group 1 0.75 0.90 0.45 0.45
the table a specific value for K to be used in Equation 3.1.
Group 1 0.45 * * * compressive strength of the units,
in the direction of the applied
Manufactured
* stone
Group 3 and 4 units have not traditionally been used in the UK, so no values are available. Values of , for use with Equation 3.1 are shown in Table 3 and are
action effect, in N/mm2
Group 1These masonry unit0.75

and mortar combinations have not traditionally been usedin the UK, so no values are
0.90 takenffromisclause NA.2.4 ofstrength
the compressive the UK National
of the Annex to Part 1-1.
m
available.
mortar, in N/mm2
If Group 1 aggregate concrete units contain formed vertical voids in the normal direction,
Dimensioned
multiply K natural stone
by (100 - n)/100, where n is the percentage of voids, maximum 25%.
Values of K to be used with Equation 3.1
When aggregate concrete masonry units are to be used laid flat the normalised strength of the unit should be are provided in the UK National Annex Table
calculated using the width and height of the unit in the upright position along
with the compressive strengthof
Group 1 0.45 NA.4 and are shown in Table 2.
the unit tested in the upright position.
The value of K is reduced by multiplying
Note
* Group 3Where
and 4aunits have by 0.8 when a mortar joint runs continuously
mortar jointnot traditionally
is parallel to thebeen used
face of in the
the wall UK, sobe
K should nomodified
values are available.
(Figure 1).

These masonry unit and mortar combinations have not traditionally been used in the UK, so no values are available. or intermittently through the masonry at right

If Group 1 aggregate concrete units contain formed vertical voids in the normal direction, multiply K by (100 - n)/100,
where n is the percentage of voids, maximum 25%.
angles to the cross joints, as shown in Figure

When aggregate concrete masonry units are to be used laid at the normalised strength of the unit should be calculated 1. Note also that for blocks laid at, the table
using the width and height of the unit in the upright position along with the compressive strength of the unit tested in the
contains a specic value for K to be used in
upright position.
Note Equation 3.1.
Where a mortar joint is parallel to the face of the wall K should be modied (Figure 1). Values of , for use with Equation 3.1 are
shown in Table 3 and are taken from clause
TSE38_38-43 Concrete v3.indd 40 22/01/2015 12:26
41
Figure 3
Values of m against slenderness ratio for different eccentricities, based on E of 1000fk
1996-1-1 and depends on the ratio of the pier
spacing to pier width and the ratio of the pier
depth to the wall thickness.
For awall
For a cavity cavity wall
the the effective
effective thickness
thickness in the UK is determined using the
in the UK is determined using the following
following equation:
equation:
3 3 3
tef = t 1 + t32 3 3
= 1 + 2
where:
where: t is the effective thickness of the
1
outer or unloaded leaf
t1 ist thethe
effective thickness of the outer or unloaded leaf
effective thickness of the inner
2
t2 the effective thickness
or loaded leaf of the inner or loaded leaf
Note that the

Note effective
that thickness
the effective of the
thickness ofunloaded
the leaf should not be
takenunloaded
to be greater than not
leaf should thebethickness
taken to of
bethe loaded leaf and that ties
greater
should than the at
be provided thickness
2.5 per of
m2the
. loaded leaf
and that ties should be provided at 2.5 per
m. 2
The slenderness ratio of the wall is obtained by dividing the effective
The slenderness ratio of the wall is
height by the effective thickness and should not be greater than 27 for
obtained by dividing the effective height by
wallsthe
subjected
effectiveto mainly vertical
thickness loading.
and should not be
greater than 27 for walls subjected to mainly
Whenvertical
a wallloading.
is subjected to vertical loads which result in an eccentricity
at rightWhen
angles to the
a wall line of thetowall,
is subjected EC6loads
vertical requires the resistance of the
Figure 3 Values of m against slenderness ratio for different eccentricities, based on E of 1000k
which
wall to result in an
be checked at eccentricity at right angles
the top, mid-height and bottom.
to the line of the wall, EC6 requires the
resistance ofof
The eccentricity the wall
the to be
load checked
at the at the
top and bottom of the wall is given by:
NA.2.4 The
of thedesignation
UK Nationalof mortars
Annex has1-1.
to Part also changed
h iswith the need
the clear storeyfor a of the
height top, mid-height and bottom.
The designation
declarationofbasedmortars onhas also rather than mix
strength wall
proportions. Thus, an MThe
id
eccentricity of the load at the top and
changed with the need for a declaration n is a reduction factor, where n = 2, ei = bottom+of ehethe
+ ewall 0.05t
int is given by:
M12 mortar may be expected to have a strength of 12N/mm2. Equivalent Nid
based on strength rather than mix 3 or 4, depending upon the
mixesThus,
proportions. are shown
an M12in National
mortar may Annex
be Table NA.2 andrestraint
edge are shown inening
or stiff Tableof4.the
where: = id +
expected to have a strength of 12N/mm2. wall. The reduction factor to be i he + init 0.05
Eccentricity
Equivalent mixes are shown in National applied depends upon the restraint M is the design id
id
value of the bending moment at the top or the
Annex Table NA.2 and are shown in Table 4. offered by adjoining elements where:
A further area of change for vertical load relates to the treatment of bottom
Mid is of thethe wallvalue
design resulting
of thefrom eccentricity of the floor load at
bending
eccentricity, where a frame analysis approach
Eccentricity is implied
The value for the rather
minimum than the tmin
thickness the support
moment at the top or the bottom
A further
BSarea
5628ofapproach
change forofvertical
assuming load that anyof eccentricity
a load-bearing atwall
the should
top of be thetaken as Nid is the design of the wall resulting
value of thefrom
vertical load at the top or the bottom of
relates to the treatment of eccentricity, 90mm for a single-leaf wall and 75mm for eccentricity of the oor load at the
wall reduces to zero at the bottom of the wall. The use of a frame analysis the wall
where a frame analysis approach is implied the leaves of a cavity wall. For a single-leaf support
will not
rather than the BSusually
5628be justifiedofgiven typical
approach UKa construction
wall, double-leaf wall, practice
a facedand wall,ita shell-ehe isNthe eccentricity
is the designat theof
value top
theorvertical
bottom of the wall resulting from
id
assumingis still
thatacceptable to use
any eccentricity at the
the BS
top5628 approach.
bedded wall and a grouted cavity wall the imposed load horizontal
at the top loads
or the bottom of the
of the wall reduces to zero at the bottom effective thickness tef is taken as the actuale is the initial wall eccentricity resulting from construction imperfections
An initial
of the wall. The use of a frame eanalysis
eccentricity is used to allow for anyofinaccuracies
thickness the wall t. in the
init
ehe is the eccentricity at the top or
will notconstruction
usually be justi
init
and may be taken as h /450
ofedthegiven typicaland is takenWhen
masonry a wall
as einit = hefis/450
stiffened
wherebyhpiers
ef
(Figure
is the bottom of the wallefresulting from
UK construction practice and it is still 2), the effective thickness is given by the imposed horizontal loads
effective height of the wall. The initial eccentricity is applied to the full
acceptable to use the BS 5628 approach. coefficients contained in Table 5.1 of BS EN einit is the initial eccentricity resulting
height
An initial of the wall
eccentricity einitsois as
used to result in the greatest value of eccentricity.
to allow Table 3: Values of K to be used with Equation 3.1
for any inaccuracies in the construction of
The effective height Masonry unit Masonry unit
the masonry and is taken as eof a masonry wall hTable
init = hef/450 ef
is obtained
3: Values by applying
to be used inaEquation 3.1
where h factor toeff
ef is the the clearheight
ective height of the
of the wall such that:
wall. General purpose mortar = 0.7 and = 0.3
Type of mortar Values to be used
The initial eccentricity is applied to the Lightweight mortar = 0.7 and = 0.3
hef =
full height h
ofthe
n wall so as to result in the
greatest value of eccentricity. General purpose mortar Thin layer mortar in bed jointsof=thickness
0.7 and 0.53mm
= 0.3 (using = 0.85 and = 0
where:
The effective height of a masonry wall hef Lightweight mortar clay units of Group 1, calciumsilicate
= 0.7units,
and aggregate
= 0.3
is obtained by applying a factor to the clear concrete units and autoclaved aerated concrete units)
h is the clear Thin
storey height of the wall layer mortar in bed joints of thickness 0.53mm (using = 0.85 and = 0
height of the wall such that: Thin layer mortar in bed joints of thickness 0.53mm (using = 0.7 and = 0
clay units of Group 1, calcium silicate units, aggregate
n is a reduction factor, where n = 2,concrete
3 or 4, depending upon the aerated
units and autoclaved edge concrete units)
clay units of Group 2)
hef = nh restraint or stiffening of the wall. The reduction factor to be
Thin layer mortar in bed joints of thickness 0.53mm (using = 0.7 and = 0
where: applied depends upon the restraint clayoffered
units ofby adjoining
Group 2) elements
and is given in BS EN 1996-1-1 clause 5.5.1.2 (11).
The value for the minimum thickness tmin of a load-bearing wall

should be taken as 90mm for a single-leaf wall and 75mm for the leaves
of a cavity wall. For a single-leaf wall, a double-leaf wall, a faced wall,
a shellbedded wall and a grouted cavity wall the effective thickness
tef is taken as the actual thickness of the wall t.
When a wall is stiffened by piers (Figure 2), the effective thickness is

given by the coefficients contained in Table 5.1 of BS EN 1996-1-1 and
depends on the ratio of the pier spacing to pier width and the ratio of
the pier depth to the wall thickness.
Table 4: Acceptable assumed equivalent mixes for prescribed masonry mortars for Class 2 of execution control
Compressive Prescribed mortars (traditional proportion of materials by volume) (see Notes) Mortar designation Suitable for use
strength class* in environmental
Cement: lime: condition Cement: sand with or Masonry cement: sand Masonry cement: sand
condition
sand with or without air without air entrainment
entrainment
M12 1 : 0 to : 3 1:3 Not suitable Not suitable (i) Severe(S)
M6 1 : : 4 to 4 1 : 3 to 4 1 : 2 to 3 1:3 (ii) Severe(S)
M4 1 : 1 : 5 to 6 1 : 5 to 6 1 : 4 to 5 1 : 3 to 4 (iii) Moderate(M)
M2 1 : 2 : 8 to 9 1 : 7 to 8 1 : 5 to 6 1 : 4 (iv) Passive(P)
*
The number following the M is the compressive strength for the class at 28 days in N/mm2 that may be assumed for the proportions given in columns 2 to 4; site compressive strength testing is not required for these traditional mixes.
Checking of prescribed mortars should only be done by testing the proportions of the constituents.

Cement or combinations of cement (which include CEM I and many CEM IIs) in accordance with NA.2.3.2, except masonry cements

Masonry cement in accordance with NA.2.3.2 (inorganic filler other than lime)

Masonry cement in accordance with NA.2.3.2 (lime)
Notes
When the sand portion is given as, for example, 5 to 6, the lower figure should be used with sands containing a higher proportion of fines whilst the higher figure should be used with sands containing a lower proportion of fines.
For Class 2 of execution control site compressive strength testing is not required for these traditional mixes and checking of prescribed mortars should only be done by testing the proportions of the constituents.
At the top or bottom of the wall, the reduction factor for slenderness and
Characteristic vertical actions
eccentricity is given by:
Masonry unit properties
Type and group
Dimensions ei
Strength
i = 1 2
Determine requirements
for mortar strength and
t
durability. See tables 5
Determine normalized
& 6 of Introduction to
where:
compressive strength, fb.
Eurocode 6
Determine design value of
vertical actions (per unit
length), Ed, using Expression
(6.10), (6.10a) or (6.10b) of
Determine characteristic compressive strength of masonry,
fk, from Equation (3.1) of Eurocode 6 and Tables 1 & 2
Eurocode (see Introduction to
Eurocode 6)
i is the reduction factor at the top or bottom of the wall
Determine effective height, hef, Determine effective thickness, tef, Where cross-sectional area, ei is the eccentricity at the top or bottom of the wall
of the wall (see page 4) . of the wall (see page 4) A < 0.1 m2, factor fk by (0.7 + 3A)
Check area 0.04 m2

Calculate design resistance
t is the thickness of the wall
(per unit length) from least
favourable of:
Check Ed NRd
Check slenderness ratio hef /tef 27 NRd = Fm t fk / gM
and The capacity reduction factor in the middle of the wall m may be
NRd = Fi t fk / gM
Determine eccentricity (see page 5)
determined by using either the equation or the graph (Figure 3), which
Determine capacity reduction factors, Fm and Fi from (see page 6)
Obtain gM from table 1 of
Introduction to Eurocode 6 Check complete is given in Annex G of BS EN 1996-1-1. The value of the modulus of
elasticity to be taken in the UK is 1000k.
Figure4 Flow chart for design of masonry walls to resist vertical actions
The design resistance of a single-leaf wall per unit length NRd is given by:
The eccentricity at the mid-height of the wall emk includes the initial NRd = td
eccentricity einit, the horizontal load eccentricity ehm, and the load
eccentricity em. where:
The mid-height eccentricity emk is: is the capacity reduction factor allowing for the effects of
emk = em + ek which must be greater than or equal to 0.05t slenderness and eccentricity of loading (the least favourable value
obtained for the top, bottom and mid-height, i or m)
Mmd
em = + ehm + ei t is the thickness of the wall
Nmd
where: d is the design compressive strength of the masonry and is taken

as k/M
Mmd is the design value of the greatest moment at the middle height of
the wall resulting from the moments at the top and bottom of the
wall, including any load applied eccentrically to the face of the wall
Nmd is the design value of the vertical load at the middle height of the
wall, including any load applied eccentrically to the face of the wall
ehm is the eccentricity at the middle of the wall resulting from imposed
horizontal loads
ek is the creep eccentricity and, in the UK, can be ignored if the

slenderness ratio is not greater than 27
For sections of small plan area, less than 0.1m2, d should be multiplied
by (0.7 + 3A), where A is the loadbearing horizontal cross-sectional area References:
of the wall in m2. 1) British Standards Institution (2013) BS EN 1996-1-1:2005+A1:2012
Eurocode 6. Design of masonry structures. General rules for reinforced
A flow chart for vertical load design is provided in Figure 4. and unreinforced masonry structures, London, UK: BSI
Concentrated loads 2) British Standards Institution (2005) BS EN 1996-1-2:2005 Eurocode
Concentrated loads are dealt with by a calculation approach using a 6. Design of masonry structures. General rules. Structural fire design,
dispersion angle of 60. Only Group 1 masonry units may be enhanced. London, UK: BSI
For a Group 1 unit (not shell bedded) the vertical load resistance is 3) British Standards Institution (2006) BS EN 1996-2:2006 Eurocode
given by: 6. Design of masonry structures. Design considerations, selection of
materials and execution of masonry, London, UK: BSI
NRdc = Abd (Ex. 6.10: EN 1996-1-1)
4) British Standards Institution (2006) BS EN 1996-3:2006 Eurocode
where: 6. Design of masonry structures. Simplified calculation methods for
unreinforced masonry structures, London, UK: BSI
( )( )
a1 Ab
= 1 + 0.3 1.5 1.1 5) British Standards Institution (2013) NA to BS EN 1996-1 1:2005
hc Aef
+A1:2012 UK National Annex to Eurocode 6. Design of masonry
(where Ab/Aef is not to be taken as greater than 0.45) which should not be structures. General rules for reinforced and unreinforced masonry
less than 1.0 nor taken to be greater than: structures, London, UK: BSI
a1
1.25 + or 1.5, whichever is the lesser 6) British Standards Institution (2013) NA to BS EN 1996-1-2:2005
2hc UK National Annex to Eurocode 6. Design of masonry structures.
where: General rules. Structural fire design, London, UK: BSI
is an enhancement factor for load 7) British Standards Institution (2007) NA to BS EN 1996-2:2006 UK
a1 is the distance from the end of the wall to the nearer edge of the National Annex to Eurocode 6. Design of masonry structures. Design
loaded area considerations, selection of materials and execution of masonry,
hc is the height of the wall to the level of the load London, UK: BSI
Ab is the loaded area
Aef is the effective area of the bearing 8) British Standards Institution (2007) NA+A1:2014 to BS EN 1996-
lefm is the effective length of the bearing as determined at the mid- 3:2006 UK National Annex to Eurocode 6. Design of masonry structures.
height of the wall or pier Simplified calculation methods for unreinforced masonry structures,
t is the thickness of the wall, taking into account the depth of recesses London, UK: BSI
in joints greater than 5mm 9) British Standards Institution (2010) PD 6697:2010 Recommendations
For walls built with Groups 2, 3 and 4 masonry units, and when shell for the design of masonry structures to BS EN 1996-1-1 and BS EN 1996-2,
bedding is used, it is necessary to check that, locally under the bearing London, UK: BSI
of a concentrated load, the design compressive stress does not exceed 10) British Standards Institution (2005) BS 5628-1:2005 Code of
the design compressive strength of the masonry fd (i.e. is taken to practice for the use of masonry. Structural use of unreinforced masonry,
be 1.0). London, UK: BSI
In any case, the eccentricity of the load from the centre line of the wall 11) British Standards Institution (2005) BS 5628-2:2005 Code of practice
should not be greater than t/4. for the use of masonry. Structural use of reinforced and prestressed
masonry, London, UK: BSI
Further Reading: 12) British Standards Institution (2005) BS 5628-3:2005 Code of

1) Roberts J. J. and Brooker O. (2013) How to design masonry structures practice for the use of masonry. Materials and components, design and
using Eurocode 6. 1. Introduction to EC6, London, UK: MPA The Concrete workmanship, London, UK: BSI
Centre 13) British Standards Institution (2013) BS EN 845-2:2013 Specification
2) Roberts J. J. and Brooker O. (2013) How to design masonry structures for ancillary components for masonry. Lintels, London, UK: BSI
using Eurocode 6. 3. Vertical Resistance, London, UK: MPA The Concrete 14) British Standards Institution (2000) BS EN 772-1:2000 Methods
Centre of test for masonry units. Determination of compressive strength,
3) Roberts J. J. and Brooker O. (2013) How to design masonry structures London, UK: BSI
using Eurocode 6. 3. Lateral resistance, London, UK: MPA The Concrete 15) British Standards Institution (1999) BS EN 1052-1:1999 Methods of
Centre test for masonry. Determination of compressive strength, London, UK: BSI
Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures

for lateral loads and other factors
The previous article in the series explained how to

design masonry for vertical actions1.
Introduction vertical load, as the masonry can resist significantly more in compression
than it can in tension. Clearly, the potential flexural strength is greater if
Throughout this article the Nationally Determined Parameters (NDPs)
the potential plane of failure is perpendicular rather than parallel to the
from the UK National Annexes (NAs) have been used. These enable
bed joint, due to the interlocking of the masonry units.
Eurocode 6 (BS EN 1996-1-1)2 to be applied in the UK.
The designer needs to assess the panel support conditions (or assume a
Lateral loads
free edge) and decide whether these provide simple or continuous (fully
EC6 offers two approaches to the design of laterally loaded panels. The restrained) support. Care also needs to be exercised in considering the
first method relies on the flexural strength of the masonry and makes effect of DPCs, movement joints, openings in walls etc.3
use of yieldline analysis. The second method is an approach based on
For panels without openings, the bending moments per unit length MEd are:
arching and the assumption of a three-pinned arch being formed within
the wall. Figure 1 shows a flow chart for lateral load design. MEd1 = a1 WEdl2 when the plane of failure is parallel to the bed joints
The flexural strength approach is the most widely used and does MEd2 = a2 WEdl2 when the plane of failure is perpendicular to the bed joints
not depend upon rigid supports to resist arch thrust. Values of the
where:
characteristic flexural strength of masonry are provided in Table NA.6 of
EC6 and are shown here in Table 1. a1 is the bending moment coefficient parallel to the bed joints
(= a2, Annex G of BS EN 1996-1-1)
The assessment of the edge conditions is a requirement for the flexural
strength approach. A free edge is easily identified but some judgment a2 is the bending moment coefficient perpendicular to the bed
on the part of the engineer is necessary in deciding between simply joints (Annex G of BS EN 1996-1-1)
supported or fixed conditions. When considering the vertical support
WEd is the design wind load per unit area Q Wk
condition, attention also needs to be paid to the potential position of
movement joints, and to the changes the provision of such joints makes l is the length of panel between supports
to the panel size and restraint conditions.
is the orthogonal ratio xk1/xk2
Where the walls are not rectangular (e.g. a trapezoidal-shaped wall to
The presence of a vertical load increases the flexural strength
a mono-pitched structure), engineering judgement may be applied to
of a panel in the direction parallel to the bed joints. The design
determine the effective wall height.
moment of resistance within the height of the wall is given by:
Wall panels with openings need to be treated with care and may
typically be subdivided into smaller panels around the opening. It is
beyond the scope of this article to deal with the topic in detail and
MRd =
(
xk1
M
)
+ d Z
reference should be made to suitable handbooks3. Alternatively, a yield- where:

line analysis from first principles may be applied to wall panels4.
xk1 is the characteristic flexural strength of masonry bending about an
If a damp-proof course (DPC) is present in a wall subjected to flexure, axis parallel to bed joints (Table 1)
then the degree of fixity may be altered. The bending moment
coefficient at a DPC may be taken as that for an edge over which M is the appropriate partial factor for materials
full continuity exists, provided that there is sufficient vertical load on d is the design vertical load per unit area (<0.15NRd) taken where
the DPC to ensure that the flexural strength capacity is not exceeded. the bending resistance is being considered
Walls may be either horizontally or vertically spanning, or both, and the
ultimate strength of the wall is governed by the capacity of the masonry Z is the section modulus of the plan shape of the wall
to resist flexural tension. This capacity is enhanced by the presence of
k is the characteristic compressive strength The analysis can be based upon a three-pin arch, and the bearing of the
arch thrust at the supports and at the central hinge should be assumed
The design procedure is iterative and may be summarised as:
to be 0.1 times the thickness of the wall.
1. make initial assumption of support condition
Shear
2. make assumptions as to strength and thickness of masonry unit
The characteristic shear strength of masonry is a function of the
required; the minimum wall thickness or thickness of one leaf of a
characteristic initial shear strength of the masonry and the design
cavity wall is 100mm
compressive stress orthogonal to the shear plane being considered.
3. check serviceability slenderness limits. For wall panels supported The values of the initial shear strength of masonry are given in Table
top and bottom only, h should be limited to 30t. For other support NA.5 of EC6 and are shown here in Table 2.
conditions, use figures shown in Annex F of BS EN 1996-1-1
The characteristic shear strength is given by the following relationships:
4. determine orthogonal ratio and hence bending moment
vk = vko + 0.4d but not greater than 0.065b or vlt for fully filled mortar
coefficient appropriate to panel shape (see Table 2 in Roberts and
joints
Brooker5)
vk = 0.5vko + 0.4d but not greater than 0.045b or vlt for unfilled
5. determine design value of applied moment MEd
perpend joints
6. check design value of moment of resistance MRd
where:
7. if MEd MRd then the wall is acceptable; if not, return to either step 1
vk is the characteristic shear strength of masonry
or 2 and modify
vko is the characteristic initial shear strength of masonry, under zero
8. check shear
compressive stress
In a cavity wall, the design lateral load per unit area WEd may be
d is the design compressive stress perpendicular to the shear in the
apportioned (either according to capacity or stiffness) between
member at the level under consideration, using the appropriate
the two leaves, provided that the wall ties are capable of transmitting
load combination based on the average vertical stress over the
the actions that result from the apportionment.
compressed part of the wall that is providing shear resistance
EC6 indicates that the flexural strength of masonry should not be used
b is the normalised compressive strength of the masonry units (as
in design of walls subjected to lateral earth pressure.
described in clause 3.1.2.1 of EC6 for the direction of application of
Where a masonry wall is built between supports capable of resisting the load on the test specimens being perpendicular to the bed face
an arch thrust, it may be assumed that a horizontal or vertical arch
vlt is the limit value of vk which in the UK is taken as the limit 0.065b
develops within the thickness of the wall in resisting a lateral load.
and 0.045b respectively for filled and unfilled joints
t Masonry unit properties

Type and group
Dimensions
Strength
h Obtain water absorption

for clay masonry unit or
Characteristic lateral actions Determine requirements declared compressive
for mortar strength and strength from
durability. See tables 5 & 6 manufacturer for other
of Introduction to Eurocode 6 masonry types
Determine design value of
l lateral actions, WEd, using
Expressions (6.10), (6.10a) or
(6.10b) of Eurocode. (see Obtain fxk1 and fxk2 from Table 1 and calculate
Introduction to Eurocode 6) orthogonal ratio, m where: m = fxk1 / fxk2
Obtain height, h Obtain thickness, t
Obtain a from Table 2 and calculate, MEd1 and MEd2, where:

Check slenderness ratio h/t 30 for walls
MEd1 = a1 WEd l 2, parallel to the bed joints or
supported top and bottom only
MEd2 = a2 WEd l 2, perpendicular to the bed joints
Check serviceability slenderness limits using Figures 2, 3 or 4 as appropriate
Obtain fxk1 from Table 1 and calculate design moment Check MEd1 MRd1
Characteristic vertical Obtain, gM from table 1 of resistance parallel to the bed joints, MRd1, where: and MEd2 MRd2
actions Introduction to Eurocode 6 f
MRd1 = gxk1 + s d Z
M
Obtain fxk2 from Table 1 and calculate design moment
Determine design value of vertical load, GEd, using of resistance perpendicular to the bed joints, MRd2, where: z
Expressions (6.10), (6.10a) or (6.10b) of Eurocode. f
(see Introduction to Eurocode 6) MRd2 = gxk2 Z Check shear
M
Figure 1 Flow chart for design of masonry walls to resist lateral actions
Table 2: Characteristic flexural strength of masonry, xk1 and xk2, in N/mm2

Values of xk1 Values of xk2
Plane of failure parallel to bed joints Plane of failure perpendicular to bed joints
Mortar strength class:
M12 M6 & M4 M2 M12 M6 & M4 M2
Clay masonry units of Groups 1 and 2 having a water absorption* of:
Less than 7% 0.7 0.5 0.4 2.0 1.5 1.2
Between 7% & 12% 0.5 0.4 0.35 1.5 1.1 1.0
Over 12% 0.4 0.3 0.25 1.1 0.9 0.8
Calcium silicate brick-sized masonry units
0.3 0.2 0.9 0.6
Aggregate concrete brick-sized masonry units
0.3 0.2 0.9 0.6
Aggregate concrete masonry units and manufactured stone of Groups 1 and 2 and AAC masonry units used in walls of thickness up to 100mm,** of declared compressive strength (N/mm2):
2.9 0.25 0.2 0.4 0.4
3.6 0.45 0.4
7.3 0.6 0.5
Aggregate concrete masonry units and manufactured stone of Groups 1 and 2 and AAC masonry units used in walls of thickness of 250mm or greater ,** of declared compressive strength (N/mm2):

2.9 0.15 0.1 0.25 0.2
3.6 0.25 0.2
7.3 0.35 0.3
Aggregate concrete masonry units and manufactured stone of Groups 1 and 2 and AAC masonry units used in walls of any thickness of declared compressive strength (N/mm2):
10.4 0.25 0.2 0.75 0.6
17.5 0.9 0.7

Key
* Tests to determine the water absorption of clay masonry units are to be conducted in accordance with BS EN 77273
Units not exceeding 337.5mm 225mm 112.5mm
Autoclaved aerated concrete (aircrete)
The thickness should be taken as the thickness of the wall, for a single-leaf wall, or the thickness of the leaf, for a cavity wall
** Linear interpolation may be used to obtain the values of xk1 and xk2 for:
1) wall thicknesses greater than 100mm and less than 250mm
2) compressive strengths between 2.9N/mm2 and 7.3N/mm2 in a wall of given thickness
When used with flexural strength in the parallel direction, assume the orthogonal ratio = 0.3
Table 2: Values of initial shear strength of masonry, vko

Masonry units Strength class of Initial shear strength, vko (N/mm2)
general purpose
General purpose mortar Thin layer mortar (bed joint 0.5mm Lightweight mortar
mortar
and 3mm)
Clay M12 0.30 0.30 0.15
M4 & M6 0.20
M2 0.10
Calcium silicate M12 0.20 0.40 0.15
M4 & M6 0.15
M2 0.10
Aggregate concrete, autoclaved M12 0.20 0.30 0.15

aerated concrete, manufactured
M4 & M6 0.15
stone and dimensioned natural
stone M2 0.10
Reinforced and prestressed masonry The micro conditions of exposure to which completed masonry is
subjected are divided into five main classes, namely:
BS EN 1996-1-1 contains a limited amount of information relating to
the design of reinforced masonry and no detailed information on the MX1 in a dry environment
design of prestressed masonry. The clauses relating to reinforced
MX2 exposed to moisture or wetting
masonry contain information similar to that which was provided in
BS 5628-26 and Annex J permits enhancement to shear in a similar MX3 exposed to moisture or wetting plus freeze/thaw cycling
way to BS 5628-2.
MX4 exposed to saturated salt air or seawater
Fire design
MX5 in an aggressive chemical environment
BS EN 1996-1-27 provides information on the passive fire resistance
BS EN 998-29 defines the durability classes for factory and semi-factory
of masonry walls so that the designer can ensure that the loadbearing
produced mortar. These may be expressed as follows:
performance is maintained for the necessary period of time and that the
fire is appropriately contained. P mortar for use in masonry subjected to passive exposure,
i.e. which is not intended to be exposed to moisture and
For the UK, fire design largely remains in the form of tables addressing
freezing conditions
the requirements of the Building Regulations in the UK. The fire
resistance of a loadbearing wall comprises two values depending M mortar for use in masonry subjected to moderate exposure,
on how highly loaded the wall is; it is further enhanced if the wall i.e. which is exposed to moisture and freeze/thaw cycling,
is plastered. Most designers will find that the tabulated data cover excluding constructions subjected to severe exposure
most situations, but there is also provision for testing. The tables
S mortar for use in masonry subjected to severe exposure,
cover loadbearing and non-loadbearing walls, single-leaf, cavity and
i.e. which is subjected to saturation with water (driving rain,
separating walls.
ground water) combined with frequent freeze/thaw cycling
Materials and execution due to climatic conditions, and an absence of protective features
BS EN 1996-28 gives basic rules for the selection of materials and These designations may also be used for site-made mortar and are
execution to enable it to comply with the other parts of BS EN 1996. related in detail in PD 669710 to the durability of masonry in any given
exposure situation.
It deals with:
Of necessity, given the wide range of products and usages in Europe,
the selection of masonry materials
the information contained in BS EN 1996-2 is limited, but for UK use the
factors affecting the performance and durability of masonry detail is provided in PD 6697.
resistance of buildings to moisture penetration Simplified calculation methods
storage, preparation and use of materials on site BS EN 1996-311 deals with simplified calculation methods for
unreinforced masonry which are derived from BS EN 1996-1-1 and will
the execution of masonry
tend to result in less economic design. They should not be confused
masonry protection during execution with the simple rules found in Approved Document A of the Building
Regulations for England and Wales12 and the Low Rise Housing Code
(BS 8103-2)13, both of which are likely to produce more cost-effective
outcomes.
References: 7) British Standards Institution (2005) BS EN 1996-1-2:2005 Eurocode

6. Design of masonry structures. General rules. Structural fire design,
1) British Standards Institution (2013) BS EN 1996-1-1:2005+A1:2012
London, UK: BSI
Eurocode 6. Design of masonry structures. General rules for reinforced
and unreinforced masonry structures, London, UK: BSI 8) British Standards Institution (2006) BS EN 1996-2:2006 Eurocode
6. Design of masonry structures. Design considerations, selection of
2) British Standards Institution (1998) BS EN 772-7:1998 Methods
materials and execution of masonry, London, UK: BSI
of test for masonry units. Determination of water absorption of clay
masonry damp proof course units by boiling in water, London, UK: BSI 9) British Standards Institution (2003) BS EN 998-2:2003 Specification for
mortar for masonry. Masonry mortar, London, UK: BSI
3) Roberts J., Tovey A. and Fried A. (2001) Concrete Masonry
Designers Handbook (2nd ed.), London, UK: Spon Press 10) British Standards Institution (2010) PD 6697:2010
Recommendations for the design of masonry structures to
4) Johansen, K. W. (1972) Yield-line formulae for slabs, Leatherhead,
BS EN 1996-1-1 and BS EN 1996-2, London, UK: BSI
UK: Eyre and Spottiswoode
5) Roberts J. J. and Brooker O. (2013) How to design masonry structures
6. Design of masonry structures. Simplified calculation methods for
using Eurocode 6. 3. Lateral resistance, London, UK: MPA The Concrete
unreinforced masonry structures, London, UK: BSI
Centre
12) HM Government (2013) The Building Regulations 2010. Approved
6) British Standards Institution (2005) BS 5628-1:2005 Code of practice
Document A: Structure [Online] Available at: www.planningportal.gov.
for the use of masonry. Structural use of unreinforced masonry, London,
uk/uploads/br/BR_PDF_AD_A_2013.pdf (Accessed: February 2015)
UK: BSI
13) British Standards Institution (2013) BS 8103-2:2013 Structural
design of low-rise buildings. Code of practice for masonry walls for
housing, London, UK: BSI
Further reading Brick Development Association, Autoclaved Aerated Concrete

There are a number of guidance documents available: Products Association and Concrete Block Association (2005)
Masonry design for disproportionate collapse requirements under
Morton J. (2011) Designers guide to Eurocode 6: Design of masonry
Regulation A3 of the Building Regulations (England & Wales)
structures: EN 1996-1-1, London, UK: Thomas Telford
[Online] Available at: www.planningportal.gov.uk/uploads/br/
The Institution of Structural Engineers (2008) Manual for the design disproportionate_collapse.pdf (Accessed: February2015)
of plain masonry in building structures to Eurocode 6, London, UK:
For more guidance on lateral load design and the use of yieldline
The Institution of Structural Engineers
theory, see Roberts et al.4 and Johansen5.
International Masonry Society (2009) Eurocode for masonry,
Further design information and design examples are available
EN1996-1-1 and EN 1996-2: Guidance and worked examples,
from: www.eurocode6.org
Penkhull, UK: IMS
General information on masonry design and construction is
Roberts J. J. and Brooker O. (2013) How to design masonry structures
available from:
using Eurocode 6. 1. Introduction to Eurocode 6, London, UK: MPA
The Concrete Centre www.concretecentre.com
Roberts J. J. and Brooker O. (2013) How to design masonry structures www.masonry.org.uk

using Eurocode 6. 2. Vertical resistance, London, UK: MPA The Concrete www.brick.org.uk
Centre
www.cba-blocks.org.uk
NHBC (2011) Technical Guidance Note: The Building Regulations
2004 Edition England and Wales. Requirement A3 Disproportionate www.aircrete.co.uk
Collapse [Online] Available at: www.nhbc.co.uk/NHBCPublications/ www.mortar.org.uk
LiteratureLibrary/Technical/filedownload,23676,en.pdf (Accessed:
February 2015) www.modernmasonry.co.uk
Design of post-tensioned slabs
This article provides information on how to scheme

a PT slab and how the use of post-tensioning
affects the rest of the structure.
Introduction
Sheath Strand PT flat slabs provide the thinnest readily available structural option for
Grease
spans of 7m or more, and can economically be used for spans up to 13m
13m. For longer spans, a one-way spanning slab onto band beams is
frequently used.
Most PT floors are designed in the UK by specialist designers as part

Unbonded PT tendon of a performance specification procurement route. However, the
design is not necessarily complicated and the main designer should
have knowledge of the benefits and limitations of PT design so that a
reasonable scheme design might be considered as a structural option
and produced for the tender documentation, and also so that
the designer can factor the design and its benefits into the overall
stability and robustness of the structure.
Bonded PT components This article provides information on how to scheme a PT slab and how
the use of posttensioning affects the rest of the structure. A more
detailed guide to the design of PT floors can be found in the Concrete
Society Technical Report 43 (TR43), Post-tensioned concrete floors:
Design handbook1. This guide can be used for the design of PT floors
Figure 1 Unbonded and bonded tendons and components to Eurocode 22 as it is quoted as noncontradictory complementary
information (NCCI) in the UK National Annex3.
Table 1: Comparison of PT systems Bonded and unbonded systems
Bonded Unbonded
There are two types of post-tensioning system available to the engineer:
Localises effect of accidental damage Reduced covers to strand
bonded and unbonded (Figure 1). Most of the post-tensioning work in
Develops higher ultimate strength Reduced prestressing force
the UK is bonded, being about 90% of the market.
Does not depend on anchorages Tendons can be prefabricated
after grouting leading to faster construction Bonded systems have prestressing tendons running through a duct
Can be demolished in same way as Tendons can be deflected around which is then grouted after prestress has been applied. The ducts can
reinforced concrete structures obstructions more easily
be circular or flat and hold a number of tendons. The benefit of using
Greater eccentricity of strand
a bonded system is that the anchorages are no longer live after the
Grouting not required
grouting has set, which means that any damage to a tendon (e.g. if a
Useful when only one strand is
required, e.g. in rib in ribbed slab tendon is cut through by a post-drilled fixing) is limited to the bond
length of the tendon on either side of the cut. The tendon is also
protected from corrosion by the grout, in the same way as normal
reinforcement is protected in reinforced concrete. Finally, bonded
systems are as easy to demolish as normal reinforced concrete or
possibly slightly easier, due to less reinforcement within the structure.
FIGURE 9: TYPICAL FLOOR LAYOUTS
a) Favourable layout of restraining walls (low restraint)
FIGURE 9: TYPICAL FLOOR LAYOUTS
b) Unfavourable layout of restraining walls (high restraint)
Figure 2 Typical floor layouts

a) Favourable layout of restraining walls (low restraint)
Unbonded systems are more prevalent in North America and in other Where the walls are unfavourably arranged, a calculation of the effects
parts of Europe. Here the tendons run through a greased sheath and of movement should be carried out and suitable measures taken to
are always independent of the concrete. This has no effect on the overcome them. This could involve:
serviceability design or performance of a structure under normal
using infill strips, also known as pour strips, which are usually cast
working conditions. It does, however, change both the design
around 28 days after the remainder of the floor, to allow initial
theory and structural performance at the ultimate limit state (ULS).
shrinkage to occur (Figure 3)
b) Unfavourable layout of restraining walls (high restraint)
The anchorages for an unbonded system are live throughout the lifetime
of the structure and if the tendon suffers damage, the prestress provided increasing the quantity of conventional reinforcement, to control
by that tendon is lost along the whole of its length. the cracking
Both systems can be used in the same slab if the design dictates it. using temporary release details
Table 1 gives a comparison between the two systems.
FIGURE 10 : TYPICAL INFILL STRIP FIGURE
using a proprietary 11: TEMPORARY
temporary release detail RELEASE DETAIL
Restraint
reducing the stiffness of the restraining elements
At the early stages of a project using PT floors, care must be taken to Infill later
The effect of the floor shortening on the columns should also be
avoid the problems
1000 mm of restraint. This is where the free movement in the Post-tensioned slab
considered in their design, as this may increase the design moments.
Post-tensioned
length of the slab under the prestress forces is restrained, e.g. by the
RC infill
unfavourable strip of shearslab
positioning walls or lift cores (Figure 2). FIGURE 10 : TYPICAL INFILL STRIP FIGURE 11: TEMPO
All concrete elements shrink due to drying and early thermal effects Infill late
but, in addition, prestressing causes elastic shortening and ongoing 1000 mm
Post-tensioned
shrinkage due to creep. Stiff vertical members, such as stability walls, RC infill strip slab
restrain the floor slab from shrinking, which prevents the prestress from
developing and thus reduces the strength of the floor. 2 layers of slip strip
Where 50mm
the restraining walls are inSlab
a favourable
to remainarrangement and the
floor isseating
in an internal environment, the length of the floor without
fully propped 50mm Slab to remain 100mm bearing
movement joints can be up to 50m. However, full consideration should seating
until infill strip
be given to the effects of shrinkage due to drying, early thermal effects,
fully propped
until infill strip
elastic shortening and creep in the cured
design. A strain of 650 should cured
be considered normal.
Figure 3 Typical infill strip

Number 7
July 2015 Post-tensioned slabs
Design to prevent disproportionate collapse
PT floor systems are usually designed to resist disproportionate collapse $

"
through detailing of the tendons and reinforcement.

In bonded systems, the tendons can be considered to act as horizontal
EFigure 4
ties. In unbonded systems, thechart
Design ow tendons cannot be relied on and the
for PT slabs
$
conventional reinforcement acts as the horizontal ties.

Materials and specification
In bonded systems, the tendons can
PT slabs do not require particularly
be considered to acthigh strength ties.
as horizontal concrete
In and
often class C32/40 is used in
unbonded a typical
systems, theflat slab design.
tendons cannotForbe speed of
relied ontheand the conventional reinforcement
construction, however, concrete should have high early strength.
This allows initialacts as the horizontal
prestressing ties. out as early as possible,
to be carried
usually after 24 hours, to prevent cracking. Final stressing can take "$
Materials and speci cation
place after threePT days, once the concrete has
slabs do not require particularly reached a predetermined
high-
strength, allowing striking
strength of formwork.
concrete and oftenHigher
classlevels
C32/40of cement "
replacements, e.g.is used in a typical at slab
ground-granulated design. For
blastfurnace slag (GGBS) or fly ash,
can be used, butspeed of construction the concrete should
will increase the programme length and may change ! " $
have high early strength. This allows initial
the parameters used in design,
prestressing to be such as theout
carried strains dueasto creep and early
as early
age shrinkage. possible, usually after 24 hours, to prevent
cracking. Final stressing can take place
Common strandafter
typesthree
useddays,
in the UK the
once are concrete
given in Table
has 2. It is "$
recommended that onlyaone of these strand typesallowing
is used on any
reached predetermined strength,

project. striking of formwork. Higher levels of cement
replacements, e.g. ground-granulated blast-
A specification for the execution
furnace of PT
slag (GGBS) orfloors is can
y ash, given
beinused,
the National
but will
Structural Concrete increase the
Specification 4 programme length and
, section 7. "$
may change the parameters used in design, !

Cover such as the strains due to creep and early
age shrinkage.
As with other forms of reinforced
Common strandconcrete, theincover
types used is are
the UK determined by "$
consideration of:given in Table 2. It is recommended that only
one of these strand types is used on any
corrosion protection
project.
A specication for the execution of PT
bond "
oors is given in the National Structural
Concrete Specication4, section 7.
fire protection
"#
Cover
The cover required for bond considerations for bonded systems is the
As with other forms of reinforced concrete,
diameter of the duct for circular
the cover ducts; for
is determined by flat ducts it is the
consideration of: larger of half
Figure 4 Design flow chart for PT slabs
the larger dimension or the smaller dimension. For unbonded systems,

corrosion
the cover required for bondprotection
is the diameter of the sheath. At the ULS the pre-compression in the section is ignored and checks
bond detailed guidance, based on Eurocode 2, is checked at the ULS in a similar manner to
are made to ensure that the section has sufficient moment capacity.
Design process re protection available in TR43. that for reinforced concrete design, although
Shear stresses are
At the serviceability condition, the also checked at the ULSt in
the bene of athe
similar manner
prestress to that
across the for
shear
Figure 4 presents aThe
flowcover
chartrequired
for the for
design
bondof PT slabs concrete section reinforced
is checked concrete design, although
at all positions the benefit
plane may be taken ofinto
the account.
prestress across
Recommendations for the design
considerations for of prestressed
bonded systems concrete
is the are given the shear
to ensure that both plane may and
the compressive be taken intoAt account.
the serviceability limit state (SLS),
diameter
in Eurocode 2. Design of the duct
methods for PTforflat
circular
slabs ducts; for
are relatively tensile stresses lie within the acceptable a prestressed slab is generally always in
at ducts it is the larger of half the larger At the serviceability
limits given in Eurocode 2. limit state (SLS), a prestressed
compression slab is generally
and therefore exural cracking
straightforward, and detailed guidance, based on Eurocode 2, is
dimension or the smaller dimension. For Stresses are always
checked inincompression
the concreteand thereforeis uncommon. This allows
flexural cracking the accurate
is uncommon.
available in TR43. prediction of deections
unbonded systems, the cover required for section at the initial
This condition
allows thewhen the prediction
accurate of deflections as the as the properties
properties
bond is the diameter of the sheath. prestress is applied, and at serviceability of the uncracked concrete section are easily
At the serviceability condition, the concrete section is checkedconditions at all of the uncracked concrete section
when calculations are made to
are easily determined. Deflections
determined. Deections can therefore be
positions to ensure that both
Design the compressive and tensile stresses
process lie
determine canections
the de thereforeandbe estimated,
crack widths andestimated,
limited to and
specific values
limited rather
to speci than rather
c values
within the acceptable
Figure limits givenainow
4 presents Eurocode
chart for2. the design for various loadpurely controlling the span-to-depth
combinations. ratio of
than purely the slab, the
controlling as inspan-to-depth
reinforced ratio
of PT slabs. Recommendations for the At the ULS the pre-compression
concrete design. in the of the slab, as in reinforced concrete design.
Stresses are checked
designinof
the concrete section
prestressed concrete at are
the given
initial condition
section is ignored and checks are made In carrying out the above checks, extensive
when the prestress is applied,
in Eurocode 2. and at serviceability
Design methods for PT conditions
at when In carrying
to ensure that the section has outsuffi
thecient
above checks, useextensive use can
can be made be made of
of computer software
calculations are slabs
madeare relatively straightforward,
to determine the deflectionsand moment capacity.
and crack widths Shear stresses
computer software are
either eitheraccurate
also to provide to provide accurate
models models
of the of the
structure,
for various load combinations.
TSE43_38-43 CDG v1.indd 40 18/06/2015 11:22
FIGURE 7: PRINCIPLES OF PRESTRESSED DESIGN
a) Consider a beam with a force P applied at each end along the beams centre line. c) The stress distribution from the flexure of the beam is calculated from
M/Z where M is the bending moment and Z the section modulus. By
considering the deflected shape of the beam it can be seen that the
P P bottom surface will be in tension. The corresponding stress diagram can
be drawn.
+ M/Z
P/A Compression
This force applies a uniform compressive stress
across the section equal to P/A, where A is the cross
sectional area. The stress distribution is shown right. + =
Tension - M/Z
0
b) Consider next a vertical load w applied along the beam and the d) Concrete is strong in compression but not in tension. Only small tensile
corresponding bending moment diagram applied to this alone. stresses can be applied before cracks that limit the effectiveness of the
section will occur. By combining the stress distributions from the applied
w precompression and the applied loading it can be seen there is no longer
any tension, assuming the magnitude of P has been chosen correctly.
Applied load
P/A + M/Z P/A+ M/Z
Resultant Moment Diagram

+ =
M (max)
- M/Z P/A - M/Z

0 0 0
Figure 5 Principles of prestress design FIGURE 8: LOAD BALANCING TECHNIQUE
taking into account the effect of other elements, or to enable different

load combinations to be applied, or to carry out both the structural a) Proposed
analysis and prestress design. loading
The basic principles of prestressed concrete design can be simply

understood by considering the stress distribution in a concrete section
under the action of externally applied forces or loads.
b) Unstressed
slab
Figure 5 illustrates the simplicity of the basic theory. In essence, the
design process for serviceability entails checking the stress distribution
under the combined action of both the prestress and applied loads, at all
positions along the beam, in order to ensure that both the compressive
and tensile stress are kept within the limits stated in design standards. c) Prestressed
slab
PT beams and slabs are usually designed to maximise the benefit of
the continuity provided by adjacent spans. In this situation secondary
effects should be considered in the design. The secondary effects are not
necessarily adverse and an experienced designer can use them to refine
a design.
d) Final
condition
Figure 6 Load-balancing technique
w1/m w2/m w3/m
P e1 e3 P
drape
drape
e2 e4
L1 L2 L3
Cantilever
Span 1: Span 2: Span 3:
Figure 7 Idealised tendon profile for two spans with single cantilever
In the majority of prestressed slabs it will be necessary to add slabs for different imposed loads. Table 3 gives the range of spans that
reinforcement, either to control cracking or to supplement the capacity are normally used for PT floors.
of the tendons at the ultimate load condition.
Prestress losses
The technique known as load balancing offers the designer a powerful
From the time that a post-tensioning tendon is stressed, to its final state
tool. In this, forces exerted by the prestressing tendons in catenary are
many years after stressing, various losses take place which reduce the
modelled as equivalent upward forces on the slab. These forces are
tension in the tendon. These losses are grouped into two categories:
then proportioned to balance the applied downwards forces (Figure 6).
short-term and long-term losses.
By balancing a chosen percentage of the applied loading, it is possible
to control deflections and also make the most efficient use of the slab Short-term losses
depth. Short-term losses include:
In order to use the load-balancing technique, the prestressing tendons friction losses in the tendon
must be set to follow profiles that reflect the bending moment envelope
wedge set or draw-in
from the applied loadings. Generally parabolic profiles are used.
elastic shortening of the structure
In PT concrete floors, the load-balancing technique can enable the
optimum depth to be achieved for any given span. The final thickness These losses take place during stressing and anchoring of the tendon.
of the slab, as with reinforced concrete flat slabs, may also be controlled
Long-term losses
by the punching shear around the column.
Long-term losses include:
For a parabolic profile the upward uniformly distributed load w is:
shrinkage of the concrete
ws2
= Pa creep of the concrete, including the effect of the prestress
8
relaxation of the steel tendon
where s is the span, a is the drape and P is the prestress force.
Although these losses occur over a period of 10 or more years, the bulk
This upward load normally balances the self-weight and the
occurs in the first two years following stressing. The loss in prestress force
superimposed dead load. Depending on the design, it is also sometimes
following stressing can be significant (between 10% and 50% of the
used to balance some of the live loads.
initial jacking force at transfer and between 20% and 60% after all losses)
This can be extended to several spans and provides a more economical and therefore the losses should, in all instances, be calculated. TR43 gives
design as the drape is larger (Figure 7). advice on prestress losses in Appendix B.
The anchorages are normally placed at the centroid of the section in

order to prevent a moment being placed at the end of the beam or slab. Table 3: Span ranges for PT floors
Floor Type Span Range
Initial sizing of PT slabs
PT flat slab 6-13m
PT slabs can initially be sized using spanto-depth ratios. TR43 gives span- PT band beam 8-18m
to-depth ratios for various different slab types, as does the Concrete
PT ribbed slab 7-18m
Centre book, Economic Concrete Frame Elements to Eurocode 25. Figure 8
PT waffle slab 8-18m
gives typical span-to-depth ratios for flat slabs, band beams and ribbed
43
Table 2: Specication of commonly used strand in the UK

Strand type Nominal Nominal Cross- Nominal Characteristic Maximum value Characteristic
tensile diameter sectional area mass (kg/m) value of maximum of maximum value of 0.1%
Table 2: Specification of strength (mm)
commonly used strand in the UK (mm2) force (kN) force (kN) proof force
(MPa) (kN)
Strand Type Nominal tensile Nominal diameter Cross-sectional area Nominal mass (kg/m) Characteristic valus Maximum value of Chararacteristic
12.9 Super 1860(MPa)
strength 12.9
(mm) 100(mm2) 0.781 186
of maximum force 213
maximum force (kN) value of160
0.1% proof
(kN) force (kN)
15.7 Super 1770 15.7 150 1.17 265 302 228
12.9 Super 1860 12.9 100 0.781 186 213 160
15.7 Euro 1860 15.7 150 1.17 279 319 240
15.7 Super 1770 15.7 150 1.17 265 302 228
15.2 Drawn 1820 15.2 165 1.29 300 342 258
15.7 Euro 1860 15.7 150 1.17 279 319 240
15.2 Drawn 1820 15.2 165 1.29 300 342 258
Figure 8
Span-to-depth ratios for PT oors
Figure 8 Span-to-depth ratios PT floors
Conclusion References:
Conclusion
This
This article doesnot
article does notprovide
providea a full
full explanation
explanation of the design of PT
References and
1) The Concrete Society further
(2005) reading
Technical Report No. 43: Posttensioned
of the design of PT oors.that It isthe
recommended concrete floors: Design handbook (2nd ed.), Camberley, UK:
floors. It is recommended designer makes themselves familiar
that the designer makes themselves familiar 1) The
TheConcrete
ConcreteCentre
Society (2005) Technical Report No. 43: Post-
with TR43 when starting the design process. The design of PT floors
with TR43 when starting the design process. tensioned concrete oors: Design handbook (2nd ed.), Camberley, UK:
allows the designer to play with the different aspects prestress force, 2) British Standards Institution (2014) BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Eurocode
The design of PT oors allows the designer The Concrete Centre
tendon profile etc. to arrive at the most economic design. There are 2: Design of concrete structures. General rules and rules for buildings,
to play with the different aspects prestress
manysoftware
force, tendon propackages
le etc.that
tocan help,atboth
arrive the 2D design and finite- 2)London, UK: BSI Institution (2014) BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 Eurocode
British Standards
element
most analysis.design. There are many
economic 2:3)
Design
BritishofStandards
concreteInstitution
structures.(2009)
General
NA rules and1992-1-1:2004
to BS EN rules for buildings,
UK
software packages that can help, both 2D London, UK: BSI
The Post-Tensioning Association (PTA) in the UK can also help.
design and nite-element analysis.
It produces technical design guidance and is in the process of producing rules and rules for buildings, London, UK: BSI
The Post-Tensioning Association (PTA) in 3) British Standards Institution (2009) NA to BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 UK
a model performance specification for PT floors to help main designers
the UK can also help. It produces technical National Annex to(2010)
Eurocode 2. Design of concrete
4) CONSTRUCT National Structural Concrete structures.
SpecificationGeneral
(4th
understand
design what and
guidance is required
is in thebyprocess
specialistofdesigners and what can be rules
ed.),and rules forUK:
Camberley, buildings, London,
The Concrete UK: BSI
Centre
expected from
producing the specialist
a model performancedesigners
speciand contractors. The PTA website
cation
canPT
for beaccessed at www.posttensioning.co.uk
oors to help main designers 4)5)CONSTRUCT
Goodchild C. H., Webster
(2010) R. M.Structural
National and ElliottConcrete
K. S. (2009) Economic
Specication (4th
understand what is required by specialist Concrete
ed.), Frame UK:
Camberley, Elements to Eurocode
The Concrete 2, Camberley, UK: The Concrete
Centre
designers and what can be expected from Centre
the specialist designers and contractors. 5) Goodchild C. H., Webster R. M. and Elliott K. S. (2009) Economic
The PTA website can be accessed at Concrete Frame Elements to Eurocode 2, Camberley, UK: The Concrete
www.posttensioning.co.uk Centre
TSE43_38-43 CDG v1.indd 43 18/06/2015 11:22

Guidance on the design of
44 TheStructuralEngineer
January 2015
Number 1
Technical
Concrete design
liquid-retaining structures
Concrete Design Guide
No. 1: Guidance on the design of
liquid-retaining structures This article highlights some of the key
considerations for the design and construction
This series is produced by The Concrete Centre to enable designers to realise the potential
of concrete.
of liquid-retaining structures.
The Concrete Centre, part of the Mineral Products Association (MPA), is a team of qualied
professionals with expertise in concrete construction, engineering and architecture.
Introduction www.concretecentre.com Concrete mix
This guidance is based on Eurocodes BS EN 1992-1-11 and In liquid-retaining structures, mix design should aim at durability and
BS EN 1992-32 and the corresponding UK National Annexes. This is minimising the risk of cracking. Strength is rarely critical. Watertightness
not an exhaustive treatment of the subject and the reader is advised and durability can be achieved using good-quality concrete alone
Introduction Concrete mix
to refer
This to The
short noteConcrete
highlightsCentre
somebook onsalient
of the concrete basements
aspects
3
and
of the design without
In any special
liquid-retaining additivesmix
structures, or admixtures.
design should aim at durability and
CIRIAconstruction
and publication of C660 4
as basements
liquid-retaining and tanks
structures in have many aspects
reinforced concretein minimising thespecification
risk of cracking. Strength is rarely critical. Watertightness
The following is likely to be satisfactory for most cases:
common.
(Figure 1). This guidance is based on Eurocodes BS EN 1992-1-11 and and durability can be achieved using good-quality concrete alone
BS EN 1992-32 and the corresponding UK National Annexes. This is Consistence
without any specialclass: S3
additives or admixtures.
Watertightness
not an exhaustive treatment of the subject and the reader is advised The followingwater
Maximum speci cationratio:
cement is likely to be satisfactory for most cases:
0.50
to
In refer to TheofConcrete
the design Centre
containment book onliquid
structures, concrete basements
tightness
3
and
is a critical Minimum cement content: 300kg/m3 when aggregate size is 20mm;
CIRIA publication
consideration. TheC660
4
as basements
structural and tanks
engineer should have
discuss andmany
agreeaspects
with in Consistence
320kg/m3class:
whenS3aggregate size is 14mm
common. Maximum water cement ratio: 0.50
the client the liquid tightness requirements. Colloquial phrases such Maximum cement content: 400kg/m 3
for CEM I (OPC) concrete and
Minimum cement content: 300kg/m3 when aggregate size is 20mm;
as waterproof construction are best avoided; instead the engineer 450kg/m 3
when ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) or fly
Watertightness 320kg/m3 when aggregate size is 14mm
should agree the degree of leakage that can be tolerated using the
In the design of containment structures, liquid tightness is a critical
Maximum
ash is used
cement content: 400kg/m for CEM I (OPC) concrete and
3
classification ofThe
consideration. tightness classes
structural shownshould
engineer in Table 1. This,and
discuss in turn,
agreewillwith
lead Concrete
450kg/m 3
whenstrength
groundclass: C30/37blast-furnace slag (GGBS) or y ash
granulated
to limiting crack widths that should be used in structural design.
the client the liquid tightness requirements. Colloquial phrases such is used
Use of cement replacement (GGBS or fly ash) is recommended as
as waterproof construction are best avoided; instead the engineer Concrete strength class: C30/37
Tightness class 1 is the most usual class for utilitarian water-retaining the heat of hydration will be less than that for pure Portland cement
should agree the degree of leakage that can be tolerated using the
structures and limiting crack widths is normally sufficient to achieve this (CEM I) and this in turn assists in crack control. Suitable cement or
classication of tightness classes shown in Table 1. This, in turn, will lead Use of cement replacement (GGBS or y ash) is recommended as
class.
to For tightness
limiting classes
crack widths that2 should
and 3 itbe
willused
not be sufficient design.
in structural to limit crack combination
the types arewill
heat of hydration CEMbe IIB-V (which
less than contains
that for pure 2135% flycement
Portland ash) or
widths alone.class
Tightness Liners1 is
and/or prestressing
the most usual classwillfor
beutilitarian
required to meet the
water-retaining CEM IIIA
(CEM (which
I) and thiscontains 3665%
in turn assists GGBS).control.
in crack If high proportions of cement
Suitable cement or
requirements.
structures and limiting crack widths is normally sufficient to achieve this replacementstypes
combination are used, thereIIB-V
are CEM will be implications
(which containsfor early strength
2135% and
y ash) or
class. For tightness classes 2 and 3 it will not be sufficient to limit crack abrasion
CEM IIIA resistance, which3665%
(which contains might have an effect
GGBS). onproportions
If high the programme.
of cement
In addition to correct design, liquid tightness also depends on the use
widths alone. Liners and/or prestressing will be required to meet the replacements are used, there will be implications for early strength and
of an appropriate concrete mix and good workmanship on site. Good
requirements.
compaction
In additionof
toconcrete is essential.
correct design, liquid tightness also depends on the use
of an appropriate concrete mix and good workmanship on site. Good
Figure 1
Aeration and clarier tanks at New Hythe, Kent
Durability and selection of materials
compaction of concrete is essential.
Concrete should be specified in accordance with BS EN 2065,6 and
Durability
BS 8500 Partsand selection
1 and of materials
27,8. All materials in contact with potable water
Concrete
will need to should
complybewith
speci ed inregulations.
specific accordanceThe with BS
Civil EN 2065,6 and
Engineering
BS 8500 Parts 1 and 2 . All materials
7,8
in contact with potable water
Specification for the Water Industry9 provides useful information.
will need to comply with specic regulations. The Civil Engineering
Speci cation forconcrete
Well-compacted the Water Industry9for
is essential provides useful
durability. information.
Generally, the
Well-compacted concrete
thickness of members should be is essential for durability.
at least 250mm to permit Generally,
good the
thickness
compaction. of However,
memberstheshould be atshould
thickness least 250mm to permitasgood
not be excessive the
compaction. However, the thickness should not be excessive as the
reinforcement required increases with the thickness of the concrete.
reinforcement required increases with the thickness of the concrete.
HOWES ATKINSON CROWDER
TheThe likely
likely exposure
exposure classes
classes for different
for different elements
elements are in
are noted noted in
Table
Table 2.2. Cover requirements in BS EN 1992-1-1 and BS 8500 will generally
Cover
apply. It isrequirements in to
good practice BSuseENnominal
1992-1-1cover
and BScnom8500 will generally
of 45mm from the
apply. It is good practice to use nominal cover Cnom of 45mm from the
face in contact with liquid and 75mm from any face cast against soil. Figure 1 Aeration and clarifier tanks at New Hythe, Kent
face in contact with liquid and 75mm from any face cast against soil.
Values of actions
Values of actions should be established using the relevant codes. In
practice the designer is likely to know only the maximum depth of
liquid that it is physically possible to store. The operational depth will
be slightly smaller. It is recommended that all calculations are carried out
using the full depth of the tank. Although slightly conservative, this
approach will result in a reliable design.
Partial factors on actions

Partial factors for permanent and variable actions are given in the
UK NA to BS EN 1990. Tables 3 and 4 show the partial factors
recommended for loads and pressures induced by retained liquids,
noting that designs should be based on the assumption that the
maximum liquid level would be the top of the walls.
Structural analysis
Design should be based on elastic analysis without redistribution.
In rectangular tanks, direct tension in the plane of the walls arises from
the lateral load supported by adjacent contiguous walls and this should
Figure 2 Tensile strength and stress over time
be taken into account in design. Hoop stresses in circular tanks also lead
to in-plane tension.
Key
Structural design ultimate limit state
Line 1a Tensile strength of the concrete: transitory loading
Guidance in BS EN 1992-1-1 should be used. The following should be
Line 1b Tensile strength of the concrete: sustained loading
noted in connection with the calculation of shear resistance:
Line 2a Early-age contraction stress, allowing for creep
the shear resistance of a section not reinforced for shear VRd,c should
Line 2b Addition of drying shrinkage stress to line 2a
be calculated making allowance for the presence of any tension
Table 1: Liquid tightness classes*

When in contact with aggressive soil, provisions to resist sulphate
attack are likely to control the mix and a cement type CEM IIIB or CEM Tightness class Requirements for leakage
IVB could be used. 0 Some degrees of leakage acceptable or leakage of liquids irrelevant
Leakage to be limited to small amount. Some surface staining or damp

Where chemically aggressive liquids are stored, expert guidance 1
patches acceptable
should be sought for the selection of appropriate concrete mix9. 2 Leakage to be minimal. Appearance not to be impaired by staining
Normally, protective liners will be required. 3 No leakage permitted
Basis of structural design *Based on BS EN 1992-3
Design situations
These are dealt with in a general way in BS EN 199010. For tanks Table 2: Likely exposure classes for different elements*
constructed partially or fully below ground: Element Likely exposure class
adverse effects of soil and groundwater pressures on the walls and Wall in contact with liquid Cyclic wet and dry XC3 and XC4
base should be considered during construction and in service; this Underside of roofs to
Moderately humid environment XC3 and XC4
reservoirs
will normally require consideration of the tank when it is empty
for the design situation when the tank is full, no relief should be Surfaces in contact with
DC class depending on the aggressiveness of the soil
soil (walls and slabs)
given for the beneficial soil and groundwater pressure effects
Unprotected surfaces
Will depend on the circumstances XC, XD, XS and XF may all be relevant
of walls and roofs
Actions on liquid containment structures
* Exposure classes are in accordance with BS EN 1992-1-1 and BS 8500
Permanent actions
Common permanent actions to be considered are:
self-weight of tank and contents
weight of plant and equipment
Variable actions
Common variable actions to be considered are:
loads due to liquid pressures
wind loads on structures at or above ground
snow loads on covered structures
uplift forces on underground tanks due to ground water
lateral loads due to earth and water pressures on underground tanks
Table 3: Partial factors at ULS for tanks below ground Minimum reinforcement does not guarantee any specific crack
width. It is a necessary amount presumed by models for crack width
Loads
Earth and calculations; but not necessarily a sufficient amount to limit the crack
Design Permanent from
Verification groundwater
situation actions contained
pressures widths. Additional reinforcement may well be necessary.
liquid
For cracking to occur there has to be restraint to movement. The
Equilibrium 0.90 1.50 degree of restraint is another source of uncertainty. Restraint may
Tank empty be internal or external to the element. Internal restraint is caused by
Strength 1.35 * differential expansion and will generally be significant in thick sections.
External restraint is either end restraint or edge restraint. The
Tank full Strength 1.35 1.35
mechanism of crack formation in these two cases is different and this is
*The more critical values obtained using combinations given in BS EN 1997-111 should be used here
reflected in the formulae used for the calculation of restrained strain. In
the case of members restrained at ends, cracking occurs progressively.
Each crack occurs to its full potential width before successive cracks
caused by loading (as opposed to that caused by restraint of intrinsic
occur. In this case crack-inducing strain is specifically related to the
deformation such as shrinkage and temperature effects). In such cases
strength of the concrete and the steel ratio.
cp in expressions (6.2.a) and (6.2.b) will be negative and therefore
reduce the shear resistance In the case of members restrained at one edge, the reinforcement
a value of cot = 1.0 should be used for the calculation of shear and adjacent concrete act as crack distributors and the crack width
reinforcement as recommended by the Eurocode is a function of the restrained strain rather than the tensile capacity of
concrete. See Figure 3 for a typical edge restraint crack pattern.
Structural design serviceability limit state
Crack widths and watertightness The amount of reinforcement required to limit the crack width to a
Table 5 gives the crack width limits and recommendations for the given value will be considerably higher in the case of members with end
watertightness classes chosen from Table 1. The approach to crack restraint compared to those with edge restraint. This is the reason why
control and the performance implications of the chosen method should specifications prohibit casting in alternative bays.
be agreed with the client.
Cracking caused by loading
Estimation of crack widths Procedures set out in BS EN 1992-1-1 may be used to control cracking
Crack widths are normally calculated for: caused by loading.
cracking caused by restraint to movement (also referred to as
imposed deformations) Minimising the risk of cracking
cracking caused by loading BS EN 1992-3 suggests a number of strategies to minimise the risk of
cracking. CIRIA publication C660 also provides tips for control of early
Examples of imposed deformations include early thermal effects, thermal cracking. The reader should refer to these.
autogenous shrinkage and drying shrinkage.
Deflection control
CIRIA publication C660 contains extremely useful information for the In general, deflections are unlikely to be critical. The procedures in BS
estimation of crack widths. The formulae for crack width calculation are EN 1992-1-1, including the span-to-depth formulae, may be used. Where
not included here and the reader should consult the reference for fuller finishes are applied to the structure, manufacturers should be consulted
details. on any limitations on the strains.
Cracking caused by restraint Construction
While cracking is accepted in concrete structures, it is expected to Joints
be controlled such that cracks will occur at intervals and their width There are essentially two types of joints: those required for minimising
will be small. This requires the presence of a minimum amount of
reinforcement in the structural element. Just prior to the occurrence Table 4: Partial factors at ULS for elevated towers
of the first crack, the concrete and the reinforcement will be in tension. Loads
At the crack the tension can be carried only by the reinforcement. The Design Permanent from
Verification Wind Snow
minimum reinforcement is calculated such that the reinforcement is situation actions contained
liquid
able to transfer the tension without yielding. It follows therefore that
the stronger the concrete, the greater the amount of reinforcement Tank empty Equilibrium 0.90 1.50
that will be required to achieve controlled cracking. The tensile strength
of concrete at the time when first cracking might be expected is the Strength walls
1.35 1.35 1.50
and base
appropriate strength that should be used. Often, early age cracking
Strength
at three days is considered critical. Figure 2 shows the relationship Tank full
supporting
1.35 1.35 1.50 0 1.50*
between the increase in stress and strength of the concrete over time. structures and
foundations
*For the value of 0 see the UK NA to BS EN 1990
It is good practice to protect all joints by incorporating water bars. If

the joints are sealed (recommended when another line of defence is
deemed necessary), the selection of sealants should be undertaken by
a specialist and should take into account:
the chemical compatibility with other materials or soil with which

they are likely to be in contact
expected movement in the joint
ease of repair and replacement
Table 5: Requirements for water-tightness classes*

Tightness class Suggested measures to meet the requirements
Structure may be designed using the provisions of clause 7.3.1
0
Figure 3 Edge restraint of wall cast on base of BS EN 1992-1-1
Width of any cracks that can be expected to pass through the full thickness of
the section should be limited to w1*
1
Where the full thickness of the section is not cracked, provisions of clause 7.3.1
of BS EN 1992-1-1 may be used subject to conditions
Cracks that may be expected to pass through the section should be avoided,
unless special measures are incorporated (e.g. water bars or liners). There is an
2 implication in the code that it may be adequate to provide water bars to
safeguard against leakage through cracks and verify the above-mentioned
conditions for cracks that do not penetrate the whole depth of the section
3 Special measures will be required (e.g. liners or prestress)
*The crack width w1 is related to hd/h values where hd is the hydraulic head and h is the overall thickness of the wall as
shown in Table 6

Where the whole section is not cracked, it must be checked that the depth of the compression zone should be at least
xmin. In the UK the value of xmin is given as the lesser of 50mm or 0.2h

The crack width limit w1 noted above* is only acceptable if the range of strain at a section under service conditions is
150 x 10-6. If this is not satisfied self-healing is unlikely to occur at the crack and this may lead to leakage
The size of individual pours will be governed by the site constraints,

such as ease of access for concreting and the geometry of the element.
The National Structural Concrete Specification12 recommends default
pour sizes, but these can be modified if agreed between the designer
and the contractor.
At construction joints, structural continuity is required and no

relative movement between the sections should occur at the joint. The
reinforcement should pass through. The surface of the first pour should
be roughened to increase the bond strength and to provide aggregate
interlock. Powerful hammers should not be used as they may dislodge
the aggregate particles.
Water bars
Water bars are preformed strips of durable impermeable material that
are wholly or partially embedded in the concrete during construction.
They are located across joints to provide a permanent liquid-tight seal
Figure 4 Typical detail of preformed PVC strip backstop water bar
during the whole range of movements. Water bars may be metal strips
or proprietary products made of rubber or flexible plastics such as PVC
the risk of cracking (movement joints) and those required for (Figure 4).
convenience of construction (construction joints). Expansion joints At construction joints (both horizontal and vertical), a rigid water bar
should be provided when reversible movements are expected and formed from a strip of black steel (unpainted and non-galvanised) has
contraction joints are suitable when only contraction has to be proved effective. The water bar is placed centrally across the joint. In
accommodated. horizontal joints, the water bar is gently pushed in when the concrete is
Joints are potentially vulnerable locations for water penetration. still green. Separate lengths of the metal water bars need not be welded
In water-retaining structures, the number of joints should be kept together. At butt joints between two water bars, a gap should be left
to a minimum. Joints also require maintenance for continued good equal to aggregate size + 5mm. A cover strip overlapping the two water
performance. bars should be placed, again leaving a gap of aggregate size + 5mm.
may also be encountered and may be cut, or the relocation of the

fixing will increase the area of damaged concrete. This is not a
satisfactory procedure in water-retaining structures.
Inspection and testing

BS EN 1992-3 does not provide any guidance on inspection and testing
nor does it state any acceptance criterion for test results. In the UK, the
procedure given in BS 800713 has been used successfully in the past
and it can continue to be used.
References:
1) British Standards Institution (2004) BS EN 1992-1-1:2004

Eurocode 2. Design of concrete structures General rules and rules
for buildings, London, UK: BSI

2. Design of concrete structures. Liquid retaining and containing
structures, London, UK: BSI
3) Narayanan R. S. and Goodchild C. H. (2012) Concrete Basements:

Guidance on the design and construction of in situ concrete
basement structures, London, UK: MPA The Concrete Centre
4) CIRIA (2007) Publication C660: Early-age thermal crack control

Figure 5 Types of formwork ties for use in watertight construction
in concrete [Online] Available at: www.ciria.org/CMDownload.
aspx?ContentKey=dc8dcc64-7feb-4342-a06a-63f68aa598b4&Con
Table 6: Limiting values of w1 tentItemKey=15398ecc-7629-4f3a-a528-5e11eee0ca7c (Accessed:
hd/h 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
December 2014)
w1 (mm) 0.200 0.175 0.150 0.125 0.100 0.075 0.050

5) British Cement Association (2001) Specifying concrete to BS EN
206 1/BS 8500: Concrete resistant to chemical attack, Camberley,
UK: BCA
Similar detail should be used at corners. Because of the stiffness of
6) British Standards Institution (2013) BS EN 206:2013 Concrete.
the metal water bars, there is no risk of the water bar collapsing during
Specification, performance, production and conformity, London, UK:
concreting.
BSI
PVC rear guard water bars are especially suitable for protecting
7) British Standards Institution (2012) BS 8500-1:2015
joints in base slabs cast on ground.
Concrete. Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1. Method
Miscellaneous of specifying and guidance for the specifier, London, UK: BSI
Kickers
8) British Standards Institution (2015) BS 8500-2:2015
In liquid-tight construction, it is recommended that a kicker with a
Concrete. Complementary British Standard to BS EN 206-1.
height of 150250mm is constructed monolithically with the base
Specification for constituent materials and concrete, London, UK: BSI
slab. While kickerless construction may be preferred by some
contractors in the interest of speed of construction, the associated 9) UK Water Industry Research Ltd (2004) Civil Engineering
additional risk of water penetration is not warranted in liquid-tight Specifi cation for the Water Industry (6th ed.), Swindon, UK: WRC plc
construction.
10) British Standards Institution (2005) BS EN 1990:2002+A1:2005
Formwork ties Eurocode. Basis of structural design, London, UK: BSI
Formwork ties should be selected carefully so that there is no risk
11) British Standards Institution (2013) BS EN 1997-1:2004+A1:2013
of moisture penetration. There are two types available in the market:
Eurocode 7. Geotechnical design. General rules, London, UK: BSI
lost tie system and hollow tube system (Figure 5).
12) CONSTRUCT (2010) National Structural Concrete Specification
Service penetrations through the structure
for Building Construction (4th ed.) [Online] www.construct.org.uk/
In water-retaining structures, it is common for service pipes to
media/National_Structural_Concrete_Specification_for_Building_
penetrate the concrete. They are also common locations where
Construction.pdf (Accessed: August 2015)
leakage occurs. The locations should be pre-planned and the pipes
should incorporate puddle flanges (effectively incorporating a 13) British Standards Institution (1987) BS 8007:1987 Code of
prewelded water bar on the outer face). Casting a sleeve or boxing and practice for design of concrete structures for retaining aqueous
locating the pipes subsequently will result in more interfaces and will liquids, London, UK: BSI
increase the risk of leakage; this should ideally be avoided.
Post-drilling concrete and any internal membranes for fixings

could also damage the concrete in the local area. Reinforcement
An introduction to strut-and-tie modelling
Robert Vollum, of Imperial College, London, discusses

strut-and-tie modelling, a simple method of modelling
complex stress patterns in reinforced concrete as
triangulated models.
Introduction
It is based on the same truss analogy as the design for shear in Eurocode
21 and can be applied to many elements, but is particularly useful where
normal beam theory does not apply, i.e. where plane sections do not
remain plane, e.g. in deep beams, corbels and pile caps. EC2 provides
information about the use of strut-and-tie modelling and this article is
an introduction for engineers who want to take advantage of this useful
analysis method.
Regions where normal beam theory cannot be used arise at geometrical

discontinuities, supports and concentrated loads and are known as D or
disturbed regions. D regions are dimensioned using Bernoullis principle
(Figure 1). Regions where normal beam theory can be used are called B
or beam or Bernoulli regions. In strut-and-tie modelling, the structure Figure 1 Dimensioning of D regions
can be split into D and B regions and a strut-and-tie model (STM)
prepared for the D regions. The method uses the truss analogy where shows that the STM geometry changes as the load is increased to failure,
the actual flow of stresses is represented by a series of struts and ties due to the internal redistribution of forces that occurs on cracking and
(Figure 2). The method is an application of the lower bound theory of subsequent yielding of reinforcement, which in the ultimate case lies
plasticity. Consequently, there is no unique STM for any given problem. within the plastic limit. The STM in Fig. 2b neglects the contribution of
The main requirements are to ensure that equilibrium is satisfied and the minimal web reinforcement required by EC21 to control cracking,
to proportion the cross-sectional areas of struts and ties such that their which further increases load resistance.
resistances are everywhere greater than or equal to the internal forces.
Load path method
Adequate ductility is typically ensured through the provision of code-
specified minimum reinforcement areas. The load path method2 is a useful tool for developing the STM geometry
within elements. The starting point is to determine the stress distribution
The scope of this article is restricted to strut-and-tie modelling of planar
at the boundaries of the D region after which the STM can be developed
structures. The reader is referred to specialised texts27 for more in-depth
using the following rules of Schlaich and Schfer2:
treatment of the method.
1. Load paths do not cross each other
Development of STM
2. Load paths take the shortest streamlined route between the centres
The first step is to determine the basic STM geometry within the
of gravity of stress diagrams
element. The serviceability limit state (SLS) of cracking is usually satisfied
if the ultimate limit state (ULS) STM geometry is based on the elastic 3. Curvatures concentrate near stress concentrations, reactions and
stress field, with members positioned at the centroids of the concentrated loads
compressive and tensile elastic stress distributions (Fig. 2a).
4. In the absence of elastic analysis, position struts from experience
An elastically based STM can lead to overly conservative designs, since
and the application of simple rules
such models do not recognise the redistribution in stress that occurs
when the concrete cracks, putting more stress into the reinforcement.
Therefore, some deviation from the elastic solution is permissible, as in
the design of continuous beams. Consideration of Fig. 2a and Fig. 2b
37
W
Figure 2
Development of STM for uniformly loaded deep beam
a) based on elastic stress eld b) at ULS 37
W Figure 2 Figure
4. The5 orientation
shows howof rule
Development of STM for uniformly loaded deep beam
the2 model
can bemay usedbetoallowed
distinguish
37
between
to depart fromgood
the
and badstress
STMs for
a) based on elastic stress eld b) at ULS
elastic elda deep
at thebeam.ULS ifThe the STM
SLS in Fig. 5a is bad because
is checked
W
4. TheFigure
elastic
2 insufficient
orientation
Development of STM
a) based stress SLS.
eld
on elastic
of the model
Figure
tensile
5atshows
for uniformly
Fig.
eld5b
atthe
stress ULS
b)
shows
ULS
may reinforcement
be allowed to depart
loadedhow rule 2
deep beam
if the that
SLS istherecheckedis can
is provided
an area
from the to control cracking at the
be used to distinguish
of concrete between
in the top section
good and bad STMs for a deep beam. The STM in Fig. 5a is bad
of the STM which is in tension and therefore this section should be
4. Figure 5 shows
The orientation because
how
of the rule insuffi
2 can
model cient
be be
may usedtensile reinforcement
to distinguish
allowed to from the is provided to control
departbetween
good and
elastic stress reinforced
bad STMs
cracking
eld forULS
at the for
a the
deep
if thetensile
beam.
SLS The
is stress.
STM
checked inIt can
Fig. 5a be
is shown
bad
at the SLS. Fig. 5b shows that there is an area of concrete from finite-element
because insuffi cient tensile
models reinforcement
thatsection
this tensile is provided
zone to control
is which
created. Normally
in the top of the STM is in tension the
andtensile stress
therefore thisis
cracking
Figure at the SLS.
5 shows howFig. 5b2shows
rule can bethatusedthere is an area of
to distinguish concrete
between
in the top
good taken
andsection
bad of by
section
STMs theforthe
should
STM nominal
a deepwhich be is inreinforcement
reinforced
beam. tension
The STMand for theprovided
tensile
therefore
in Fig. 5a is bad in the Itdeep
this stress. can beam.
be shown
section should
because insuffifrom
cient nite-element
be reinforced
tensile for the tensile
reinforcement models isstress.
providedthat It canthis betensile
to controlshown zone is created. Normally
from nite-element
cracking Compressive
at the the
SLS.tensile
models
Fig. 5bthat stress
stress
shows thisthatis fields
taken
tensilethere zone isbyanisthecreated.
area nominal Normally
of concrete reinforcement provided in
thethe
in tensile stress
top section theis taken
ofdeep
Compressive the STM by
beam.the
which
stress nominal
is reinforcement
in tension
fields are the and way provided
therefore this
in which in the compressive stress in
the deepshould
section beam.be reinforced for the tensile stress. It can be shown
the idealised struts spreads
from nite-element models that this tensile zone is created. Normally through the concrete. They are categorised
Figure 2 Development of STM for uniformly loaded deep beam Compressive
the asCompressive
tensile stress stress
is takenby
prismatic, eldsfan- orstress
the nominal bottle-shaped elds (Figure
reinforcement provided6). in Prismatic stress fields
a) based on elastic stress field b) at ULS Compressive
the deep beam. Compressive
stress elds are the stress
way inwhich elds are the way in which the compressive
the compressive
typicallystruts arise in B regions, whereas fan- andare bottleshaped stress fields
stress in the idealisedstress in thespreads idealised through struts the spreads
concrete. They through the concrete. They are
Compressive
categorised as arise in D
stress
prismatic,
categorised regions
elds
fan- due to thefan-
or bottle-shaped
as prismatic, dispersion
(Figure of the stress
6). Prismatic
or bottle-shaped paths6).radiating
(Figure Prismatic out
stress
Compressiveelds typically arise
stressconcentrated
elds arein Bthe regions,
way inwhereas
which thefan- and bottle-
compressive
fromstress elds typically loads ariseor reactions.
in B regions, whereas fan- and bottle-
shaped stress elds arise in D
stress in the idealised struts spreads through regions due to the dispersion
concrete. They are of the
stress paths as
categorised shaped
radiating
prismatic, outstress
fromor
fan- bottle-shaped
elds ariseloads
concentrated in(Figure
D or regions
reactions. due to the dispersion of the
6). Prismatic
Bottle
stress stress
elds
Bottle
stress stress
elds arise
typically paths
are a in
fields
Bradiating
feature
are awhereas
of elastic
regions,
feature
out from
stress fan-
of
eld
elastic
concentrated
andanalysis.
bottle-
stress loads
field analysis. The
or reactions.
The curvature
shaped stress curvature
of
elds arise ofin the
D principal
regions due compressive
Bottle stress elds are a feature of elastic stress eld analysis.
the principal compressive stress
to the trajectories
dispersion stress
ofofthethe trajectories of the bottle
bottle paths
stress eld develops
radiating signi cant concentrated
out from transverse tension. The
loads compressive compressive
or reactions.
field
Thedevelops
curvature significant
of the principal transverse tension. stress The compressive
trajectoriesresistance
of the
N
resistance of bottle
Bottle stress eldsstress
are a feature
elds is limited
of elastic by stress
splitting eld along the axis
analysis.
ofofbottle
bottle stress
eld develops fields issigni limited cant bytransverse
splitting tension.
the The compressive
of along axis of the strut,
Figure 3
Application of load path method (adapted from EC21) of the
The strut, unless
curvature thetransverse
principal reinforcement
compressive is provided
stress trajectories to maintain the
N
resistance of bottle stress elds
Figure 3 equilibrium
bottle after
unless
eld develops cracking.
transverse
signi cant reinforcement
transverse tension. Theisisprovided
limited by splitting along the axis
compressive to maintain equilibrium
of the strut, unless transverse reinforcement
the the axis is provided to maintain
N
Application of load path method (adapted from EC21) The fan-shaped
resistance of bottle stress
stress eld
eldsis an idealisation
is limited by splittingin which along
Figure 3 Application
Figure 3 of load path method (adapted from EC2 )
Application of load path method (adapted from EC21)
1
compressive
of
after
stress
the strut, unless
cracking.
trajectories
equilibrium
transverse afterarecracking.
assumed is
reinforcement toprovided
be straight. to maintain
The procedure is illustrated in Figure 3 for the anchorage zone Consequently,
equilibrium after nocracking.
tension
The develops at stress
fan-shaped right angles iseld toisthe anstress
idealisation in which the
The procedure is illustrated in Figure
of a post-tensioned beam. A similar loading arrangement arises 3 for the anchorage zone of a post-
trajectories The
of the fan.
The fan-shaped fan-shaped
stressFan-shaped stress
eld is an stress field
idealisation elds in an
arewhich idealisation
assumed the to in which the compressive
compressive stress loads trajectories are assumed to be straight.
tensionedwhenbeam. a wall isAloaded similar withloading arrangement
a concentrated load at its arises
corner. whenNote a wall compressive
is
develop stress
at supports trajectories
and concentrated
stress trajectories areare assumed assumed beto
intoplastic be
stress
straight. straight.
eld Consequently, no tension
that The
The procedure
theprocedure
forces F1 isand isF2illustrated
illustrated are equal
in Figure andin Figure
3 for the3anchorage
opposite. for geometry
The the anchorage
zoneof zone
analysis. Failureno
Consequently, Consequently,
istension
assumed to occur
develops noattension
at supports
right anglesdevelops
andto the at right angles to the stress
concentrated
stress
loadedof with
of
the aaSTM
a is
concentrated
post-tensioned
fully dened load
beam.
once theat its
Adimensions corner.
similar
loading loading z1 Note thatde
and zarrangement the forces Ftrajectories
arises
loads develops
andwhereofstresses trajectories
fan.are
atgreatest.
right
of the angles to
fan. Fan-shaped the stressstress trajectories of the fan. Fan-shaped
to elds are assumed to
post-tensioned beam. A similar arrangement 2 arearises ned. 1 the Fan-shaped stress elds are assumed
F2 are equal
The
when
when aand
dimension
awall
wall opposite. can with
z2 loaded
is
is loaded
o
beThe found geometry
with bya
a concentratedassuming
concentrated of
load the
that STM
atthe is
angle
itsload
corner. fully
at ofits
the
Note defined
corner. once
Prismatic
Note
develop stress
or develop
at supports fields
parallel-sided at are assumed
stress
supports
and concentrated elds and
loadsareto adevelop
specialstress
concentrated
in plastic caseat supports
of the in and
loads
eld concentrated
plastic stress eld loads
diagonal strut Fis1 and
45 fan- and bottle-shaped stress tooccur
elds.is Figure 7 shows aconcentrated
deep at beam
that
thatthe
the dimensions theforces
forces
z1 and Fz12.and
Alternatively,
F
are2 are Fequal
2 are equal
defined. the opposite.
and
The strutand canopposite.
dimension be
Thepositioned
geometry
z2 can Thebe ofgeometry
found analysis.
of Failure is assumed
inanalysis.
plastic Failure
stress field at supports
assumed
analysis. andoccur
to
Failure supports
is assumed to and
occurconcentrated
at supports and
at the centroid of the corresponding
the STM is fully dened once the dimensions z1 and z2 are dened. elastic compressive stress loaded with a concentrated
loads where stresses are greatest. load. In reality, the compressive stress
the STM
by assuming
distribution that is
as
fully
the
done
de
angle
for
ned
the of once
the
deep beam
theofdimensions
diagonal Fig. strut
1a. is z 1 and
45. z are de
Alternatively,
2
ned.
eld is
loads as
concentrated
bottle-shaped
where
indicated
stresses
loads with where
the
are greatest.
stresses
dotted line. are greatest.
However, in
The dimension z2 can be found by assuming that the angle of the Prismatic or parallel-sided stress elds are a special case of the
TheFiguredimension
4 shows is twoz2 ocan be found
. alternative STMs bystrut
forassuming
a can
deepbebeam. thatBoth the angle offan- theand bottle-shaped
practice, struts are Prismatic
often or
idealised parallel-sided
asFigure
prismatic stress
(Fig. 7). EC2 elds
requires are a special case of the
the strut can
diagonal bestrut positioned 45 at
o the centroid of the corresponding elastic
Alternatively, the positioned stress elds. 7 shows a deep beam
diagonal
are
at thelower strut
bound
centroid theiscorresponding
ofsolutions 45 .but Alternatively,
the STM in Fig.
elastic the 4bstrut
is notcan
compressive optimal,be positioned
stress a minimum
loaded aPrismatic
withamount fan-ofand
concentrated or parallel-sided
bottle-shaped
horizontalload.and vertical
In reality, the stress
stress
web fields
reinforcement
compressive are
elds. Figure
stressatospecial
7 shows case of thebeam
a deep fan- and
compressive
or
atbad,
stress
since
the centroid
distribution as the distribution
done load
offor path
the
as beam
thecorresponding
deep doneoffor
is incompatible Fig.the
with deep
1a.the
elastic
beam
elastic stress
compressive
of Fig. 1a.
be
stress
eldprovided in deep
loaded
is bottle-shaped beams
aswith toacontrol
indicated withcracking.
concentrated the dotted The
load.
line.code requires
Inshows
reality,in
However, an compressive stress
the
bottle-shaped stress fields. Figure 7 a deep beam loaded with
eld. The4STM in Fig.
two4a is more appropriate, or good, because
Both the isotropic struts
practice, mesh with a minimum area asofprismatic
0.001A c mm
(Fig.2 7). or 0.001t mm2/
Figure shows alternative STMs for a deep beam. are
eldoften idealised
is bottle-shaped EC2
withrequires
Figure aredistribution
4 shows
strut twoasalternative
orientation
lower bound
done
follows
solutions
for the deep
the STMs
elastic
but the STM forinbeam
aFig.
compressive deep of Fig.
beam.
4bstress
is
1a.
Both are lower
trajectories.
not optimal, mm Aa
(where amount
a minimum concentrated
c is theof horizontalload.
cross-sectional and area In as
verticalof the
indicated
reality,
webmember the compressive
reinforcement
the
and t is to its
dotted line. However, in
stress field is bottle-
As
Figure
notedsince
4 shows and
by Schlaich
twoSchferalternative STMs to for a deep beam. Both practice, struts are often idealised asAnnex
prismatic (Fig. 7). EC2 requires
boundor solutions butthetheloadSTM path in Fig., 4b it isishelpful
not realise
optimal, that
or bad, sincethickness)
theprovidedtoin be
shaped provided into each
as indicated face,with but the theUK National
dotted code line. to
However, in practice, struts are
2
bad, is incompatible with the elastic stress be deep beams control cracking. The requires an
are
eld. lower
loads try to
The STM bound
use inthe solutions
Fig.path
4a is with
more thebut least the
appropriate, STM
forces or in
and Fig. because
4b is not
deformations.
good, theoptimal, EC2 9
isotropic mesh a
increases minimum
this
with area
a amount
to 0.002A
minimum areac. ofof horizontal
0.001A and vertical
c mm or 0.001t mm /
2 2 web reinforcement to
load path isorientation
or bad, incompatible
Consequently,
strut since the load
a follows
crude with
rule
theof the
paththumb
elastic elastic
is stressstress
incompatible
for distinguishing
compressive field.
with The
betweentheSTM
trajectories. in Fig.
elastic mm (where Aoften
stress idealisedinas
be provided prismatic
deep beams(Fig. to control7). EC2 cracking.
requires aThe minimum amountan
code requires of
c is the cross-sectional area of the member and t is its
4a is more
good
eld.
As appropriate,
noted
since ties
and
The by bad
are
STM
Schlaich
much
in or
models Fig.
andgood
is Schfer
morewith
is, because
to choose
4a
deformable
more
2
, itthe the strut
model
isappropriate,
than
helpful
struts.
with
to realise orientation
shortest
or that
good, S follows
ties, because Figure 4
horizontal
the andtobad
thickness)
Good beisotropic
provided
model and
based inmesh
oneach vertical
with
face,
minimising a web
but
length minimum
the
of ties reinforcement
UK National area of Annex totobec provided
0.001A in deep
mm2 or 0.001t mm beams
2
/
loads try to use the path the least forces
Asand deformations.
andEC2 increases this (where
area to 0.002A c.
9
strutcompressive
the elastic orientation follows the
stress trajectories. elastic compressive
noted stress trajectories.
by Schlaich tomm control Ac is the
cracking. The cross-sectional
code requires area of the member
an isotropic mesh withandatminimum
is its
Consequently, a crude rule of thumb for distinguishing between
As
2 noted by Schlaich and Schfer , it is helpful to realise that Figure 4
S thickness)
of 0.001Ac mmprovided
to be in each face,(where
but theAUK is National Annex to
2
, it is
Schfergood
Choice andhelpful
ofbad
limiting to realise
models angle that loads
is to between
choose thestruts try toand
model withuseshortest
the path
ties ties,with the Good and bad area model9based on minimising
2
or 0.001t
length of ties
mm2/mm c
the cross-sectional
loads
The angletrybetween
tomuchuse the morepath
struts with
andConsequently,
ties shouldthe least
be forces
large enough andtodeformations. EC2 increases this area to 0.002Ac.
since
least forces ties
andare deformations. deformable than struts. a crude ruleavoidof thumb for area of the member and t is its thickness) to be provided in each face,
Consequently, a crude ruletiesof thumb and for distinguishing
struts shorteningbetween
S
strain incompatibilities due to extending
distinguishing
Choice
in almostand
good ofbetween
thelimiting
bad good
angle between
same direction.
models and
Model
is bad
Code
to choose models
struts
1990 theand
8 is
gives
model to
ties choose
thewith
following the model
shortest ties, but the UK
Figure National
4 Annex to EC2 9
increases this area to 0.002Ac.
Good and bad model based on minimising length of ties
with shortest
useful
The
since angle ties,
rules
ties ofsince
between
are thumb
much ties
struts are
moreand much
for developing ties should
deformable more
STMs be deformable
whichlarge
than broadly
enough
struts. tothan
follow the
avoid struts.
elastic stress eld:
strain incompatibilities due to ties extending and struts shortening
ChoiceinChoice
of limiting
almost the same angle between
direction. Modelstruts Code 1990 andgives ties theand following
8
useful rulesof
1. Orientation limiting
ofwiththumb thefor elasticangle stressbetween
developing STMs morestruts
eld is which important
broadly follow ties
for struts
the
The angle Thebetween
than
elastic angle
ties, which
stress between
can usually
eld:
struts struts
and tiesand
be arranged
should tiesparallel
should
be large to bethe large
edges enough
enough of the
to avoid to avoid
member following practical considerations
strain incompatibilities due to ties extending and struts shortening
strain incompatibilities
2. Orientation due to ties extending and struts shortening in
inInalmost
1. highly stressed
the withsametheregions,
elastic
direction.main
stress struts
eld and
Model is more ties
Code should
1990meet
important 8 for
gives at
struts
the following
angles
almostthan theties, of which
same about 60 and
can
direction. usually not
Model less
be than
arranged
Code 45 (this8isgives
parallel
1990 a guideline
to the theedges and
of the
following not useful
useful
mandatory)
member
rules of thumb for
following practical considerations
developing STMs which broadly follow the
rules of2. thumb
elastic
3. If the
In for
stress
arrangement
highly developing
stressed eld: of the model
regions, STMsstruts
main iswhich
made and inbroadly
accordance
ties should follow withthe
meet the
at
elastic angles
stressstress
elastic field:
of about eld,
60the and ULSnotdoesless thannot require
45 (this checking
is a guideline and not
mandatory)
1. Orientation with the elastic stress eld is more important for struts
1. Orientation with
3. If the arrangement
than ties, which the can elastic
of the modelstressbe
usually isfield
madeisinmore
arranged accordance important
parallel with the
to the foredges
strutsof the
elastic stress eld, the ULS does not require checking
thanmember
ties, which can usually
following be arranged
practical parallel to the edges of the
considerations
member2. In
TSE40_36-41 highly
v1.indd stressed
following
CDG regions,
37 practical main struts and ties should meet at
considerations 19/03/2015 14:19
angles of about 60 and not less than 45 (this is a guideline and not
2. In highly stressed regions, main struts, ties should meet at angles of
mandatory)
TSE40_36-41 CDG v1.indd 37 19/03/2015 14:19
about 3. 60
If the
and arrangement of45
not less than the(this
modelis aisguideline
made in accordance with the
and not mandatory)
elastic stress eld, the ULS does not require checking
3. If the arrangement of the model is made in accordance with the
elastic stress field, the ULS does not require checking Figure 4 Good and bad model based on minimising length of ties
4. The orientation of the model may be allowed to depart from the

elastic stress
TSE40_36-41 field at
CDG v1.indd 37the
ULS if the SLS is checked 19/03/2015 14:19

Number 4
April 2015 Concrete design
Figure 5 Use of Model Code 19908 rules to distinguish between good and poor STM N Figure 6
Figure 6 Compressive stress fields
Compressive a) prismatic
stress elds b) fan-shaped c) bottle-shaped

a) prismatic
Figure 5 b) fan-shaped
Use of Model Code 19908 rules to distinguish between good and poor STM c) bottle-shaped
Table 1: Eurocode 2 node strengths boundaries are less than or equal to the design concrete strengths given
in Table 1. It is necessary to ensure that the design stresses are less than
Code Type of node Strength
Table 1: Eurocode 2 node strengths the design node
strengths in both nodes
dimensions need to be and at node-strut
chosen interfaces
to ensure that where
stresses on node
EC2 Code C-C-C Type of node 1.0cd Strength
strut resistance is checked.
boundaries are lessThe thandesign strength
or equal of the
to the design strut depends
concrete strengths on
EC2 C-C-T C-C-C 0.85cd1.0f
cd
given in Table 1. It is necessary to ensure that the design stresses
the reinforcement provided within the depth of the element and is often
are less than the design strengths in both nodes and at node-strut
C-T-T C-C-T 0.75cd0.85f
cd less than the node strength.
interfaces where strut resistance is checked. The design strength of
Note: = 1ck/250 C-T-T 0.75fcd the strut depends on the reinforcement provided within the depth of
Dimensioning of nodes
the element and is often less than the node strength.
Note: = 1fck/250
Compressive strength of struts The dimensions of concentrated nodes are frequently determined by the
Dimensioning of nodes
widths of load The and
dimensions
support of concentrated
plates as well nodes areposition
as the frequentlyofdetermined by
ties (Fig. 8).
EC2 gives design concreteCompressive
strengths for struts which are
strength of struts based on the widths of load and support plates as well as the position of ties
simple criteria that account EC2forgives
the eff ectsconcrete
design of cracking and confi
strengths nement.
for struts which are basedSizing of C-C-C(Fig. 8).
nodes
In general: on simple criteria that account for the effects of cracking and
connement. In general: Sizing
The width of the loading of C-C-C nodes
plate of the deep beam in Figure 9 needs to
transverse compression is favourable. Especially confinement The width of the loading plate of the deep beam in Figure 9 needs to
transverse compression is favourable. Especially connement from be chosen to limit the bearing
be chosen to limit the bearing stress to a maximum
stress to a maximum of 1.0
of 1.0f which
cd cd which
from transverse reinforcement or surrounding
transverse reinforcement concreteconcrete
or surrounding is the design strength
is the design for C-C-Cfornodes.
strength C-C-C The depth
nodes. x of the
The depth x ofC-C-C node
the C-C-C
transverse tension is detrimental
transverse tension is detrimental node in Fig. 9 depends upon the assumed exural compressive
in Fig. 9 depends upon the assumed flexural compressive stress which
stress which cannot exceed 1.0fcd. The choice of exural
Skew cracks are particularly Skewdetrimental
cracks areasparticularly
equilibrium requiresasshear
detrimental cannot exceed
equilibrium requires 1.0cd.stress
compressive The choice
in Fig. 9of flexural compressive
determines the widths of the stress in
incoming
shear forces to be transferred across cracks by aggregate interlock.
forces to be transferred across cracks by aggregate interlock. Struts Fig. 9 determines
diagonalthe struts. widths
Clauseof 6.5.4
the incoming diagonal
(8) of EC2 states that struts. Clause
C-C-C nodes
Struts are checked at their ends where the cross-sectional area is can normally be sized on the basis that stresses are equal on all
are checked at their ends where
dened the
by thecross-sectional
node dimensions. area
EC2is reduces
definedthe 6.5.4 (8) of EC2
bydesign concrete states that C-C-C nodes can normally be sized on the
node boundaries. In this event, the stress distribution is hydrostatic
strength in prismatic struts with
the node dimensions. EC2 reduces the design concrete strength in transverse tension to 0.6f basis
cd wherethat stresses
within theare node equal
and on
the all node boundaries.
incoming strut centrelines In are
thisnormal
event,tothe
= 1fck/250. The strength of 0.6fcd also applies to the ends stress the nodeisboundaries.
of distribution hydrostatic In practice,
within thethe width
nodeofand thetheloaded area is strut
incoming
prismatic struts with transverse tension to 0.6
bottle-shaped struts like the
where = 1
cd diagonal struts of
/250.
cd Fig. 7 if insufficient normally governed by other considerations than the design concrete
The strength of 0.6cd also appliesreinforcement
transverse to the ends isofprovided
bottle-shaped struts
to maintain
centrelines
equilibrium after
are normal to the node boundaries. In practice,
strength. Consequently, the bearing stress can be signicantly less
the width
cracking of concrete.
like the diagonal struts of Fig. 7 if insufficient transverse reinforcement is of the loadedthan area
f cdis
. Itnormally
is suggested governed
that in by
the other
absence considerations
of shear than
reinforcement,
the design the exuralstrength.
concrete compressive stress is takenthe
Consequently, as f cd, to avoid
bearing the widths
stress can be
provided to maintain equilibrium after cracking
Classication of nodes of concrete. of the incoming struts being overestimated, but this is not an EC2
Nodes are dened as regions were struts change direction or signifi
strutscantly less than cd. It is suggested that in the absence of shear
requirement.
Classification of nodes and ties intersect (Fig.7). Smeared nodes arise in regions where reinforcement, the flexural compressive stress is taken as cd, to avoid
Nodes are defined as regions
the orientation of struts is diverted by a band of evenly distributed
were struts change direction the widths Sizing of C-C-T nodes
of the incoming struts being overestimated, but this is not an
reinforcement bars and is not checkedor in struts
design. Concentrated The design bearing stress at C-C-T nodes is limited to a maximum
and ties intersect (Fig. 7). Smeared nodes arise in regions where
nodes are typically highly stressed and need to be designed EC2
to requirement.
resist of 0.85f cd . The node width normal to the inclined strut centreline in
the incoming forces without concrete failing in compression. EC2 Fig. 8b is given by:
the orientation of struts is diverted by a band of evenly distributed
classies nodes as C-C-C (three compressive struts), C-C-TSizing
(two of C-C-T nodes
reinforcement bars and is compressive
not checkedstruts
in design.
and oneConcentrated nodes
tie), and C-T-T (one compressive strut (1)
andand
are typically highly stressed twoneed
ties) (Figure 8). The node
to be designed towhere
resistathe Thecap
column meets a pile design bearing stress at C-C-T nodes is limited to a maximum of
would typically be a C-C-C node, and the node where a two-pile pile . The
0.85 where is the length
Lb width
node of the
normal to support plate, u
the inclined is the
strut height of the
centreline in
incoming forces without concrete failing in compression. EC2 classifies
cap meets the pile would typically be a C-C-T node.
cd
back face of the node and is the angle of the strut centreline to the
nodes as C-C-C (three compressive struts), C-C-T (two compressive struts Fig. 8b
Forces are transferred from ties into nodes through a combination is given by:
horizontal. EC2 does not require stresses to be checked at the back
and one tie), and C-T-T (oneof compressive
bearing and bond stresses
strut and twowithin the(Figure
ties) node. The
8).dimensions of the face of C-C-T nodes.
nodes in Fig. 7 are governed by the dimensions of the loading and It is benecial to provide the tensile reinforcement in several layers
The node where a columnsupportmeets plates
a pile ascap would typically be a C-C-C w = Lbsin + ucos (1)
well as the cover to the exural reinforcement. The in highly stressed concentrated nodes since this increases u and
node, and the node where a two-pile pile cap meets the pile would
typically be a C-C-T node. where Lb is the length of the support plate, u is the height of the
back face of the node and is the angle of the strut centreline to the
Forces are transferred from ties into nodes through a combination of
TSE40_36-41 CDG v1.indd 38 horizontal. EC2 does not require stresses to be checked at the back19/03/2015 14:19
bearing and bond stresses within the node. The dimensions of the nodes
face of C-C-T nodes.
in Fig. 7 are governed by the dimensions of the loading and support
plates as well as the cover to the flexural reinforcement. The node It is beneficial to provide the tensile reinforcement in several layers
dimensions need to be chosen to ensure that stresses on node in highly stressed concentrated nodes since this increases u and
39
39
hence the strut width w. The reinforcement should be sufficiently 8. If necessary, increase the design shear resistance by increasing
anchored to develop its design tensile force at the node. the node dimensions or providing shear reinforcement if C > CRd
hence the strut width w. The reinforcement should be sufficiently 8. If necessary,
9. 7.
Calculate the increase the design shear resistance by increasing
hence the strut width w. The reinforcement should be sufficiently Calculate thearea strutofwidths
exural wtreinforcement
and wb with Eq.required
1 and Eq.to2resist the
and hence
anchored
Additional to develop its design tensile
recommendations force at the
with respect to node.
STM the node
design force dimensions
T . ( A = T or/fproviding
) shear reinforcement if C > CRd
anchored to develop its design tensile force at the node. 9. the strut capacity
1
Calculate the area Rd
s C 1 withyd Eq. 7
of exural reinforcement required to resist the
PD6687-1 (2010)10, the background document to the UK National
Additional
Additional
Annex to EC2
recommendations
recommendations
9
, gives 10the designwith
with respect
respect toconcrete
compressive STM
to STM
strength
design
8.
Consider
force Tincrease
If necessary,
the beam 1. (A s in = Tthe1/f9
Fig. design
yd )
with Lshear resistance
= 5000mm, h= by3000mm,
increasing t=the
PD6687-1 (2010) , the background document to the UK National
as fcd = 0.85fck/c for STM. It also states that for shear, the shear 200mm, Lt = 300mm, Lb = 150mm,shear
node dimensions or providing d = reinforcement
70mm, P = 500kN if C >and
CRd
Annex(2010)
PD6687-1 to EC2 10 , gives the design compressive concrete strength
9
, the background document toBStheEN National Annex f =Consider
UK1992-1-1:2004, the beam in Fig. 9 with L = 5000mm, h = 3000mm, t =
resistance of sections should be veri ed using 30MPa. the area of flexural reinforcement required to resist the
ck9. Calculate
to EC2as9, fgives
cd = 0.85f
the ck/ c for
design STM. It alsoconcrete
compressive states that for shear,
strength as the shear 200mm, Lt = 300mm, Lb = 150mm, d = 70mm, P = 500kN and
6.2.2 at all sections where av > 1.5d, where av is the distance of the The design concrete strengths
resistance of sections should be veried using BS EN 1992-1-1:2004, fckdesign
= 30MPa. force T1. (As = T1/yd) are as follows:
cd = 0.85
section from /ac for STM. It also states
concentrated load (or that for shear,
support) andthed isshear resistance
the eff ective
6.2.2 atck all sections where av > 1.5d, where av is the distance of the The design concrete strengths are as follows:
depth of the
of sections
section
section.verified using BS EN 1992-1-1:2004, 6.2.2 at all
should
from abe concentrated load (or support) and d is the effective
fConsider
cd = (1f /250)(0.85f
theckbeam in Fig. 9 with ck/1.5) = 15.0MPa
L = 5000mm, h = 3000mm, t = 200mm,
sections
depth where
of theav section.
> 1.5d, where av is the distance of the section from (bearing
Lf = cd =strength
300mm, (1f Lb ck =at top node)
150mm,
/250)(0.85f d = ck /1.5)P=
70mm, = 500kN
15.0MPaand ck = 30MPa.
t
Example
a concentrated 1. Design
load (orof deep beam
support) and d iswith centraldepth
the effective pointofload
the (bearing strength at top node)
Fig. 9Example
shows an 1. STM for a of
Design deepdeep beam of thickness
beam with centralt loaded withload
point a Thef
0.85 design concrete strengths are as follows:
cd = 0.85(1fck/250)(0.85fck/1.5) = 12.7MPa
section.
centralFig.point load an
9 shows P. The
STMinclined
for a deep strut width
beam of at the bottom
thickness nodewith
t loaded is a (bearing

0.85 strength
= (1
cd f cd ck = at bottom
/250)(0.85
0.85(1f node)
/1.5) = 15.0MPa
ckck/250)(0.85fck/1.5) = 12.7MPa
given
Exampleby Equation
central1. Design
point load1.of deep
P. Thebeam
inclinedwith central
strut widthpoint
at theload
bottom node is (bearing
(bearing strengthstrength at attopbottomnode) node)
At given
the top bynode,
Equation the inclined
1. strut width is given by: 0.6fcd = 0.6(1fck/250)(0.85fck/1.5) = 9.0MPa
Fig. 9 shows
At thean STM for athe
deep beamstrut width is tgiven
of thickness loaded by:with a 0.85
(strut fcdcd==
0.6strength 0.85(1
without
0.6(1f /250)(0.85
ck calculated
/1.5) /1.5)
= 12.7MPa
cktransverse reinforcement)
top node, inclined ck/250)(0.85f ck = 9.0MPa
central point load P. The inclined strut width at the bottom (2) node is (bearing
(strut strength strength at bottom
without calculatednode)transverse reinforcement)
given by Equation 1. (2) The minimum required widths of the bearing plates are:
where: 0.6 = 0.6(1required
Thecd minimum ck
/250)(0.85 widths /1.5) = 9.0MPa
ck of the bearing plates are:
At thewhere:
top node, the inclined strut width is given by: (strut strength without calculated transverse reinforcement)
(3)
wt = 0.5Ltsin + xcos (2) The minimum required widths of the bearing plates are:
(3)
in which:
where: 500 x 103
in which: Lt = 167mm < 300m provided
200 x 15
T1 (4)
x = (3) (4)
tco Trial and 250error
x 103gives: x = 70mm, = 50, C = 326kN, wb = 205mm,
where c0 fcd is the exural compressive stress. wt L=
b Trial
160mm, and error gives:
200 x 12.7
= 98mm x = <70mm, 150mprovided
= 50, C and
= 326kN, wb = 205mm,
T1 = 209kN.
where c0 fcd is the exural compressive stress.
in which: wt = 160mm,
Therefore, the required area of exural reinforcement and T1 =is209kN.
cot = (0.5L0.25Lt)/(h0.5xd) (5) /fydTherefore,
T1Trial =and errorthe
480mm 2gives:
. The required
xinclined
= 70mm, area of=is
strut exural
50, C =reinforcement
326kN, windicating
overstressed, b
is
= 205mm,
T1 = 0.5Pcot (4)
cot = (0.5L0.25Lt)/(h0.5xd) (5) /f160mm,
T1shear CRd =. The
yd =reinforcement
480mm 160 xinclined strut is overstressed, indicating
2 9
w
that t
= 200
is x 1000
required. =The
287kNUKand T1 = 209kN.
National Annex to
The compressive force in the strut is given by: EC2 that shear reinforcement
requires nominal horizontal is required. The UK
and vertical National
web Annex to of
reinforcement
where c0 cd is the flexural compressive stress.
The compressive force in the strut is given by: EC2
Therefore, requiresthe nominal
required horizontal
area of
area 0.002Ac to be provided in each face. The effectiveness and
flexural vertical web
reinforcement reinforcement
is T1/of of
= 480mm
yd this
2
.
area
The 0.002
inclined A to be provided in each face. The effectiveness
c strut is overstressed, indicating that shear reinforcement is of this
C ==(0.5L0.25L
cot 0.5P/sin
)/(h0.5xd) (5) (6)
C = 0.5P/sin t
(6)
required. The UK National Annex to EC2 requires nominal horizontal and
SS
The
In compressive
the absenceforce in the strut
of minimal is given by:within the depth of the
reinforcement vertical
Figure web
7 reinforcement of area 0.002Ac to be provided in each face.
In the absence of minimal reinforcement within the depth of the Figure
STM 7
for simple deep beam
element, the compressive resistance of the strut is given by:
C = 0.5P/sin
element, (6)
the compressive resistance of the strut is given by: STM for simple deep beam
CRdabsence
In the C= 0.6f cdmin(w
of minimal t,w b)t
reinforcement within the (7)
depth of the
Rd = 0.6f cdmin(w t,w b)t (7)
element, the compressive resistance of the strut is given by:
EC2 does not de
EC2 does notne
dehow the strut
ne how resistance
the strut CRdCshould
resistance be
Rd should be
CRd = 0.6cdThe
calculated. min(wt,wbstrength
)t (7) C-C-T node-to-strut
calculated. strut is 0.6f
The strut strength cd at the
is 0.6f cd at the C-C-T node-to-strut
interface, but EC2
interface, doesdoes
but EC2 not de
not ne
de the
ne strut strength
the strut at C-C-C
strength nodes.
EC2 does not define how the strut resistance CRd should beat C-C-C nodes.
calculated.
It is suggested that, that,
It is suggested in the
in absence
the absenceof code-prescribed
of code-prescribed minimal web
minimal web
The strut strength
reinforcement, is 0.6
the strut at
strengththe C-C-T
is alsonode-to-strut
taken interface,
as 0.6f C-C-CEC2
but
reinforcement, the strut
cd
strength is also taken cd at
as 0.6f cd at C-C-C
does nodes.
nodes. not define the strut strength at C-C-C nodes. It is suggested that,
in the absence of code-prescribed minimal web reinforcement, the strut
Typical
strengthdesign
is also
Typical solution
taken
design procedure
as 0.6
solution at C-C-C nodes.
procedure
cd
Equations 27 can
Equations 27 be
cansolved using
be solved the following
using step-by-step
the following step-by-step
Typical design solution procedure
procedure:
procedure: Figure 7 STM for simple deep beam
Equations 27 can be solved using the following step-by-step

1. Find1. the
Findminimum
the minimum allowable lengths
allowable of the
lengths top top
of the andand
bottom
bottomnodes.
nodes.
procedure:
(The (The
maximum maximum allowable
allowable bearing
bearing stressstress
at the at the
top top
andand bottom
bottom nodesnodes
1. Find
are f
are the
fminimum
andf allowable lengths of the top and bottom nodes.
fcd respectively)
cd and cd respectively)
cd 0.85 0.85
Choose
2. (The maximum
2. Choose uallowable
x (e.g.x (e.g.
) u) bearing stress at the top and bottom nodes
are
3. 3.
Calculate
Calculate and cot
cot0.85
with with
Eq. 5Eq. 5
respectively)
cd cd
4. Calculate
4. Calculate T1 with T1 with
Eq. 4Eq. 4
2. Choose x (e.g.
5. Calculate
u)
co with
5. Calculate co with Eq. 3.Eq. 3. If minimal
If minimal webweb reinforcement
reinforcement is provided,
is provided,
the the chosen
3. Calculate
chosen cotvalue
value with
of x isofacceptable
Eq. x5is acceptable if P/(L
if P/(L t) t) [bearing
[bearing
t stress
stress at top
at top
t
node]
co T co . fcd. Otherwise, adjust by trial
x byxtrial andand error
untiluntil cof
= fcd

node] f cd Otherwise, adjust error co =

4. Calculate with Eq. 4 cd Figure 8
6. Calculate
6. Calculate
1 the strut
the strut forceforce
C in C in terms
terms of theof applied
the appliedloadload P with
P with Eq.Eq.6 6 Figure 8 cation of node types
Classi
Classication of node types
5. Calculate
7. Calculate
7. Calculate
the with
theEq.strut3. If
co strut widths w and
minimal
widths web
wt and
w wreinforcement
withb with
Eq. Eq.
1 1 and
and isEq.
Eq. provided,
2 2 and
and hencehence a) C-T-T
a)b)
C-T-T
t b C-C-T
the strut capacity with Eq. 7 if P/(L t) [bearing stress at top b)c)
C-C-T
the
the chosen
strut capacity valueCof xCisRdacceptable
Rd with Eq. 7 t
C-C-C
c) C-C-C
node] co cd. Otherwise, adjust x by trial and error until co = cd Figure 8 Classification of node types a) C-T-T b) C-C-T c) C-C-C
6. Calculate the strut force C in terms of the applied load P with Eq. 6
TSE40_36-41 CDG v1.indd 39 19/03/2015 14:19

TSE40_36-41 CDG v1.indd 39 19/03/2015 14:19

Number 4
April 2015 Concrete design
S Figure 9
STM of deep beam S Figure 10
Bottle stress elds
a) partial discontinuity
b) full discontinuity
Figure 9 STM of deep beam Figure 10 Bottle stress fields a) partial discontinuity b) full discontinuity
reinforcement can be assessed using the EC2 design equation for reinforcement with minimum area of 0.002Ac = 400mm2/m in each
The effectiveness offullreinforcement can be
discontinuities, stress assessed
eld models orusing the EC2
the EC2 design equations For orthogonal
design reinforcement, the normal resistance nRd per unit
face in each direction.
equation for full discontinuities, stress field
for shear enhancement withinmodels or the EC2 design
2d of supports. lengthForto orthogonal
the strut centreline
reinforcement, is given by: resistance nRd per unit
the normal
length to the strut centreline is given by:
equations for shear enhancement within 2d of supports.
Transverse reinforcement in bottle stress elds nRd = (As1sin /s1 + As2cos /s2)fyd
2 2
(8)
Equations 6.58 and 6.59 of EC2 are used to calculate the area of
Transverse reinforcement in bottle stress fields nRd = (As1sin2/s1 + As2cos2/s2)fyd (8)
transverse reinforcement required to equilibrate the transverse where s1/s2 = spacing of horizontal bars of cross-sectional area As1 and
Equations 6.58 andtension
6.59 ofin bottle-shaped struts with partial and full discontinuity.
EC2 are used to calculate the area of where s1/s2 = spacing of horizontal bars of cross-sectional area As1
vertical bars of cross-sectional area As2 and is the angle of the strut
and vertical bars of cross-sectional area As2 and is the angle of the
transverse reinforcement required to equilibrate the transverse tension
Partial discontinuity centreline to the horizontal.
strut centreline to the horizontal.
in bottle-shaped struts withofpartial
For cases partial and full discontinuity.
discontinuity the design tensile force for the For isotropic reinforcement As1 = As2 and nRd = Asfyd/s in all
transverse reinforcement (Figure 10) is given by: directions.reinforcement As1 = As2 and nRd = Asyd/s in all directions.
For isotropic
Partial discontinuity Hence, the required minimum reinforcement grid of 0.002Ac (i.e.
T = F(ba)/4b (Exp 6.58) Hence,
400mmthe 2required
/m verticallyminimum reinforcement
and horizontally) gridcan
in each face of resist
0.002A a c (i.e.
For cases of partial discontinuity the design tensile force for the transverse force: and horizontally) in each face can resist a
400mm 2
/m vertically
transverse reinforcement
where F (Figure
= the force10)inisthe
given
strut,by:
b = the available strut width and a =
the node width.
transverse force:
T = F(ba)/4b (Exp 6.58) Alternatively, the strut capacity corresponding to minimum web
Full discontinuity reinforcement
T = (800 x 1000 ) xis0.6
435 given
x by:
3.78
=394kN >> 79kN
where F = the force incases
For of fullbdiscontinuity
the strut, = the available strut(Fig.
(b > H/2) width and
10b): 2
a = the node width. (9)

T = F[1.00.7a/H]/4 (Exp 6.59R) Alternatively, the strut capacity corresponding to minimum web
Full discontinuity in which a =iswgiven
reinforcement t
, H is the
by:strut length and nRd is given by Equation 8.
in which H is the strut length and a is the width of the loaded area. The maximum possible shear force corresponding to crushing of
For cases of full discontinuity (b > H/2) (Fig. 10b):
(Expression 6.59R replaces the term a/h in Expression 6.59 of EC2 the concrete at the bottom node of the deep beam of Example 1 is
1.2n H
T = F[1.00.7a/H]/4with
a/H as directed by BSI paper (Exp B525/2
6.59R) 11 0034.) CRD =Vminimum(0.85w
max = 0.85f cdtLb = tv381kN. ,wThe
tvshear
, ) (9)
resistance
Rd
can be increased
further by increasing the length of the[bearing
1.0 H ] and loading plates as
b cd t cd 0.7a
EC2 requires the area of transverse reinforcement resisting T to
in which H is the strut length over
be provided a islength
and the the width of the loaded
the compression area. are curved, well as d.
trajectories
but does not dene this distance. Schlaich and Schafer2 show the in which a = wt, H is the strut length and nRd is given by Equation 8.
(Expression 6.59R replaces the term a/h in Expression 6.59 of EC2
transverse reinforcement being distributed over the central 0.8H of Use of EC2 beam equations for design of shear
with a/H as directed
theby BSI paper
partial B525/2
discontinuity 11 0034.)
shown in Fig. 10b. However, this paper takesThe reinforcement
maximum possible shear force corresponding to crushing of the
the length of the transverse tension zone as 0.6H as suggested by concrete Alternatively, shear reinforcement
at the bottom node of the can be designed
deep beam ofusing a truss1 is
Example
EC2 requires the area
Hendy and Smith11. reinforcement resisting T to
of transverse model like that of Schlaich and Schfer12 (Figure 11) or with the EC2
Vmax design
= 0.85 tL = 381kN. The shear resistance can be increased
be provided over the length the compression trajectories are curved, equations
cd b for shear enhancement in beams. In the case
Example 2. Inclined strut with full discontinuity further byEC2
of the increasing the lengthequations,
shear enhancement of the bearing and loading
no calculated shear plates as
but does not define this distance. Schlaich and Schafer show the 2
The inclined strut in Fig. 9 is a full discontinuity of length: wellreinforcement
as d. is required, provided the design shear stress
transverse reinforcement being distributed over the central 0.8H of vEd vRdc where vRdc is given by Equation 6.2a in EC2 and = av/2d
the partial discontinuity shown in Fig. 10b. However, this paper takes Usewhere
of EC2 is the clear
av beam shear span.
equations for The mainof
design advantage of using a
shearreinforcement
truss model over the bottle stress eld is to steepen the angle of the
the length of the transverse tension zone as 0.6H as suggested by
Hence, the design tensile force to be resisted by transverse inclined strut
Alternatively, at the
shear support. For example,
reinforcement can bethe effect ofusing
designed introducing
a truss model
Hendy and Smith11reinforcement
. over each half of the strut length is: the vertical tie in the simplied truss model of Fig. 11 is to increase
like that of Schlaich and Schfer 12
(Figure
the resultant angle of the inclined strut from: 11) or with the EC2 design
Example 2. InclinedTstrut with full discontinuity
= F[1.00.7a/H]/4 = 326[1.00.7160/3776]/4 = 79kNequations for shear enhancement in beams. In the case of the EC2 shear
enhancement equations, no calculated shear reinforcement is required,
The inclined strut in The
Fig. tensile
9 is a full discontinuity
force T is provided of
by length:
a mesh of horizontal and vertical
provided the design shear stress vEd vRdc where vRdc is given by
(3000 70 70/2) Equation 6.2a in EC2 and = av/2d where av is the clear shear span. The
H = = 3776mm
sin50 main advantage of using a truss model over the bottle stress field is to
steepen the angle of the inclined strut at the support. For example, the
Hence, the design tensile force to be resisted by transverse
TSE40_36-41 CDG v1.indd 40 19/03/2015 14:19
effect of introducing the vertical tie in the simplified truss model of Fig.
reinforcement over each half of the strut length is:
11 is to increase the resultant angle of the inclined strut from:
T = F[1.00.7a/H]/4 = 326[1.00.7160/3776]/4 = 79kN
z
tan -1 ( )
The tensile force T is provided by a mesh of horizontal and vertical a
reinforcement with minimum area of 0.002Ac = 400mm2/m in each
face in each direction.
to: The strut strength can be increased if necessary by increasing node

F1 dimensions, providing shear reinforcement or a combination of the
tan1 two. The minimum reinforcement required by the UK National Annex
Tmax F1cot
within the depth of deep beams is often sufficient to increase the
where cot = 0.5a/z. strut strength at C-C-T and C-C-C nodes to the node strengths of
Model Code 19908 estimates the tie force F1 as: 0.85cd and cd respectively.
F1 a
= (2 1) /3 for 0.5z a 2z (10)
F z References:
1) British Standards Institution (2004) EN-1992-1-1:2004. Eurocode 2.
where z is the flexural lever arm. 41
Design of concrete structures. Part 1. General rules and rules for buildings,
Clause 6.2.3 (8) of EC2 reduces the design shear force due to loads London, UK: BSI
applied to the top surface of beams within 0.5d av 2d of supports by 2) Schlaich J. and Schfer K. (1991) Design and detailing of structural
=to: av /2d where av is the clear shear span. Shear reinforcement node, wt = strut width at top node, t = member thickness, fsb = strut
needs to concrete using strut-and-tie models, The Structural Engineer, 69 (6), pp.
strength at bottom node and fst = strut strength at top node). In the
be provided within the central of av to resist the reducedabsence designofshear 113125
shear reinforcement, take fst = fsb = 0.6(1fck/250)fcd.
The strut strength can be increased if necessary by increasing node
force. Consideration of Clause 6.2.3 (8) shows that the reduced
where
design
dimensions, providing shear reinforcement or a Federation
combination offor theStructural Concrete (2011) fib
3) International
shear force
Model Code is1990
equivalent
8
estimates tothethe
tie tie
force F1 as:F1 of Fig. 11. Clausetwo.
force 6.2.3
The(8) is reinforcement required by the UK National Annex
minimum
within the depth of deep beams Bulletin No.suffi
is often 61:cient
Design examples
to increase the for strut-and-tie models, Lausanne,
typically less onerous than Equation 10,(10) with both being less onerous
strut strength at C-C-T andSwitzerland:
C-C-C nodes tofib the node strengths of
than Expression 6.59 of EC2 for a full discontinuity. It is also0.85 possible tocd respectively.
fcd and f
where z is the exural lever arm.
design the shear reinforcement using stress field models7,13.
Clause 6.2.3 (8) of EC2 reduces the design shear force due
4) Thurlimann B., Muttoni A. and Schwartz J. (1989) Design and
to loads applied to the top surface of beams within 0.5d av 2d References anddetailing furtherofreadingreinforced concrete structures using stress fields, Zurich,
General
of supports application
by = av/2d where av is the clear shear span. Shear
reinforcement needs to be provided within the central of av to
Switzerland: Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
1) British Standards Institution (2004) EN-1992-1-1:2004. Eurocode
The
resistSTM is a verydesign
the reduced versatile
shear method that canofreadily
force. Consideration Clause be applied to aof concrete structures. Part 1. General rules and rules for
2. Design
6.2.3 (8) shows that the reduced design shear force is equivalent to buildings, London, UK: BSI 5) Goodchild C., Morrison J. and Vollum R. L. (2015) Strut-and-tie
wide range of structures that would otherwise only be designable
the tie force F1 of Fig. 11. Clause 6.2.3 (8) is typically less onerous
with
Models, London, UK: MPA The Concrete Centre
finite-element
than Equation 10, analysis
with both beingor empirical
less onerous design methods.
than Expression The advantage
6.59 2) Schlaich J. ofand Schfer K. (1991) Design and detailing of structural
of EC2 for a full discontinuity. It is also possible to design the shear concrete using strut-and-tie models, The Structural Engineer, 69 (6), pp.
an STM over finite-element analysis is that an STM requires113125
reinforcement using stress eld models7,13.
load paths 6) Schlaich J., Schfer K. and Jennewein M. (1987) Towards a
to be clearly identified. Hence, structures can readily be checked for consistent design of structural concrete, PCI Journal, 32 (3), pp. 74150
General application 3) International Federation for Structural Concrete (2011) fib Bulletin No.
equilibrium. An STM also has the advantage of clearly identifying
The STM is a very versatile method that can readily be applied to a
the
61: Design examples for strut-and-tie models,J.Lausanne, Switzerland: b
7) Sagaseta and Vollum R. L. (2010) Shear design of short-span
anchorage
wide range ofrequirements
structures that wouldof reinforcement,
otherwise only beunlike finite-element analysis.
designable
with nite-element analysis or empirical design methods. The 4) Thurlimann B., Muttoni A. beams , Magazine
and Schwartz J. (1989) of Concrete
Design Research, 62 (4), pp. 267282
and detailing
Summary
advantage of an STM over nite-element analysis is that an STM of reinforced concrete structures using stress elds, Zurich, Switzerland:
requires load paths to be clearly identied. Hence, structures can 8) CEB-FIP (1990) Model Code for Concrete Structures, Lausanne,
Swiss Federal Institute of Technology
readily be checked for equilibrium. An STM also has the advantage
Itofisclearly
oftenidentifying
convenient to base the STM geometry at the ULS5)on
the anchorage requirements of reinforcement,
the elastic Switzerland: CEB-FIP
Goodchild C., Morrison J. and Vollum R. L. (2015) Strut-and-tie
stress
unlike field, since this
nite-element typically ensures satisfactory performance
analysis. Models, at the UK: MPA The Concrete Centre
London,
SLS. However, some deviation from the elastic solution is permissible.
Summary 6) Schlaich J., Schfer K. and JenneweinAnnex
M. (1987)
National toTowards
Eurocode a 2. Design of concrete structures. Part 1.
IfItthe elastic
is often stresstodistribution
convenient base the STMis not available,
geometry at the ULS the
on STM geometry
consistentcandesign of structural concrete, PCI Journal, 32 (3), pp. 74150
the elastic stress eld, since this typically ensures satisfactory General rules and rules for buildings, London, UK: BSI
be developed using the load path method of Schlaich and7)Schfer
performance at the SLS. However, some deviation from the elastic
2
.
Sagaseta J. and Vollum R. L. (2010) Shear design of short-span
Model
solutionCode 19908 suggests
is permissible. If the elasticastress
2:1 dispersion
distribution isrule
not which is useful
beams, for
Magazine of Concrete 10)Research,
British 62 Standards Institution (2010) PD 6687-1:2010 Background
(4), pp. 267282
available, the STM geometry can be developed using the load path
establishing the basic STM geometry.
method of Schlaich and Schfer2. Model Code 19908 suggests a
The axial resistance of struts in
8) CEB-FIP (1990) Model Code for Concrete Structures,Annexes
paper to the National Lausanne, to BS EN 1992-1 and BS EN 1992-3,
a2:1
planar member
dispersion equals
rule which thefor
is useful minimum
establishingof wbasic
the tf
b sb
STM w t (in
and t st
which
Switzerland: CEB-FIP London, UK: BSI
wgeometry.
the
= strutThe widthaxial resistance of struts in a planar member equals
at bottom node, w = strut width at top node,
b minimum of wbtfsb and wttfst (in which wb t= strut width at bottom 9) British Standards Institution (2005) NA to BS EN 1992-1-1:2004 UK
11) Hendy C. R. and Smith D. A. (2007) Designers Guide to EN 1992
t = member thickness, sb = strut strength at bottom node National and Annex to Eurocode 2. Design of concrete structures. Part 1.
Eurocode
General rules and rules for buildings, 2: Design
London, UK: BSIof concrete structures. Part 2: concrete bridges,
st = strut strength at top node). In the absence of shear reinforcement,
London, UK: Thomas Telford
SFigure
take st =11ed
Simpli
Schfer13
sbtruss
= 0.6(1 ck
/250)
model according
.
cd and
to Schlaich
10) British Standards Institution (2010) PD 6687-1:2010 Background
paper to the National Annexes to BS EN 1992-1 and BS EN 1992-3,
London, UK: BSI 12) Schlaich J. and Schfer K. (2001) Konstruieren im Stahlbetonbau
(in German), BetonKalender (Vol 2), Berlin, Germany: Ernst & Sohn, pp.
11) Hendy C. R. and Smith D. A. (2007) Designers Guide to EN 1992
311492
Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures. Part 2: concrete bridges,
London, UK: Thomas Telford
13) Vollum R. L. and Fang L. (2014) Shear enhancement in RC beams
12) Schlaich J. and Schfer K. (2001) Konstruieren im Stahlbetonbau
with multiple point loads, Engineering Structures, 80, pp. 389405
(in German), BetonKalender (Vol 2), Berlin, Germany: Ernst & Sohn, pp.
311492
Further reading
13) Vollum R. L. and Fang L. The
(2014)Concrete Centre has
Shear enhancement in RCrecently
beams published a guide to Strut-and-tie
with multiple point loads, Engineering5Structures, 80, pp. 389405
Models , which gives more information on how to construct and use
Further reading STMs. This is available via the Concrete Centre website:
The Concrete Centre has recently published a guide to Strut-and-tie
Models5, which gives more information on how to construct and use
STMs. This is available via the Concrete Centre website:
Figure 11 Simplified truss model according to Schlaich and Schfer13
TSE40_36-41 CDG v1.indd 41 19/03/2015 14:19
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Ref: TCC/03/33 Commercial/Schools/Hospitals Non-Residential Buildings
Specifying Sustainable Concrete
Publication date: 2007/8 Publication date: 2006
Precast Concrete in Buildings Publication date: 2015
Ref: CCIP- 10/11/12 Ref: CCIP-020
Publication date: 2007 Ref: TCC/05/24
Ref: TCC/03/31 Design and Construction using Worked Examples to Eurocode 2:
Insulating Concrete Formwork Volume 1
Car Parks
Publication date: 2007 Publication date: 2009
Publication date: 2012
CCIP-019 Ref: CCIP-041
Ref: TCC/03/34
Price: 50
Design of Hybrid Concrete
Concrete Bridges
Buildings RC Spreadsheets: version 4B.2
Publication date: 2009 Ref: CCIP-008.
Ref: TCC/02/08
Ref: CCIP-030 Single user and Site licences are
Concrete Footbridges available
Designing for Safer Concrete
Structures
Ref: TCC/02/11
Hospital Construction Ref: CCIP-043
Economic Concrete Frame
Ref: TCC/03/44
Elements
Office Cost Study Publication date: 2009
Publication date: 2014 Ref: CCIP-025
Ref: TCC/03/57
How to Design Concrete
Schools Structures using Eurocode 2
Publication date: 2010 Publication date: 2011
Ref: TCC/03/52 Ref: CCIP-006
Performance of Concrete
Structures in Fire
Ref: CCIP-031
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Structural Design of

Concrete and Masonry:

12 Deflection the span-to-effective-depth method and Eurocode 2

17 Fire Design of concrete columns and walls to Eurocode 2

23 Eurocode 6: Design of masonry structures for vertical loads

34 Design of post-tensioned slabs

40 Guidance on the design of liquid-retaining structures

45 An introduction to strut-and-tie modelling

About The Concrete Centre

Structural Design of Concrete and Masonry

How to calculate anchorage and lap

This article provides guidance on how to calculate

The calculation for anchorage and lap lengths is as described in EC2

Source: EC2-1-1 Figure 8.1, b, c and d.

Figure 2 Typical bends and hooks bent through 90o or more

Confinement of concrete results in the characteristic compression

Direction of concreting Anchorage lengths

2 = 1.0 for bar diameters 32mm

Figure 4: flow chart for anchorage lengths.

Determine fctd from Table 1

Yes Does the bar have

Determine As,req and As,prov where the anchorage starts

Determine basic anchorage length

Figure 4 Flow chart for anchorage lengths

2 concrete cover To calculate the values of 1 and 2 the value of cd is needed. cd is

Yes Is the bar

Does the bar have

Bars other than straight, 1 = 0.7 if cd > 3; otherwise 1 = 1.0

There is no benefit in the value of 2 for straight bars unless (cd ) is

a) Straight bars b) Bent or hooked bars c) Looped bars

Source: EC2-1-1, Figure 8.3.

Figure 5 Values of cd (c and c1 are taken to be cnom)

As t, Ast As t, Ast As t, Ast

K = 0.1 K = 0.05 K=0

Source: EC2-1-1, Figure 8.4.

Table 2: Anchorage and lap lengths for locations of maximum stress

Bond Reinforcement in tension, bar diameter, (mm) Reinforcement

Factor 1.16 0.93 0.89 0.85 0.80 0.73 0.68 0.63

As = 491mm2 for a 25mm diameter bar

= (Ast Ast,min)/ As = (314 123)/491 = 0.38

Figure 8 Plan view of slab illustrating transverse tension

Figure 9: flow chart for lap lengths.

Determine fctd from Table 1

1 = 1.0 Check l0 >

Is smaller bar diameter No

Determine ultimate bond stress

Take 235 = 0.7

Determine basic anchorage length

Does the bar have

Figure 9 Flow chart for lap lengths

The coefficients 1, 2, and 5 are calculated in the same way as for

For vertically cast columns, good bond conditions exist at laps.

Deflection the span-to-effective-depth

The span-to-effective-depth (L/d) method is a very

N = basic span-to-effective-depth ratio derived for K = 1.0 from the Notes

Percentage of tension reinforcement (As,req/bd)

EC2 Moment curvature response

\cs1 \cs2 Curvature \

Figure 5 Typical momentcurvature response Figure 6 Curvature in simply supported slab

TSE44_30-34 CDG v1.indd 33 24/07/2015 09:10

Reinforced concrete frame residential building. Courtesy of Coinford Construction.

8) Beal A. N. (2009) Eurocode 2: Span/depth ratios for RC slabs and

Fire design of concrete columns and