CAR66 CONVERSION TRAINING

MODULE 11.6
ELECTRICAL POWER (ATA 24)

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BATTERIES INSTALLATION & OPERATION

Chemical action produces electricity in an electric cell. A single cell, or more commonly a number of cells connected together, is known as a
battery. All battery cells produce direct current, because they are of constant electrical polarity.

The principle of any electric cell is simple. The cell consists of two plates made of different metals and placed in a solution termed the
electrolyte. An electrolyte is a solution of water and a chemical compound that will conduct electricity. It is capable of conducting current
because it contains atoms having a positive or negative charge, known as ions.

The chemical action of the electrolyte acting on the dissimilar plates causes an electron flow from one plate to the other. Consequently, one
plate becomes positively charged (a deficiency of electrons) and the other negatively charged (a surplus of electrons). There is thus a
potential difference (voltage) between the two plates.

Connecting the two plates via a conductor will allow electrons to flow from the negatively charged plate to the positive an electrical
current flow. This will eventually balance the charge between the plates, so that there is no potential difference and current flow ceases
the cell is said to be discharged and a reversal of the chemical action will be required to restore the differential (or electrical pressure).

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A cell that cannot be recharged once it has become discharged is known as a primary cell. Conversely, a cell that is rechargeable is known as
a secondary cell.

Dry cells (Primary Cells) are mainly used in flashlights and similar low voltage portable devices.

The principal function of the battery or batteries (Secondary Cells) in an aircraft electrical system is to provide electrical power when the
primary source of electrical power, the engine-driven generators, is not available.

LEAD ACID BATTERY

Secondary cells are usually grouped together to form a battery of cells, known as a storage battery. In the case of the lead-acid battery this
consists of positive plates made of lead peroxide and negative plates made of lead. Each pair of positive and negative plates, comprising a
cell, is connected in series with the next and the whole immersed in an electrolyte of 30% sulphuric acid and 70% water.

In order to optimise the performance of a lead-acid cell, the plates of dissimilar metals described previously are sandwiched alternately, to
present the greatest possible surface area for a given volume of electrolyte. Separators, made of insulating material, are fitted between the
positive and negative plates to prevent internal short-circuiting.

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A lead-acid cell will produce a maximum of 2.1 volts when in a fully charged state. It is therefore necessary to connect 6 such cells together
in series to produce a battery that has a nominal charge of 12 volts, since cell voltage falls to approximately 2 volts when connected to a
substantial load. Aircraft batteries of the lead acid type are usually rated at 12v (6 cells in series) or 24v (12 cells in series).

Batteries are rated according to their voltage and capacity. Battery capacity is measured in terms of ampere-hours at a five-hour discharge
rate; that is to say the battery was discharged to zero voltage in five hours to determine its capacity. Battery capacity is checked every 3
months, if it falls below 80% of its rated capacity the battery is removed from aircraft service.

Batteries are recharged by connecting them to a source of direct current of greater e.m.f. than the battery itself. The rate at which the
battery accepts the charge must be kept reasonably low; otherwise overheating and subsequent buckling of the plates will result.

As a lead-acid battery is being charged it gives off an explosive mixture of oxygen and hydrogen. It is for this reason that the battery
compartment in an aircraft is vented to atmosphere.

Lead-acid batteries should not be left in a discharged state for any significant period. If they are, the plates will become coated with lead
sulphate and the battery will not subsequently accept a charge.

Battery fluid spillage will cause problems, both to the aircraft structure and to human tissue. Bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) is an
effective neutralising agent for dealing with deposits in lead acid battery compartments. Acid burns to the skin should be First Aid treated
with a copious flow of water, followed by treatment with a dilute solution of bicarbonate of soda.

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NICKEL-CADMIUM BATTERIES
Another common type of cell in aircraft use is the Nickel-Cadmium (NiCad) battery. In this the positive plates are made of nickel hydroxide
and the negative plates of cadmium hydroxide. The electrolyte is a solution of 70% distilled water and 30% potassium hydroxide. During
charging the negative plates give up oxygen and become cadmium, whilst the positive plates pick up oxygen to form nickel oxides. During
discharge the process is reversed.

NiCad batteries are lighter and more robust than lead-acid cells, they have a longer life, they are easier to store and they do not give off
gases whilst charging. They also have a greater power-to-weight ratio. However, they are more expensive and they are only capable of
producing 1.2 to 1.25 volts per cell. Consequently, a nickel-cadmium battery with a rated voltage of 24 volts may have 19 cells or 20 cells
connected in series, depending upon the maximum total voltage required.

Construction of NiCad batteries is fundamentally similar to that of Lead-Acid batteries, in that the cells are made up of interleaved alternate
positive and negative plates immersed in the electrolyte and joined at their upper ends to the positive and negative terminals. A continuous
woven nylon separator insulates the plates from each other. The cells comprising the battery are assembled within a container made of
fibreglass or steel coated with epoxy resin.

The capacity of a nickel-cadmium battery is much greater than that of a lead-acid battery of similar size and weight and thus it will deliver
far more power and for a longer period. The battery voltage remains essentially constant over almost the whole of the discharge cycle,
falling markedly only as the battery becomes fully discharged. This characteristic makes the NiCad battery particularly suitable for gas
turbine engine starting, where a long start cycle requires protracted battery discharge before the engine-driven generators can supply
power to recharge the battery.

The capacity of a NiCad battery is a direct function of the total plate area within the cells and may be up to 80-ampere hours (Ah) in a typical
24-volt battery.

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Ni-Cad Battery

THERMAL RUNAWAY

Batteries will perform to their rated capacities so long as temperature conditions and charging rates are kept within the specified limits. If
either is exceeded a condition known as thermal runaway may occur, which causes boiling of the electrolyte, violent gassing and eventual
melting of the plates and battery casing.

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CONNECTING BATTERIES

Two or more batteries of the same rating may be connected in series or in parallel. In series the voltage is the sum of all the battery
voltages, but the ampere-hour capacity remains the same as for a single battery. When connected in parallel the voltage remains the same
as for a single battery, but the ampere-hour capacity is the sum of the capacities of all the batteries.

DC GENERATOR

The movement of a conductor within a magnetic field results in the induction of an e.m.f. in the conductor. It follows that, for continuous
generation of e.m.f. in the conductor, there must be continuous relative movement between conductor and magnetic field. This is achieved
by rotating a conducting loop within the flux field between the poles of a magnet.

A generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy by the process of electro-magnetic induction. In both d.c.
and a.c. types of generator, the voltage induced is alternating; the major difference between them being in the method by which the
electrical energy is collected and applied to the circuit externally connected to the generator.

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AC GENERATOR

There are several advantages of using an alternator (AC system) compared to a DC generator. The alternator has a much better
power/weight ratio and can produce maximum circuit voltage requirement at low rpm. Because there is no requirement for commutation
the problem of brush sparking is eliminated and in addition a wider range of current supply is available for consumer devices.

AC generators in aircraft conform generally to two basic types, depending upon the system to be served. These two types are frequency-
wild and frequency-controlled generators. In either case the generator is normally a three-phase machine producing single-phase output
voltage at 115v, and three-phase voltage at 200v.

Most AC equipment requires the frequency of the supply to be at a constant value. In order to achieve this the rotational speed of the
generator must be maintained constant, regardless of the speed of the engine driving it. The generators supplying such a system are known
as constant speed, or frequency-controlled generators.

Frequency-controlled generators require complex constant speed drive units (CSDU's) in the transmission train between engine and
generator. These are usually hydro-mechanical variable ratio drives that can be remotely disconnected in flight in the event of generator or
transmission failure. They can usually only be re-connected on the ground with the associated engine shut down.

Alternators (AC generators) usually consist of a rotating field, or fields within a stationary armature. In order to avoid confusion the term
rotor and stator are used instead of field and armature. This type of arrangement can be termed an internal pole machine. The magnetic
field is created by an electro-magnet, which must be supplied with direct current for field excitation. Since the field winding is wound
around a rotating core (the rotor) the field current, from an external source such as a DC bus bar, must be supplied to the field windings via
brushes and slip rings.

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AC GENERATOR

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EMERGENCY GENERATOR (AIR-DRIVEN)

An air-drive can serve as a very useful stand-by in the event of failure of a complete main a.c. generating system and it is in this emergency
role that it is applied to several types of aircraft.

The drive consists of a two-bladed fan or ram air turbine as it is sometimes called, and a step-up ratio gear train which connects the fan to a
single a.c. generator. The generator is of a similar type to the main generator (see also p. 33) but has a lower output rating since it is only
required to supply the consumer equipment essential under emergency conditions.

The complete unit is stowed on a special mounting in the aircraft fuselage, and when required is deployed by a mechanically linked release
handle in the flight compartment. When deployed at airspeeds of between 120 to 430 knots, the fan and generator are driven up to their
appropriate speeds by the airstream, and electrical power is delivered via a regulator at the rated values. A typical nominal fan speed is
4,800 rev/min and is self-governed by varying the blade pitch angles. The gearbox develops a generator shaft speed of 12,000 rev/min.
After deployment of the complete unit, it can only be re-stowed when the aircraft is on the ground.

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VOLTAGE REGULATORS

The output voltage of any generator is determined as a function of the speed of rotation of the armature and the field strength. D.C.
generators, of course, require a prime mover for their operation and we can see that variation in prime mover speed (aero-engine) will
cause a corresponding variation in generated voltage. It may be noted that this principle applies also to A.C. generators, although in that
instance the situation may be further complicated by the type of system and the inclusion of a Constant Speed Drive Device.

A requirement will always exist for a component the prime function of which will be to adjust generator excitation level in response to
changes in load switching.

To overcome both the 'speed' and 'load' problems, Voltage Regulators are incorporated into generation systems.

TYPES OF VOLTAGE REGULATOR

i) Vibrating contact' TIRILL voltage regulator: Early forms of voltage regulator - some versions of which may still be seen in service - were
based on the TIRILL Principle; that is, a vibrating contact short-circuiting a resistance in the generator shunt field under the influence of
the rising or falling voltage, producing a series of current 'blips' or pulses of constant amplitude but varying frequency, the summation of
these pulses corresponding to a steady current smoothed by the generator field to give the required degree of excitation.

ii) Carbon-pile voltage regulator: It is commonly used to control the output voltage of an aircraft D.C. generator. It derives its name from
the fact that the resistance element, in series with the generator field, consists of a pile (stack) of carbon discs controlled by an applied
mechanical force. A spring force tends to compress the pile (decrease pile resistance) and a magnetic force, produced by the regulator
voltage sensing coil, tends to decompress the pile (increases pile resistance).

iii) Transistorised voltage regulator: There are many types and configurations of electronic voltage regulators. A representative type is
illustrated in figure below. The alternator master switch used in AC systems energizes the field relay and applies current to the base of
TR 2 and the resistor network of R 1, R 2, RV1. This network, together with the Zener diode (Z) is used to establish the nominal operating
voltage. Current flows through the alternators field coil via transistors TR 2 and TR 3 , allowing the generators output to increase.
When the output reaches its specified value (14 or 28 V DC depending on the installation) Zener diode Z conducts which turns on
transistor TR1, shorting out transistor TR 2 and TR 3. The generator voltage falls and Zener diode Z stops conducting, thereby turning of

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transistor TR 1. This turns transistors TR 2 and TR 3 back on, allowing the generator output to increase again. This operation is repeated
many times per second as with the vibrating contact regulator; the difference being that electronic circuits have no moving parts and do
not suffer from arcing across contacts. Diode D 1 provides protection against the back e.m.f. induced in the field each time TR 3 is
switched. The trimming resistor R V1 can be used to adjust the nominal voltage output of the regulator.

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POWER DISTRIBUTION

There are two types of electrical distribution system in use in AC powered aircraft. Twin engine aircraft use the Split Bus Bar System, in
which the two engine-driven generators each supply their own AC bus bar, between which the total electrical load of the aircraft is
approximately equally divided. The generators are constant speed, frequency-controlled machines, producing 400 Hz, 115/200 volts single-
/three- phase. A third generator drive directly by the APU also produces 115/200 Volt 3 400Hz supply.

Any two generators are capable of supplying all the aircrafts power requirements and any single generator is capable of maintaining vital,
essential, and most non-essential services. The generators cannot be cross connected, or paralleled; generator bus bars can be cross
connected, or tied, in the event of generator failure.

Three- and four-engine AC powered aircraft use an electrical distribution system in which the engine-driven generators are normally
operated in parallel. The advantage of such a system of distribution is that power supply is not interrupted, even momentarily, in the event
of a generator failure.

Many modern airliners use non-paralleled constant frequency AC as the primary power source, with DC services provided via transformer-
rectifier units (TRUs). The generators provide 115v single-phase (200v three-phase), 400 Hz AC to their bus bars, from which non-essential
AC consumers are supplied. The essential AC bus can be supplied either from one of the generator bus bars, or from a static inverter
supplied with DC from the battery bus bar via the Essential DC bus bar. The generator bus bars are isolated from each other, only being
connected by the bus tie breaker (BTB) in the event of failure of one of the generators. There are no load sharing circuits.

AC and DC power is normally supplied to the system from one of three sources. These are the engine-driven generators, an auxiliary power
unit (APU) generator and (on the ground) an external power supply. An interlocking system between breakers ensures correct sequencing
(to avoid paralleling) and a source of power selected always takes priority over an existing power source, automatically disconnecting the
latter.

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SPLIT BUS BAR SYSTEM

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STANDBY POWER

The standby busses supply the essential AC and DC systems. The AC standby bus is normally supplied from the number one AC transfer bus
and the DC standby bus from the number one DC bus. In the event of failure of all AC supplies, both standby busses are supplied from the
aircraft battery via the battery bus, and the AC standby bus via a static inverter. A fully charged battery has sufficient capacity to provide
power to essential flight instruments, communication and navigation equipment for a minimum of 30 minutes.

During flight the APU can only be connected to one of the generator bus bars, since the APU circuit breakers do not contain auxiliary
contacts to activate the transfer relays. In the event of failure of all generators the aircraft battery is the only source of power, supplying the
Battery Bus (Essential DC), the Hot Battery Bus (Vital DC), the Switched Hot Battery Bus and the Standby busses.

PARALLEL AC ELECTRICAL SYSTEMS

In paralleled AC electrical distribution systems each generator is connected through a generator circuit breaker (GCB) to its own AC bus bar,
from which a proportion of the electrical services is drawn. Each generator bus bar is connected through a bus tie breaker (BTB) to a single
bus bar, known as the tie bus or synchronising bus.

In Parallel AC Electrical System normally, all generators are operating and all GCBs and BTBs are closed, the generators are connected in
parallel. Provided that all the generators are producing AC at the same frequency and voltage, and that they are in phase with each other,
they will equally share the total electrical load. If one generator should fail its GCB will open, disconnecting it from the system, and the
remaining generators will share the loads on the four bus bars,

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PARALLELED AC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM

AUXILIARY GENERATORS

APU driven generators can rarely be operated in parallel with engine driven generators. This is because their speed (and therefore
frequency) is dependent upon the APU gas turbine speed, which is not controlled on the same basis as a CSDU.

Ram air turbine driven generators are fitted in many aircraft, especially those required to meet extra safety standards such as ETOPS. A fan,
or air turbine, can be extended into the air stream to drive a generator through gearing at about 12,000 rpm. A governor system maintains
constant rpm by adjustment of fan blade angle. The generator is a 3-phase AC machine, similar to the main engine-driven generators and its
output is regulated to normal system values of voltage and frequency.

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TRANSFORMERS

The principle of operation of the transformer is as follows. When an AC voltage is applied to the primary winding self-induction establishes a
voltage that is almost equal to the supply voltage. The difference between the two voltages produces an excitation current sufficient to set
up an alternating flux in the transformer core. This flux cuts across the secondary winding and, by mutual induction induces a voltage in the
secondary winding.

When a load is connected to the output terminals of the secondary winding the secondary voltage causes current to flow through the load
and the secondary winding. This current flow produces a magnetic flux that tends to oppose the primary flux, reducing it. This in turn
reduces the self-induced voltage in the primary winding, allowing more primary current to flow and maintaining the core flux at an
approximately constant value.

Thus, as secondary load current increases, the primary supply current also increases. Eddy currents induced in the iron core lead to heating
and power loss, but this is minimised by constructing the core from soft iron laminations separated by a thin insulating coat of varnish.

The alternating field in the core of the transformer cuts through both primary and secondary windings. It will be remembered that the
magnitude of the e.m.f. induced by electro-magnetism depends upon the number of turns of conductor cut by the flux. Thus, if the
secondary winding has twice as many turns as the primary winding, the voltage at the secondary terminals will be twice that of the voltage
applied to the primary winding. The output to input ratio is known as the transformation ratio.

When secondary voltage is greater than primary the transformer is said to be a step-up type, the reverse function is known as a step-
down type. If the small power loss due to eddy currents, plus other minor losses, is ignored the power in is equal to power out.

As well as step down applications in TRUs, step up transformers give an invaluable cable weight saving by supplying higher voltage, and
therefore lower current, to remote equipment. A local step-down transformer can then supply the equipment at the requisite voltage. Step-
down transformers are used to supply fluorescent lights, for example.

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POWER TRANSFORMER

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INVERTERS

Inverters are used to convert direct current into alternating current. The input is typically from the battery; the output can be a low voltage
(26 V AC) for use in instruments, or high voltage (115 V AC single or three phase) for driving loads such as pumps. Older rotary inverter
technology uses a DC motor to drive an AC generator. A typical rotary inverter has a four-pole compound DC motor driving a star-wound AC
generator. The outputs can be single- or three phase; 26 V AC, or 115 V AC. The desired output frequency of 400 Hz is determined by the DC
input voltage. Various regulation methods are employed, e.g. a trimming resistor (R v ) connected in series with the DC motor fi eld sets the
correct speed when connected to the 14 or 28 V DC supply.

Modern aircraft equipment is based on the static inverter; it is solid state, i.e. it has no moving parts. The DC power supply is connected to
an oscillator; this produces a low-voltage 400 Hz output. This output is stepped up to the desired AC output voltage via a transformer.

The static inverter can either be used as the sole source of AC power or to supply specific equipment in the event that the main generator
has failed. Alternatively they are used to provide power for passenger use, e.g. lap-top computers. The DC input voltage is applied to an
oscillator that produces a sinusoidal output voltage. This output is connected to a transformer that provides the required output voltage.
Frequency and voltage controls are usually integrated within the static inverter; it therefore has no external means of adjustment.

A typical inverter used on a large commercial aircraft can produce 1 kVA. Static inverters are located in an electrical equipment bay; a
remote on/off switch in the flight compartment is used to isolate the inverter if required.

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Rectifiers: Half-Wave and Full-Wave

A single diode can be used to achieve half-wave rectification of alternating current to direct current. Placed in series with a single phase AC
supply, one half cycle of alternating current can pass through the diode to the DC output. When supply current direction of flow is reversed
during the second half cycle the diode is reverse-biased and current flow ceases. Consequently, the DC output is in a series of pulses, the
number of pulses per second being equal to the AC supply frequency. This is known as half-wave rectification.

Half-wave rectification of a three-phase AC supply requires three diodes (one per phase) with their DC outputs connected to one terminal.
The opposite polarity DC terminal is connected to the AC neutral return. This arrangement also produces DC pulses, the number of pulses
per second being three times the frequency of the AC supply.

If four diodes are connected in a bridge circuit, and supplied with single phase AC, then full-wave rectification of AC to DC is achieved. In
aircraft it is usually necessary to obtain DC from a three-phase alternator, in which case the rectifier needs six diodes connected in such a
way as to provide one-way paths only.

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A circuit to provide full-wave rectification of three-phase AC to DC. Current flow at instant 90 is indicated. At this instantaneous point in the
AC cycle, diodes D3, D4 and D5 are forward-biased and diodes D1, D2 and D6 are reverse-biased. Consequently, current flow from all three
phases is to the DC load through D3 and return from the DC load is through D4 and D5. At any instant in the three phase supply cycle three
diodes will be forward-biased and three reverse-biased to ensure constant direction current flow through the DC load.

3 Phase AC Full Wave Rectification

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CIRCUIT PROTECTION
The current-carrying capacity of a wire or cable is determined by its length and cross sectional area; heat dissipation is determined by I2R
P P

losses. When the circuit or system is designed, the wire size is selected to safely carry this current. Wires and cable are subjected to
abrasion during the normal service life of the aircraft; this can lead to the conductor being exposed. This exposure could lead to a low
resistance path between the conductor and the airframe and/or an adjacent conductor. Faulty equipment, low resistance paths or
overloading from additional circuits will cause the current to increase and this might exceed the current-carrying limit of the conductor.
Heat will build up in the wire leading to fumes, smoke and ultimately fi re. It is vital that we protect against this whilst allowing for
transients; the methods used in aircraft are selected from the following devices:
FUSES

Fuses are links of wire that are connected in series with the circuit. Their current-carrying capacity is predetermined and they will heat up
and melt when this is exceeded, thereby interrupting and isolating the circuit. Materials used for the fusible link include lead, tin-bismuth
alloy, copper or silver alloys.

Some fuse holders have an indication of the fuse condition, i.e. if the fuse has blown. The indicating cap is black with an integrated coloured
light. When the fuse has blown, the cap illuminates; different colours indicate different power supply voltages.

CIRCUIT-BREAKERS

Circuit-breakers are electromechanical devices that interrupt and isolate a circuit in the event of excessive current. Unlike fuses, circuit-
breakers can be reset (assuming that the fault condition has cleared). There are two circuit-breaker principles: electromagnetic and thermal.

An electromagnetic circuit-breaker is essentially a relay with current fl owing through a coil; the resulting magnetic field attracts an
armature mechanism. The current is normally a proportion of the main load current; this increases in proportion to the main load current.
The armature mechanism is linked to a pair of contacts that carry the main load current. These contacts are opened when the current
through the coil exceeds a certain limit.

Thermal -type circuit-breakers consist of a bimetallic thermal element, switch contacts and mechanical latch. The thermal element is a
bimetallic spring that heats up as current passes through it; this eventually distorts and trips the mechanism when the rated level is
exceeded. The mechanism is linked to the main switch contacts, when the circuit-breaker trips the contacts open, thereby disconnecting
power from the circuit.

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Circuit-breaker symbols/type

LIMITING RESISTORS (CURRENT LIMITORS)

These are used to limit current surges, primarily in DC circuits, where the initial current surge is large. When these circuits are switched they
create large current flows that can be harmful to other components and reduce the power supply voltage for a period of time (determined
by the time constants of the circuit). Limiting resistors are connected in series with such circuits and then automatically shorted out once
the circuit current has stabilized.

Typical applications of limiting resistors are found in engine starting circuits and voltage regulators. Limiting resistors are also used in fi re
extinguishing systems. Fire extinguishers are activated by applying direct current (DC) through current-limiting resistors to the associated
squib; this ruptures a disc that allows extinguishing agent to be expelled under pressure. The limiting resistors prevent inadvertent
operation of the squib. In electronics, limiting resistors are used to protect devices such as diodes.

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